One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking

seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to

those details of life to which differentiate them for you

- Edward T. Hall

There are a lot of sources in which you can analyze the perspective
of each culture and country about the concept of “self.” You can see
it in their literature like how one country depicts a hero or a villain
in their stories. You can see it in their social organization like how
they see their boss or their subordinate. Artworks, dances, even
clothing may show you clues about the “self.”

In this lesson, we will look at Eastern religious beliefs and Western

philosophies that greatly influenced the mindset of each culture.
Since almost all the theories about the self, which are going to be
discussed in other lessons, also came from Western scientific
research, we will highlight in this topic the Eastern thoughts.
Moreover, short clips from The School of Life were inserted to give
us a brief but overview on the life and philosophies of the great
minds behind these schools of thought of the East.

I. Eastern Philosophies

A. Confucianism

Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct of how one

should properly act according to their relationship with other
people; it is focused on having a harmonious social life. Therefore,
the identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with
the identity and status of his or her community and culture, sharing
its pride as well as its failures.

Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the

characteristic of a chun-tzu, a man of virtue or noble character, is
still embedded in his social relationships. The cultivated self in
Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self” wherein
personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many,
making Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of
maintaining order and balance in society.

B. Taoism

Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe. However,

Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can
only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative,
unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Taoism
rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by Confucianism and
would prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to
describe how to attain that life.

The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it

is part of the universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the
Tao. The ideal self is selflessness, but this is not forgetting about the
self, it is living a balanced life with society and nature, being open
and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric
ideas, and thinking about equality as well as complementarity
among humans and other beings. In this way, you will be able to act
spontaneously because you will not be restricted by some legalistic
standards but because you are in harmony with everything.
C. Buddhism

There are various groups who adopted Buddhism; you may find
differences in their teachings with our discussion, but more likely
their core concepts remained the same. The self is seen as an
illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and control things,
or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all
these sufferings. It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self,
forget the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with
the world, and to renounce the self which is the cause of all
suffering and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana or perfect
happiness.

D. Hinduism

The Hindu concept of the self is expanded in Vedanta, a major

school of Indian thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian
philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman is an
absolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit). the true knowledge of
self, is identical to Brahman. Vedanta characterizes human suffering
as the result of failure to realize the distinction between true self
(permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent
and changes continually). The goal of the person is to know the true
reality---Brahman. Self-realization is being united to all-embracing
Bahman. However, the realization of true selfhood will result in a
complete dissolution of individual identity.

The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All

actions are subject to karma. Individual actions will lead to either
food or bad outcomes in one's life. People get exactly what they
deserve. If you do good things, you will be rewarded; if you do bad,
you will be punished. Therefore, the individual is the one
responsible for the consequences of his or her actions.

Collectivism

The self or the individual is not the focus of the abovementioned

Eastern philosophies or beliefs. Even with extended discussions
about how the self should work, Confucianism and Taoism still
situate the self within a bigger context. In striving to become a
better person, one does not create the self above other people or
nature but a self that is beneficial to his or her community as well as
in order and harmony with everything else. As for Buddhism, the
self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out
of the center of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.

II. Western Philosophies

Analytic

Western perspective does not discount the role of the environment

and society in the formation of the self but the focus is always
looking toward the self. You compare yourself in order to be better;
you create associations and bask in the glory of the group for your
self-esteem; you put primacy in developing yourself.

Monotheism

One can also describe that the Western thought looks at the world in
dualities wherein you are distinct from the other person, the creator
is separate from the object created, in which the self is
distinguished and acknowledged. On the other hand, the Eastern
perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as well as the
things you may create a drama in which everyone is interconnected
with their specific roles.

Several studies showed that Americans, for example, talk more

about their personal attributes when describing themselves while
Asians in general talk about their social roles or the social situations
that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for themselves.
Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans would highlight
their personal achievements while Asians would rather keep a
low-profile as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that
disrupts social relationships.

Individualism

By valuing the individual, Westerners may seem to have loose

associations or even loyalty to their groups. Competition is the
name of the game and they are more likely straightforward and
forceful in their communication as well as decision-making. Eastern
or oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and value
cooperation. They would also be more compromising, and they tend
to go around the bush in explaining things, hoping that the other
person would “feel” what they really want to say.

Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if

they see that the individual can rise above everything else. Because
everyone is on their own in the competition, one can say that they
also promote ideals that create “fair” competition and protect the
individual. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, put more
emphasis on hierarchy as the culture wants to keep things in
harmony and order. For example, Westerners would most likely call
their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first name. The boss
can also be approached head-on when conflicts or problems arise.
For Asians, we have respectful terms for our seniors and a lot of
workers would not dare go against the high-ranking officials.

Conclusion

It must be emphasized, however, that these are general

commonalities among Western cultures as compared to Asian or
Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippines, we can also
consider the colonization experience for differences and similarities
with our Asian neighbors. We might also find variation among
provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.

With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety

between the Western and Asian perceptions may either be blurred
or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in diversity, peace is
also possible through the understanding of where each of us is
coming from.

