01 Electrostatics

Electric Charge and Field

Electro (charge) + statics (rest) = Electrostatics : It is a branch of physics which deals with the study of
forces, fields and potential arising from static charges.

Electric Charges and their Properties

Electric Charge : Charge is an intrinsic property associated with matter due to which it produces and
experiences, electric and magnetic effects.

❖ A body is said to be electrified or charged whenever it gains or loses electrons.

Types of charge :
There exist two types of charges in nature.
(i) Positive charge : Due to deficiency of electrons (as compared to protons).
(ii) Negative charge : Due to excess of electrons (as compared to protons).
Units of charge :
SI → coulomb (C)
CGS → stat coulomb (stat C) or e.s.u. of charge or franklin
Another CGS → e.m.u. of charge or absolute coulomb (abC)
practical unit → faraday (F)

Smallest unit of charge  franklin

1C = 3×109 stat C = abC
Largest unit of charge  faraday
1F = 96500 C

Dimensional formula of charge : [AT] or [M0L0T1A1]

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Specific Properties of Charge
(i) Charge is a scalar quantity : It has no direction.
(ii) Like point charges always repel each other while unlike point charges always attract each other.
As two charged
bodies or balls
are brought close If the sizes of
to each other as charged bodies
shown are very small as
compared to the
After interaction distance between
with each other them, we treat
they finally stay as them as point
shown. charges.

(iii) Charge is transferable: If a charged body is kept in contact with another body, then charge can be
transferred to another body.
(iv) Charge is always associated with mass: Charge cannot exist without mass though mass can exist
without charge.
❖ The presence of charge itself is a convincing proof of existence of mass.
Ex. (i) Photons don’t have any charge as they have zero rest mass.
Ex. (ii) Rest mass of the charged body can never be zero.
❖ The mass of a body changes after being charged.
When a body is given a positive charge, its mass decreases and
When a body is given a negative charge, its mass increases.
(v) Charge is realistically invariant, whereas mass is variant : Charge is independent of frame of
reference, i.e. charge on a body does not change whatever be its speed.

That means the particle moving with larger speed will have larger mass.
Note : If (v<<c) then m is taken as constant parameter.
(vi) Charge is additive : If a system contains n charges q1, q2, -q3 …. qn, then the total charge of the
system is obtained simply by adding them algebraically (with their respective signs).
Q t =  q = q1 + q2 − q3 + .....qn

(a) (b)

Here in (a) and in (b) –8–2+3 = –7

4+8–3 = 9
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Electrostatics
(vii) Charge is conserved : Total charge of an isolated system always remains constant. This is also
called as “Law of conservation of charge.”
Conservation of charge holds good in all type of reactions, for example
(i) Ionization : H(atom) → H+ + e-
(ii) Radioactive decay : n → p + e- + 
(iii) Pair production phenomenon : conversion of energy into mass.
Pair production phenomenon
e+
e–
Note: For this
-photon phenomenon
Heavy nucleus
energy of photon
must be greater
Qf = 0 than 1.02 MeV.
Qi = 0
(Photon is chargeless) (Positron and electron have equal and
opposite charge)
(iv) Pair annihilation phenomenon : conversion of mass into energy

e+
2-photons

e–

(viii) Charge is quantized :

Charge can have only discrete values, rather than any value.
Charge on any body must be an integral multiple of a basic unit of charge represented by e.
e = basic unit or quanta of charge or minimum transferable value of charge = 1.6×10-19 C.

In general we can write 

where n = an integer
n = 0,1,2,3…….
Illustration 1:
Which of the following charges is/are not possible?
(1) 3e (2) 48 × 10–19 C (3) 3.2 × 10–20 C (4) 1C
Solution:
(1) q = ne  3 e = ne  n = 1.732(fraction) → not possible
(2) 48 × 10–19C = n(1.6×10–19)C  n = 30(integer) → possible
(3) 3.2 × 10–20C = n(1.6×10–19)C  n = 0.2(fraction) → not possible
(4) 1 = n(1.6×10–19)  n = 6.25 ×1018 (integer) → possible
Illustration 2:
How many electrons must be removed from a body to make it electrified by 3.2C of charge?
Solution:
Q 3.2
From Q = ne  n = =  n = 2  1019
e 1.6  10−19
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Illustration 3:
1010 alpha particles are ejected per second from a body, then after how much time, the body will acquire a
charge of 8 μC?
Solution:
N
Charge appear per second on body Q =   q 
t
Q = 1010  (2  1.6  10−19 ) = 3.2  10−9 C / sec
Let t be the time taken to acquire charge of 8 μC then
8  10−6
t= −9
= 2.5 103 sec
3.2 10
Note: For macroscopic charges (big charges) quantisation rule can be ignored.
Conductors & Insulators
Conductors : Those materials which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors.
They have electric charge (electrons) that are comparatively free to move inside the material. Ex. Metals,
human and animal bodies, earth etc.
Insulators : Those materials which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them, are
called insulators. Ex. Glass, rubber, plastic, nylon, wood etc.
• Methods of Charging
(1) Charging by friction or rubbing : If we rub one body with another body, electrons get transferred
from one body to the another. Both insulators and conductors can be charged by this method.
When an object in column-1 is rubbed against the object of column-2 then they acquire charges
specified in the following table.
Column-1 Column-2
Positive Charge Negative Charge
Glass rod Silk cloth
Woollen cloth Rubber shoe, Amber, Plastic objects
Dry hair Comb
Note: Clouds get charged due to friction.
(2) Electrostatic induction : If a charged body is brought near a neutral body, the charged body will
attract opposite charges and repel similar charges present in the neutral body. As a result of this one
side of the neutral body becomes negative while the other positive, this process is called 'electrostatic
induction'. Hence, “Induction is a phenomena of redistribution of charges on a body in the influence
of other charged object or external field.”

Charging a body by induction (in four successive steps)

Charging Charging q’=–ve Charging q’=–ve Charged q’=–ve
body q’=0 body body body

Charged body is brought uncharged body is uncharged body is charging body

near uncharged body connected by earth disconnected from the earth is removed
Step-1 Step-2 Step-3 Step-4

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Electrostatics
In case of induction it is worth noting that :
(i) Inducing body neither gains nor loses charge.
(ii) The nature of induced charge is always opposite to that of inducing charge.
(iii) Induced charge can be lesser or equal to inducing charge (but never greater).
(iv) Induction takes place only in bodies (either conducting or non conducting) and not in particles.
Illustration 4:
If a charged body is put near a neutral conductor, will it attract the conductor or repel it?
Solution:

Neutral Body Body is still Neutral

They attract each other due to induction effect

(3) Charging by conduction : Whenever a charged conductor brought in contact with other conductor,
charge continuously flows from one to another until their potential becomes equal. This is also called
sharing of charges.
++ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ Before connection + After connection +
a ++ + V V +
+
In case of conduction it is worth noting that : For sphere
(i) Contact is necessary Q
(ii) Only conductors can be charged by this method
(iii) In this method both conductors will acquire same nature of charge. kQ
R v=
(iv) Total charge of the system distributes in the ratio of their radii (only R
for spherical objects)

Consider two charged spheres (q1 , R1) & (q2 , R2) are connected by a wire or touched with each other.
Q1 R 1
After conduction let their final charges become Q1 & Q2 respectively then q1 + q2 = Q1 + Q2 & =
Q2 R 2
Illustration 5:
Find final charges on the spheres when switch S is closed.
Solution:
Total charge of the system = Q = 60C +0= 60C 60C
Then after conduction S
 2  3cm
Q1' =   60C = 24C
Q '
R 2  2+3  2cm
= 1
1
'

Q R2 3  3 
2
Q '2 =   60C = 36C
 2+3 

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Illustration 6:
A positively charged body 'A' attracts a body 'B' then charge on body 'B' may be:
Solution:
If B is –ve

If B is +ve

Gold leaf electroscope

It is used to detect the presence of charge.
→ When a conducting body touches the metal knob of an electroscope, then knob & leaves both wire
acquire same nature of charge.
Metal knob
Metal rod
Hinged gold
leaves

When a charged body is placed near the electroscope then knob will acquire opposite nature of
charge & leaves will acquire same nature of charge.

• Charge differs from mass in the following aspects :

(i) In SI system of units, charge is a derived physical quantity while mass is a fundamental quantity.
(ii) Charge is always conserved but mass not.
(iii) Charge cannot exist without mass but mass can exist without charge.
(iv) Charges are of two type (positive and negative) but mass is of only one type.
(v) For a moving charged body, mass increases while charge remains constant.
• True test of electrification is repulsion, not attraction
• As attraction can take place between a charged and an uncharged body or between two similarly
charged bodies
q
• For a non relativistic (i.e. v << c) charged particle, specific charge = constant.
m
• Charge can be detected and/or measured with the help of gold-leaf electroscope, electrometer,
voltmeter etc.

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Electrostatics

BEGINNER’S BOX-1
1. In a neutral sphere, 5 × 1021 electrons are present. If 10 percent electrons are removed, then
calculate the charge on the sphere.
2. Calculate the number of electrons in 100 grams of CO2.
3. Can a body have a charge of (a) 0.32 × 10–18 C (b) 0.64 × 10–20 C (c) 4.8 × 10–21 C ?
4. A glass tumbler contains 1 billion amoeba and two sodium ions are there on the body of each
amoeba. Find out the charge contained in the glass.
5. How many electrons should be removed from a conductor so that it acquires a positive charge of
3.5 nC ?
6. It is now believed that protons and neutrons (which constitute nuclei of ordinary matter) are
themselves made up of more elementary units called "quarks". A proton and a neutron consist of
three quarks each. Two types of quarks, the so called 'up' quark (denoted by u) of charge +(2/3)e,
and the 'down' quark (denoted by d) of charge (–1/3)e, together with electrons build up ordinary
matter. (Quarks of other types have also been found which give rise to different unusual varieties
of matter.) Suggest a possible quark composition of a proton and neutron.
7. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3.2 × 10–7 C. Find the
(a) number of electrons transferred.
(b) mass gained by the polythene.
8. Two identical metal spheres A and B placed in contact are supported on insulating stand. What kinds
of charge will A and B develop when a negatively charged ebonite rod is brought near A ?

Coulombs law, Force between two point charges

Coulombs law : “The electrostatic force of interaction between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude of charges and
inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.”
This force always works along the line joining the two centres.
r r
F12 + – + –
q q
2 F21 q F12 F21 q
2
1 1

F12 = F21 = F
|q1q2 | k |q1q2 |
i.e. F  F=
r2 r2
Where k = proportionality constant or coulomb’s constant or electrostatic constant
❖ Value of k depends upon the choice of system of units.
9 N m
2
❖ In SI system, k= 9  10
C2
1
❖ This constant is also written as, k=
40

−12 C2
0 = permittivity of free space or vacuum = 8.85 10
N  m2
kq1q2 1 q1q2
Then F = =
r 2
40 r2

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❖ When the point charge system is placed in a homogeneous dielectric medium.
1 q1 q 2
Fm =
4 r2
 = permittivity of medium = 0r
r = relative permittivity of medium or = Dielectric constant of medium (K)

1 q1q2 1  1 q1q2  F
Fm = =  2 
 Fm =
40r r 2
r  40 r  r
The value of r or K  1, i.e. Fm  F
Illustration 7:
Why we can not use Coulomb’s law for large size bodies ?

Solution:

Redistribution
of charges

When large size charged conducting spheres brought close to each other their, charges moves away due
to repulsion hence effective distance between their centers increases (r’ > r)
kq1q2
Factual  Fcalculated =
r2
what would have happened, if both the spheres had opposite charges?
Important points about Coulomb’s law
❖ Coulombs law is valid for point or point like charges.
❖ It follows inverse square law.
❖ It follows the law of superposition.
❖ It is conservative so electric potential and potential energy can be define under the influence of
this force
❖ Force between two charges does not depend upon presence of other neighbouring charges.

Here net force on q2 will change due to

presence of q3, but force due to q1 on q2
remains F

❖ Coulomb’s force doesn’t depend upon the medium.