Eastern and Western Perspectives on the

Self
01
Differentiate the concept of the self according to the Eastern and
Western Views

02
Explain the difference between collectivism and individualism.
Eastern Philosophy
CONFUCIANISM: RELATIONAL SELF
Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct of
how one should properly act according to their relationship
with other people; it is focused on having a harmonious life.

Cardinal Relationships:
● Ruler and subject
● Father and son
● husband and wife
● brothers
● Friends
Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you.
- This is the Golden rule and the Core of Confucianism

Eastern Philosophies
TAOISM: TAO (NATURE)
- Taoism is living in the way of the tao or the universe.
However, Taoism rejects having one definition of what the
Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they
adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, as well as paradoxical
view of almost everything.

- The ideal self is selflessness, but this is not forgetting about

the self, it is living a balanced life with society and nature,
being open and accepting to change, forgetting about
prejudices and egocentric ideas, and thinking about equality
as well as complementarity among humans and other beings

- The perfect man has no self.

 - “Simplicity, patience, compassion. These three are your
greatest treasures. Simple in actions and thoughts, you
return to the source of being. Patient with both friends
and enemies, you accord with the way things are.
Compassionate toward yourself, you reconcile all
beings in the world.” -Tao Te Ching, Lao Tzu

- There should be unity and harmony among opposing

elements: the yin and yang. Hence the oneness of the
tao.

BUDDHISM: NIRVANA
- The self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to
hold and control things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is
also the source of all these sufferings.

- It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self, forget the
cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the
world, and to renounce the self which is the cause of all
suffering doing so, attain the state of Nirvana or perfect
Happiness.

Budh" - Awake
- Every person has the seed of enlightenment. Humans can be
a buddha provided it must be nurtured.

Four Noble Truths:

• Basic principles of Buddhism
• Life is suffering
•Suffering is caused by attachment to desires
ªSuffering can be eliminated
 - Elimination of suffering is through the practice of
Eightfold path.
Eightfold Path
- Right View
- Right Aspiration
- Right Speech
- Right Action
- Right Livelihood
- Right Effort
- Right Mindfulness
- Right Concentration
Eastern Philosophies
HINDUISM:

VEDANTA - Upanishads, the classical Indian Philosophical

treatises.
Brahman - Absolute reality
Atman (Soul / Spirit) - true knowledge of the self (Same to
Brahman)

- Human suffering is due to failure to realize the distinction of

true self and the non-true self.
- Our goal is to know the Brahman. The true reality The
realization of true selfhood will result in a complete
dissolution of individual
identity

Collectivism
- The self or the individual is not the focus of the above-
mentioned Eastern philosophies or beliefs. Even with extended
discussions about how the self should work, Confucianism and
Taoism still situated the self within a bigger context.
 - In striving to become a better person, one does not create the
self above other people or nature but a self that is beneficial to
his or her community as well as in order and harmony with
anything else
- As for Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and
selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the center of the picture,
but from the whole picture entirely.
- This ancient symbol of harmony reminds us that life is a
balancing act and most fulfilling when we learn to embrace
its dualities: the ups and downs, the good and bad times, and
the joys and struggles.
- The best harmony and duality we should attain in life, for
Eastern Philosophy, is that we are always with other people.
We are not alone.
Eastern Philosophy: Yin and Yang
● ANALYTIC
● INDIVIDUALISM
● MONOTHEISM
● Western Philosophies
● MATERIALISTIC &
● RATIONALISTIC
Western Philosophy:
Introspection/Analytic
- Western way of thinking is Analytic-Deductive (Parts to
whole)
- Western perspective does not discount the role of the
environment and society in the formation of the self but the
focus is always looking forward to the self.
- You compare yourself in order to be better; you create
associations and bask in the glory of the group for yourself-
esteem; you put primacy in developing yourself.
Western Philosophy:
Monotheism

- Several studies showed that Americans, for example,

talk more about their personal attributes when
describing themselves while Asians in general talk about
their social roles or the social situations that invoked
certain traits that they deem positive for themselves.
- Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans would
highlight their personal achievements while Asians
would rather keep a low-profile as promoting the self
can be seen as boastfulness that disrupts social
relationships.

Western Philosophy:
Individualistic
- Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of
favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in
personal freedom. although the right to individual
freedom provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it
also increases the likelihood of experiencing
alienation and frustration

Western Philosophy:
Materialistic and Rationalistic

- Eastern or oriental persons look after the welfare of their

groups and values cooperation. They would also be more
compromising, and they tend to go around the bush in
explaining things, hoping that the other a person would
“feel” what they really want to say.
- Western way of thinking is focused on material "things" and
favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and
superstitious explanations of immaterial "things".

-
CONCLUSION
- It must be emphasized, however, that these are general
commonalities among Western cultures as compared to
Asian or Oriental cultures.
- In the case of the Philippines, we can also consider the
colonization experience for differences and similarities with
our Asian neighbors. We might also find variation among
provinces and regions due to geographical conditions.

- With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety

between the Western and Asian perceptions may either be
blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in
diversity, Peace is also possible through the understanding of
where each of us is coming from.