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Electrostatics
❖ For two charge system

In both the cases shown -

Net external force on the system is zero so linear momentum of system remains conserved.
❖ Angular momentum of one charge particle w.r.t. other remains conserved, here Line of action of
force is passing through q2 and vice versa so torque on
one charge w.r.t. other will be zero.
Here torque = 0  Angular momentum = Constant
Illustration 8:
Two point charges +q1 and +q2 are placed r meter apart in vacuum. Force on q1 due to q2 is F. If now a third
charge +q3 is placed at mid point of line joining the charges, then
(1) force on q1 due to q2
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains same (d) Can't say
(2) net force on q1
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains same (d) Can't say
Solution:

When q3 is placed at mid point,

Now net force on q1 will definitely increase but force due to q2 will remain F12 on q1.
kq1q2
F12 =
r2
Illustration 9:
Calculate the force between two charges, each of 1C separated in air by 1cm.
Solution:
q1 =q2 = 1C & r =1cm
kq q (10−6 )2
F = 12 2 = 9  109 = 90N
r (10−2 )2
Illustration 10:
Force between two identical spheres A and B carrying same charge and separated by distance r in vacuum
is F. A third identical sphere C first brought in contact with A then B and finally, C is taken away. Now force
between A and B becomes.
(1) F/4 (2) F/8 (3) 3F/4 (4) 3F/8
Solution:
Q Q

...(1)
r
A B

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Now C (uncharged sphere) is touched with A first
Q Q/2 Q/2

A C A C

Then C is touched with B

Q Q/2 3Q/4 3Q/4

B C B C

New force between A & B now is

Q/2 3Q/4

r
A B
Illustration 11:
Two spheres having equal charges exert F force on each other. Now 20% charge of one sphere is
transferred to another sphere. Then find new force between them in terms of F.
Solution:
Let us assume initially both the sphere were having equal charge q so, Force between them can be written as -
kqq
F=
r2
When 20% charge is transferred from one the another then new force F’ -
k(0.8q)(1.2q) kqq
F' = = 2 (0.96) = 0.96F
r2 r
Illustration 12:
Two spheres having equal charges are kept at long separation. If the gravitational force between two
q
spheres is equal to electrostatic force between them. Find the ratio of specific charge .
m
Solution:
Equating the gravitational and electrostatics force -
kq2 Gm2
= 2
r2 r
q G 6.67  10−11 0.74 0.86
= = = = 10 = 0.86  10−10
m k 9  109
10 20
10
Illustration 13:
12C charge is to be distributed among the two spheres placed at a separation of 2m then find the charge
on each sphere so that coulomb force between them is maximum also find the maximum force.
Solution:
For max force divide the charge as half - half 2
k(6)(6) 9  109  36 6C 6C
F= = = 81×109 N
22 4

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Electrostatics
Vector form of Coulomb's law –
F
(i) when one of the charge is at origin q2
kq1q2 kq q r
F = Frˆ = 2
rˆ = 13 2 r  r̂ = 
r r  r r
(ii) when none of the charge is at origin
q1
(or in terms of position vector)
O
kq1q2 kq q
F12 = force on q1 due to q2 = r̂21 = 13 2 r21
r 2
r F12
q1
kq1q2 kq q A
F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = 2
r12 = 13 2 r12 r
r r
r1 q2
r = AB = BA  r = r2 − r1 = r1 − r2
B
r2 F21
kq1q2 kq1q2
or F12 = (r1 − r2 ) and F21 = (r2 − r1 )
r1 − r2
3
r2 − r1
3 O

Superposition Principle
When a number of charges are interacting then, total force on a given charge is vector sum of all the
individual forces exerted on it by all other charges.
Fn
F1 = F12 + F13 + .....F1N or
q1
F2
kq q kq q kq q kq q q0
F = 02 1 rˆ1 + 02 2 rˆ2 + ..... + 02 i rˆi + .... 02 n rˆn
r1 r2 ri rn F1
q2
n
qi qn
In vector form F = kq0  rˆ
2 i
i =1 ri

Illustration 14:
Find net force on charge at B.

Solution:

So, net force on B will be

kq2
Fr = 2
r2

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Illustration 15:
Find net force on the charge, placed at B, in the given arrangements
q C –q C

(i) (ii)

q q q q
A B A B

Solution:
(i) Required force on charge at B will be -
kq2
FB = 3
r2

(ii) Required force on charge at B will be -

kq2
FB =
r2

Illustration 16:
Find net force on the charge Q, placed at centre point P as shown :
q q q

P
(i) (iii) P (iii) P
q q

q q q q
Solution:
If n identical charges placed at corners of a regular polygon then net force on charge placed at center of
polygon is always zero.

Equilibrium of suspended point charge system (Pith Ball problems)

Two identical charged pith balls are suspended by insulated strings of equal length, by a common point of
suspension, if each ball has mass m then the problem related to it can be treated as,
T sin θ = Fe ...(i)
T cos θ = mg ...(ii)
F
tan  = e ...(iii)
mg
r = 2 sin  (distance between charges, where  is length of string)
kq2 kq2 r
Fe = =
r2 4 2 sin2 
T = (Fe )2 + (mg)2

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Electrostatics

Case -1 : If q1 = q2, m1= m2, then θ1 = θ2 (say ) Case -2 : If q1 ≠ q2, m1= m2, then θ1 = θ2 (say )

 

Fe Fe

Case -3 : If q1 = q2, m1 ≠ m2, then θ1 ≠ θ2



Case -4 : If whole system placed in gravity free space (g = 0)

kq2 kq2
Fe = = 2
r2 4l
kq2
Tension in thread T =
4l2

Case -5 : If density of material is  and volume is V then -

F F
In air, tan  = e = e
mg Vg

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Case-6 : If experiment is done inside liquid having density  and dielectric constant K then (Consider
density of material is  and volume V) In medium of dielectric constant K
Fe
T'sin  ' =
K
T'cos '+ FB = mg (FB : Buoyant force) T' T'
Vg Vg

T'cos  ' = Vg − Vg

Fe r Fe
Fe
tan  ' = K Vg Vg
(Vg − Vg)
Fe
In Air tan  =
Vg
Fe
K Fe tan 
In Medium tan  ' = = =
(Vg − Vg)  −   
VgK   K 1 − 
    

     
If K  1 −   1  '   , If K  1 −   1  '   , If K  1 −  = 1  ' = 
     
Illustration 17:
Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal
length. Each string makes an angle θ with the vertical. When
suspended in a liquid of density σ = 0.8 gm/cc, the angle remains
the same. What is the dielectric constant of the liquid? (Density of
the material of sphere is ρ = 1.6 gm/cc.)
Solution:
T sin θ = Fe ...(i)
T cos θ = mg ...(ii)
Fe
tan  = ...(iii)
mg Fe Fe
K K
T sin θ = Fe /K ...(iv)
mg' mg'
T cos θ = mg’ ...(v)
Fe
tan  = …(vi)
Kmg'
According to given information angle remains same so from equations (iii) and (vi), we have
Fe F  
= e or g = Kg’ or g = Kg  1 − 
mg Kmg'  

   0.8  1
g = Kg  1 −  or 1 = K  1 −  or 1 = K   or K = 2
   1.6  2

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Electrostatics
Illustration 18:
Two point charges each of +q are fixed at (a,0) & (-a,0). Another point charge +q0 is free to move along y-
axis is placed at (0,y). For what value of y force on +q0 is maximum.
Solution:
Fr on +q0
Fr = 2Fcos 
r = (a2 + y 2 )
 kqq  y 
Fr = 2  2 0   
 r  r 
 
 kqq0   kqq0 
Fr = 2 3  y = 2 y
 r 
 ( )
 a2 + y 2 3/2 

 
 kqq  kqq0 
Fr = 2 3 0  y = 2  y
 r 
 ( )
 a2 + y 2 3/2 

For maximum value of Force
dF
= 0 (concept of maxima)
dy
a
By doing this we obtained y = 
2

• Coulomb's law is based on physical observations and is not logically derivable from any other
concept. Experiments reveal its universal nature till today.
m1m2
• The law is analogous to Newton’s law of gravitation : F = G
r2
• Electric force between charged particles is much stronger than gravitational force, i.e., FE >> FG.
Consequently, FG is neglected when both FE and FG are present.
• Electric force can be attractive or repulsive while gravitational force is always attractive.
• Electric force depends on the nature of medium between the charges while gravitational force does
not.
• The force is conservative, i.e., work done in moving a point charge round a closed path under the
action of Coulomb’s force is zero.
• The law expresses the force between two point charges at rest. In applying it to the case of extended
bodies of finite size care should be taken in assuming the whole charge of a body to be concentrated
at its ‘centre’ as this is true only for spherically charged bodies, that too for external points.
• Electric force between two charges does not depend on neighbouring charges.
• The net Coulomb’s force between two charged particles in free space and in an infinitely extending
medium are
1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2 F 
• F= and F' = . So = 0 = K,
40 r 2
40 r 2
F' 0
• Dielectric constant (K) of a medium is numerically equal to the ratio of the force on two point
charges in free space to that in the medium extending infinitely.
• Although the net electric force on both particles change in the presence of dielectric but force due
to one charged particle on another charged particle does not depend on the medium between them.

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 NEET : Physics
Electrostatic equilibrium
In physics if a particle or system is in equilibrium means net force on particle or system is zero.

Equilibrium

Static equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium

(System is at rest) (System is in uniform motion)

Illustration 19:
A small charge q of mass m is in equilibrium d distance above another charge Q then what should be the
value of q in terms of other given quantities? kqQ
Solution:
d2
In equilibrium : mg = Fe
kqQ q
mg = mg
d2
d
mgd2
=q (fixed)
kQ Q
Illustration 20:
What equal charges should be placed at remaining two vertices so that net force on +Q charge becomes
zero (Side of square is a)
D C
+Q

+Q
A B
Q Q Q Q
(1) (2) − (3) (4) −
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution:
To make net force on +Q charge zero, Field due to charges on vertices A & C should be opposite to that of
field due to other +Q charge so there must be -q charge placed at A and C.
For net force to be zero on +Q
(i) 2F = F1
kqQ kQ 2 kQ 2
Here F = 2 & F1 = =
a ( 2a)2 2a
2

kqQ kQ2
2 = 2
a2 2a
Q Q
q= (magnitude) q=− option (4) is correct.
2 2 2 2
Illustration 21:
In the system of two charges Q and 4Q where should
be third charge must be placed so that net force on
third charge will be zero.
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Electrostatics
Solution:
For net force to be zero on third charge q force due to Q and 4Q must be equal and opposite.
Suppose q is placed at distance x from Q.
If F1 is force exerted by Q,
and F2 is force exerted by 4Q on q
For net force to be zero on q F1 = F2
kQq 4kQq (2a − x)2 4
or = or =
x 2
(2a − x)2 x2 1
(2a − x) 2
or = or (2a − x) = 2x
x 1
2a
or x=
3
Note: equilibrium position will be near to smaller charge.
Method 2
In this case we can directly calculate the value of x.
 r   2a 
x= x = 
 Q2   4Q   x =  2a 
1+ Q  1+ Q   3 
 
 1   
 
   
Illustration 22:
Where and what value of charge should be placed in between the given two charges so that whole system
may remain in equilibrium.

Solution:
As both free charges are identical so third charge will remain in equilibrium at mid point.
Third charge will be opposite in sign otherwise system’s equilibrium is not possible

For equilibrium of charge placed at A, force of attraction of –q must be balanced by force of repulsion of
charge placed at B

For equilibrium of Q, F1 = F2
kQq kQ2
or = 2
a2 4a
q Q Q
or = or q = (in magnitude)
1 4 4
Q
or q=−
4
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 NEET : Physics
Illustration 23:
Find the value of charge, placed at the centre of given system, so that the systems will remain in equilibrium :
Q Q Q

(i) (ii)

Q a Q Q a Q
Solution:
(i) Concept - As all charges are positive so they will repel
each other. Definitely other charge must be opposite in
sign.
a
Distance b/w center to corner of triangle is x =
3
For equilibrium of Q, F1 = F2
3kQ2 kQq 3Q 3q Q
or 2
= 2 or 2 = 2 or q = (magnitude)
a x a a 3
Q
or q = –
3
(ii) Concept - As all charges are positive so they will repel each other. Definitely other charge must be
opposite in sign
a
Distance b/w center to corner of Square is x =
2
For equilibrium of Q, F1 = F2
kQq kQ 2  1  2kQq kQ 2  1 
or 2 = 2  + 2  or 2
= 2  + 2
x a 2  a a 2 

or q =
Q
4
( ) Q
(
1 + 2 2 (magnitude) or q = – 1 + 2 2
4
)
Equilibrium of charge system
Types of equilibrium

Stable Unstable Neutral

A charge is initially in equilibrium If charge is displaced by a small If charge is displaced by a

position and is displaced by a distance from its equilibrium small distance and it is still
small distance. If the charge tries position and the charge has no in equilibrium condition
to return back to the same tendency to return to the same then it is called neutral
equilibrium position then this equilibrium position. Instead it goes equilibrium.
equilibrium is called position of away from the equilibrium position,
stable equilibrium. then this is called position of
unstable equilibrium.

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Electrostatics
Illustration 24:
What will be net force on charge q placed at mid point as shown
q
fixed fixed
Q a a Q
M

Solution:
q
fixed fixed
Q a a Q
M
net force on q is zero whatever be sign and magnitude of q
Case-1 when positive charge is at the mid point
+q
fixed fixed
Q a a Q
M

Fnet on +q will be zero because it will be repel by equal and opposite force
Case-2 when negative charge is at the mid point
-q
fixed fixed
Q a a Q
M

Fnet on +q will be zero because it will be attract by equal and opposite force
Illustration 25:
Two charges each of magnitude Q are fixed at 2a distance apart. A third charge (–q of mass 'm') is placed
at the mid point of the two charges. When –q charge is slightly displaced perpendicular to the line joining
the charges then find its time period.
Solution:
First of all we must know necessary condition for SHM. When restoring force acting on particle changes
linearly w.r.t. displacement from mean position particle will perform SHM. Fr  −y
Findings time period of SHM when –q displaced in vertical direction from M
Fr = 2Fcos 
 kQq  y
Fr = 2  2 
 r r
 kQq  y
Fr = 2  3 
 r 1
 kQq 
Fr = 2  2 2 3/2 
y
 (a + y ) 
 kQq 
Fr = 2  2 2 3/2 
y For small value of y, y2 can be neglected w.r.t. a2
 (a + y ) 
 2kQq 
Fr =  3  y
 a 
Fr = ky
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 NEET : Physics
𝑩𝑹𝑨𝑯𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨 for calculation of time period.
m
T = 2 (where k is coefficient of force, i.e. the value of all parameters except displacement in formula
k
of restoring force)
ma3
So, T = 2
2kqQ
Illustration 26:
In the given three point charge system, final time period of central charge (q,m) when displaced slightly
along the line joining the changes.

Solution:
As F2>F1 , So net force will be towards E.P.
 4ax 
Fr = kQq  2 2 2 
 (a − x ) 
For small value of x, x2 can be neglected w.r.t. a2
 4ax   4ax   4kQq 
Fr = kQq  2 2 2 
= kQq  4  =  3  x
 (a − x )   a   a 
BRAHMASTRA for calculation of time period
m
T = 2
k
ma3
So, T = 2
4kQq

BEGINNER’S BOX-2
1. Two identical metal spheres carry charges of + q and – 2q respectively. When the spheres are
separated by a large distance r, the force between them is F. Now the spheres are allowed to touch
and then moved back to the same separation. Find the new force of repulsion between them.
2. The electrostatic force of repulsion between two positive ions carrying equal charges is 4 × 10–9 N,
when their separation is 5 Å. How many electrons are missing from each ?
3. Two identical particles each of mass M and charge Q are placed a certain distance apart. If they are
Q
in equilibrium under mutual gravitational and electric force then calculate the order of in SI
M
units.
4. The force between two point charges is 100 N in air. Calculate the force if the distance between
them is increased by 50%.
5. Two neutral insulating small spheres are rubbed against each other and are then kept 4 m apart. If
they attract each other with a force of 3.6 N, then
(i) calculate the charge on each sphere, and
(ii) calculate the number of electrons transferred from one sphere to the other during rubbing.

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Electrostatics

6. Two equal point charges Q = 2 +µC are placed at each of the two opposite corners of a square and
equal point charges q at each of the other two corners. What must be the value of q so that the
resultant force on Q is zero ?
7. In the given figure (b) three point charges are situated at the corners of an equilateral triangle of
side 10 cm. Calculate the resultant force on the charge at B. What is its direction?

8. Two positively charged particles, each of mass 1.7 × 10–27 kg and carrying a charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C
are placed at a distance d apart. If each experiences a repulsive force equal to its weight, find the
value of d.
9. In figure (a) ABC is a right angled triangle. Calculate the magnitude of force on charge –Q.
10. In figure (c) Charge Q of mass m revolves around a point charge q due to electrostatic attraction.
1630mR 3
Show that its period of revolution is given by T2 = .
Qq
–Q 3a 9Q A
B A q = + 100 µC Q
90°
10 cm 10 cm
5a 10 cm q
C B R
16Q q = – 100 µC q = – 100 µC
C
(a) (b) (c)

Electric field Intensity

❖ The space around a charge or charge distribution, in which another charge experiences an electric
force, is called electric field.
❖ Every charge has its own electric field.
❖ Electric field at a point can be characterized by
(i) A vector function of position, called intensity of electric field ( E )
(ii) A scalar function of position, called electrostatic potential(V).
(iii) Graphically, with help of electric field lines (EFL)
Intensity of electric field
❖ It is defined as the net force experienced by a unit positive test charge.
F
❖ E= SI unit : N/C or V/m.
q0
❖ Dimensional formula [M1L1T-3A-1].
❖ Test Charge : It is a charge of very small magnitude which do not produce significant electric field.
F
So more precise definition of electric field intensity is E = im   .
q0 → 0 q
 0
❖ It is a vector quantity whose direction is always in the direction of
force experienced by a positive test charge, and opposite to that of E E
q0 + q0
force experienced by a negative test charge. + + + +
F + F

❖ Electric field due to a positive charge is always away from it while

due to a negative charge, this is always towards it.

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 NEET : Physics
❖ Force on a point charge is in the same direction as that of electric field on positive charge and in
opposite direction as that of electric field on a negative charge.

+q -q

will be rightwards will be towards left

Illustration 27:
A charge of 10μC and -10 μC is placed in uniform electric field of 5×106 N/C directed along positive x axis,
find out force acting on positive and negative charge?
Solution:

F = (10  10−6 )(5  106 )iˆ F = ( −10  10−6 )(5  106 )iˆ
ˆ
F = 50iN ˆ
F = −50iN
Illustration 28:
A positively charged oil drop is in equilibrium in a uniform electric field. If suddenly direction of electric
field is reversed, then acceleration of drop becomes?
g
(1) g (2) 2g (3) (4) None of these
2
Solution:
For equilibrium of particle qE = mg
When electric field is reversed :
net force on particle = mg + qE = 2mg
Acceleration will be 2g (downwards)

Electric field due to a point charge P F

kQq
Force on test charge F = 2 0 rˆ q0(test charge)
r r
According to definition of electric field intensity
F kQ kQ
E= = 2 rˆ = 3 r +Q
q0 r r
1 Q 1 Q E
Electric field in vacuum E = and in medium Em = =
40 r 2
40K r2 K
K is dielectric constant of medium also known as relative permittivity of medium.
(In general K > 1 so Em < E)
Electric field due to positive and negative charge

Electric field due to positive Electric field due to negative

charge is radially outward charge is radially inward

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Electrostatics
Illustration 29:
A charge particle of 1C is placed at origin, Find intensity of electric field due to the charge at position
(3,4)m.
Solution:
Position of particle is r = 3iˆ + 4jˆ

Magnitude of r is r = 32 + 42 = 5m E
y
kQ
Electric field due to point charge E = 2 rˆ (3,4)
r
r̂
r 3iˆ + 4jˆ
Unit vector along E, r̂ = or r̂ =
r 5 q x
kQ (9  10 )10  3iˆ + 4jˆ 
9 −6
E = 2 rˆ =   = 72(3iˆ + 4j)
ˆ N|C
r (5)2  5 

Illustration 30:
Calculate the electric field at origin due to infinite number of charges as shown in figures (a) and (b)
below.
q q q q –q q
(a) O (b) O
1 2 4 X (m) 1 2 4 X (m)
figure (a) figure (b)
Solution:
1 1 1  kq.1 4kq a 1
(a) E0 = kq  + + + − − − − = = , [ S = , a=1 and r = ]
 1 4 16  (1 − 1 / 4) 3 1−r 4
1 1 1  kq.1 4kq
(b) E0 = kq  − + − − − − − = =
 1 4 16  (1 + 1 / 4) 5
Illustration 31:
There are two different points in the surrounding of point charge at same distance, electric field at those
point will be same
(i) True (ii) False
Solution: A
If distance of A and B points from point charge is r, the magnitude of electric
kQ
+
field will be E =
r2
As electric field is vector quantity direction its direction at A and B will be B
different.
Electric field due to system of charges
• Electric field follows superposition principle : q3
q2
When two or more than two charges present in space than
electric field at a particular point will be equal to vector qn
q1
sum of electric fields due to individual charges.
According to superposition principle, net electric field at En E1
the given point will be E3
Enet = E1 + E2 + E3 ........ + En E2

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 NEET : Physics
Illustration 32:
Find intensity of electric field at point P (as shown) in the given point charge distributions.
q a q
q
a a a
q q q –q
q –q
(i) a a (ii) a (iii) (iv)
a
P
a a
q q p q –q
a p a q q
a
Solution:
q
kq
(i) Resultant electric at p will be Er = 3E = 3 2
a a a
q 60° p kq
qB Cq E=
a a2
(ii) Enet at p will be E 3E

Er = E' + 2E
q P kq
E=
kq kq A E a2
Er = + 2
( 2a) 2
a2 E E '

kq  1 
Er = + 2
a2  2 
a kq 2kq
(iii) Center to corner distance is and here field E = =
(a / 2 )
2
2 a2

kq
So, net electric field E' = 2(2E)cos45 = 4 2
a2
(iv) If all charges at corners would be q then net field at centre would be zero (Figure (a))

Figure (a) Figure (b)

Now, if charge at point A becomes –q then we can assume it as q-2q so field at centre due to all +ve q
charges will be zero and net field will be due to –2q charge at A.
2kq
Enet = (along point A)
a2

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Electrostatics
Illustration 33:
Five point charges placed on the vertices of a regular hexagon (as shown). Find net electric field at center
of hexagon?

Solution:

kq
Net electric field will be rightwards and it will be Enet =
r2
(r is side of hexagon which is also distance b/w center to vertex)
Important Note:
When identical charges are placed on the corners of a regular polygon (symmetric arrangement) then
resultant field at centre of the polygon is always zero.

Illustration 34:
Charge Q is uniformly distributed over a ring of radius R. If a small portion of length d is removed from
ring, then find electric field at the centre of ring becomes.

Solution:
If dq is charge of small element then,
kdq kd kd  Q 
E= = 2 = 2 
R 2
R R  2R 

Neutral point:
In an electric field, a neutral point is said to be a point at which the resultant electrical field is nil or zero.

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 NEET : Physics
Illustration 35:

Find the point at which resultant E of the systems will become zero.

(i)

(ii)

Solution:

(i) Let us assume at point P resultant E is zero due to A and B so

EA = EB

k(2) k(6) 1
= x=
x 2
(2 − x)2
2

(ii) Let us assume at point P resultant E is zero due to A and B so

EA = EB

k(12) k(4)
= 2  x = 1m
(2 + x)2 x
Graphical problems
Electric field v/s distance
kQ 1
For point charge E = 2 or E  2
r r
(i) For positive charge :

(ii) For negative charge :

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Electrostatics
(iii) For positive and negative charge (combined analysis) :

(iv) Graph for pair of positive charges :

(v) Graph for pair of negative charges :

(vi) Graph for pair of positive and negative charges :

Here M is the mid point of line joining the two charges at x distance from any charge.
2kQ
Here electric field will be E = (rightward minimum electric field)
x2
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 NEET : Physics
Different type of charge density
Types of continuous charge distributions

Linear Charge Surface Charge Volume Charge

distribution distribution distribution
Q Total charge Q
Total charge Q

L Total area A
Total volume V

Linear charge density is, Used for flat objects (2-D) Used for 3-D objects such as
such as plate, disc, etc. sphere, cube, cylinder etc.
Here,  is surface charge  is volume charge density, which
density, which is given by
Used for linear objects (1-D) is given by
such as wire, thin rod, ring
etc. and for non-uniform For non-uniform distribution of
distribution of charge, For non-uniform distribution
charge, charge of small element
charge of small element can of charge, charge of small
can be find by, dQ = dV
be find by, 𝒅𝑸=𝝀𝒅𝒍 element can be find by,
dQ = dA

Illustration 36:
Find total charge of a thin rod whose linear charge density varies according to  = 0 X .

Solution:
We consider a small element of length dx
Then dq = dx = (0x)dx
Q L
0
dq =  0 xdx
0

 0L2
Q=
2
Illustration 37:
If linear charge density of semi-circular ring is  = 0 sin  . Then find total charge on semi-circular ring.
Solution:
For finding total charge on semi-circular ring -
Charge on small element dq = dx
dq = ( 0 sin ) dl = ( 0 sin ) Rd

Q =  (0R)sin d = ( 0R )  −cos0


Q = ( −0R)[cos  − cos0]
= 2 0R

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Electrostatics
Illustration 38:
If linear charge density of a semi-circular ring is  = 0 cos. Find total charge on the semi-circular ring?
Solution:
For finding total charge on semi-circular ring
dq = dx or dq = (0 cos)dl

or dq = (0 cos) Rd or Q =  (0R)cos d
0

or Q = (0 R) [sin ]0 or Q = (0 R) [sin  − sin0]

or Q = 0 (i.e. total charge on ring is zero)
Illustration 39:
r
Find total charge on a disc of radius R, Whose surface charge density varies according to σ = σ0 (1 − R)
(r is radial distance from the centre of disc).
Solution:
Here we consider elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr
Area of elementary ring  dA = (2r)dr
so Charge on elementary ring
 r
dq = dA = (2r)dr = 0  1 −  (2r)dr
 R
 Total charge -
R  r
Q =  0  1 −  (2r)dr
0
 R 
R r2   R 2 R3   R 2 R 2  20R 2 0R 2
Q = 20   r − dr = 20  −  = 20  −  = =
0
 R  2 3R   2 3  6 3
A
Q = 0 , where A is Area of disc A = R2
3
Illustration 40:
Find electric field at point P as shown, due to a uniformly charged thin rod (Q, L).

Solution:
Now consider an element as shown -
Q
Linear charge density,  = C/m
L
Field at point P due to the small element
k(dq) Q
dE = 2 here dq = dx = dx
x L
Total field at P, due to the whole rod
(r + L)
(r + L) k(dq) (r +L) k Q kQ (r +L) 1 kQ  1  kQ  1 1  kQ
E= = dx =  dx = − = − =
r x 2 r 2
x L L r x 2
L  x  r  
L  r r + L  r(r + L)
In above case if (r>>L) then L can be neglected w.r.t. r
kQ kQ
E=  2
r(r + L) r
i.e. charged rod will behave like point charge
.
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 NEET : Physics
Electric field intensity due to different charge configurations
(1) Electric field intensity due to a charged wire of finite length.

k
E x = E⊥ = (sin1 + sin2) Ex
r r  Ey
r tan  =
Ex
k E = E2x + E2y
Ey = E|| = (cos1 – cos2) Ey
r

Special Case:
(i) For infinite wire, (both ends goes to infinite)
1 =  2 = 90°
k
Ex = E⊥ = (sin90 + sin90)
r
2k r Ex
E x = E⊥ =
r
k
Ey = Ell = (cos90 − cos90) = 0
r
2k
Net electric field will be Ex = E⊥ = (perpendicular to wire)
r
(ii) For semi – infinite wire -
(one end goes to infinite and we find electric field at a point which is at ⊥ distance r from other end)
For the given point 1 = 0, 2 = 90
k k
Ex = E⊥ = (sin0 + sin90) =
r r
k k
Ey = Ell = (cos0 − cos90) =
r r
Er = E2x + E2y = E2 + E2 = 2E
r Ex = E
2k
Er = 45°
r Er
Ey = E
(iii) Electric field due to finite wire at symmetric point :
k 2k
Ex = E⊥ = (sin  + sin ) = sin 
r r L/2
k
Ey = Ell = (cos  − cos ) = 0 Ex =
2k
sin 
r r r
2k  L /2  L/2
Ex =  
r  (L /2)2 + (r)2 
 

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Electrostatics
Illustration 41:
Find x component of electric field at point p (see figure).
P

r = 3cm

 = 30µC/m

A l = 4cm B

Solution:
k
E= (cos0 − cos53)
r P
k  3  k  2 
Ex =  1−  = 53°
r  5  r  5  5cm
r = 3cm
(9  109 )(30  10−6 )  2 
Ex = 5
3  10−2    = 30µC/m

2
Ex = 9  106   = 3.6  106 N /C A l = 4cm B
5
Illustration 42:
A negative charge particle (-q, m) is revolving around a uniformly charged long wire (+). Find speed of
the particle.
Solution:
Force of attraction of wire on -q will provide required centripetal force
+
mv 2 2k
qE = where, E =
r r r qE
E
E will be radially away from wire, so force on charge will be towards the (–q,m)
r
wire
2kq mv2 2kq
= , v= m/s
r r m
Electric field due to a uniformly charged arc
2k 
E= sin    → angle of arc
R 2
Here  is linear charge density

Illustration 43:
Find Electric field at point P shown in diagrams.

(i) (ii)

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 NEET : Physics
Solution: 
(i) From the formula of electric field due to arc
2k  R
E= sin    → angle of arc
R 2
2k  60  2k  1  k
E=
R
sin   = R  2  = R
 2   
(ii) From the formula of electric field due to arc
2k  Q
E= sin    → angle of arc
R 2
R
2kQ  90  2kQ 1 2k
E= sin   =  = (here  = 2Q/πR)
R  2  R 2 R P
2 2kQ
2 2kQ E=
R 2
E=
R 2

Illustration 44:
Charge Q is uniformly distributed over a ring of radius R. If a small portion of length d is removed from
ring, then find electric field at the centre of ring.
Solution:

kdq kd kd  Q 
If dq is charge of small element then, E = = 2 = 2 
R2 R R  2R 
Electric field due to circular ring Angle subtended = 2π or 360°
Electric field due to uniformly charged ring at its centre. +𝛌
+𝛌
From the formula of electric field due to arc 360°
2kλ θ R R
E= sin ( ) θ → angle of arc
R 2
2kλ 360°
E= sin ( )=0
R 2
Electric field due to a uniformly charged ring on its axis

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Electrostatics
Here it is clear that dEsin of all the elements will cancel out each other and sum of all dEcos , will give
net electric field.
 Net electric field along x axis here r
kdq  x 
E =  dEcos  =  2   Also
r r
Here  dq = Q

kQx
So E=
(R + x 2 )3/2
2

Special Cases:
(1) Electric field on the axis for small values of x.
If x is very small then x2 can be neglected w.r.t. R2

(E changes linearly w.r.t. x)

(neglected)

(2) Electric field at the centre of ring.

kQx
From E = 2  E will be zero at x=0
(x + R 2 )3/2
(3) Electric field at the axis for larger values of x.
If x is very large, then R2 can be neglected w.r.t. x2

(Ring behaves like a point charge)

(4) Maximum value of electric field

 kQ 
d  2 2 3/2 .x 
dE (R + x )
For maximum value of electric field =0   =0
dx dx
R
From here we obtained x = 
2
R 2kQ
So, Emax = E at x = , Substituting values, we have Emax =
2 3 3R 2
Variation of electric field with x for ring

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 NEET : Physics
Illustration 45:
Find electric field on the axis of a uniformly charged ring (Q,R) at a
distance x = 3R .
Solution: R
kQ p
From E = 2 2 3/2 .x
(R + x ) x = 3R
Here we put x = 3R
kQ
E= 2 .( 3R)
(R + ( 3R)2 )3/2
kQ kQ 3kQ
E= 2 3/2
.( 3R) = 3
.( 3R)  E =
(4R ) (8R ) 8R 2
Illustration 46:
If a point charge (-q, m) is displaced slightly along the axis of a uniformly charged ring
and released, find time period of oscillation of the particle.
Solution: R
As we know electric field at centre of ring is zero, force on –q will be zero at centre so it
will be in equilibrium position.
−q
When charge particle is displaced and released, for small value of x, it will experiences
force F = qE towards the centre (i.e. E.P.)
kQq 1 Qq
F = qE = 3 .x = .x (restoring force)
R 40 R 3
Compare with equation a = -2x
(Released)
2
T= hence

40 R 3m
T = 2
Qq
Electric field on the axis of a uniformly charged disc of radius R

Ep = [1 − cos ]
2 0 Total charge Q
  x 
Ep = 1 −  Total area A
20  R 2 + x2 

Electric Dipole
A system of two equal and opposite charges placed at very small separation is known as electric dipole.

Every dipole has a characteristic property called dipole moment.

Dipole moment:
The dipole moment of a dipole is equal to product of magnitude of either charge and separation between
the charges.
p=q
It is a vector quantity whose direction is from (-q) to (+q)
SI unit → C-m,→Practical unit debye (3.
33×10
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Electrostatics
Illustration 47:
Find electric dipole moment of the given arrangement.

Solution:
(i) Angle between both the (ii) Angle between both the
dipole moment vectors dipole moment vectors
is 60°. is 90°.

Pres = 3p = 3 ( ql ) Pnet = 2p = 2 ( ql )
Electric field due to a dipole
(1) At axial / End on position :

kq kq
Here EA = & EB =
(r + a) (r − a)
2 2

Net electric field at point P on axis is

 
kq kq 4ar
Eaxis = EB − EA = − = kq  
(r − a ) (r + a ) (
 r2 − a2
) 
2 2 2

 
For r>>a  r2 – a2  r2
 4ar   2k ( q2a )   2kp 
Eaxis = kq  4  =  3  =  3 
 r   r   r 
For axial point electric field vector and dipole moment vector both are parallel to each other or
angle between both vectors is zero degree.
 2kp  2kp
In vector form Eaxis =  3  r = 3
 r  r
(2) At equator / Broad side on position :
EA = EB (in magnitude)
kq kq
EA = EB = =
( a 2 + r2 )
2
(a 2
+ r2 )
Net electric field at equator
EP = EB cos  + EA cos 

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 NEET : Physics

a r
cos  = 
a +r
2 2
a

 kq  a
EP = 2EB cos  = 2EA cos  = 2 
 (
 a2 + r2 )  a + r2

2

 kq (2a )  1 kp
EP =  2 2  =
( ) ( )
3/2
 a +r  a 2 + r2 a2 + r2
 
For r>>a  r2 + a2  r2
kp
EP =
r3
kp ˆ
in vector from EP =
r3
−i ( )
Negative sign is used because electric field vector and dipole moment vector both are opposite in
direction.
(3) At general position :
Net electric field at that point will be E = E12 + E22
kp kp
(2cos ) + ( sin  )
2 2
E= = 3cos2 + 1
r3 r 3

Net electric field is making angle (+) from the

direction of dipole moment vector.
kpsin 
E2 r3 1 1
tan  = = = tan   tan  = tan 
E1 2kpcos  2 2
r3

BEGINNER’S BOX-3
1. Two charges of value 2 C and – 50 C are placed 80 cm apart. Calculate the distance of the point
from the smaller charge where the intensity is zero.
2. A charged particle of mass 2 mili gram remains freely in air in an electric field of strength 4 N/C
directed upward. Calculate the charge and determine its nature (g = 10 m/s2).
3. How many electrons should be added or removed from a neutral body of mass 10 mili gram so that
it may remain stationary in air in an electric field of strength 100 N/C directed upwards
(g = 10 m/s2) ?
4. Work out the magnitude and direction of field at point P, when a charge of 2 C experiences an
electrical force of 5 × 10–2 ĵ N at point P.
5. Two charges 4 C and 36 C are placed 60 cm apart. At what distance from the larger charge is the
electric field intensity is zero ?
6. Three charges of respective values − 2 C , 2 2 C and − 2 C are arranged along a straight line as
shown in the figure. Calculate the total electric field intensity due to all three charges at the point P.
P

1m

− 2µ C 2 2µ C − 2µC
1m 1m

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Electrostatics
Electric Field Lines
❖ These are imaginary lines used to represent electric field pictorially.
❖ These are such a smooth continuous curve that tangent drawn at any point gives direction of field
at that point.
Concept was given by MICHAEL FARADAY.
Properties of Electric field lines:
(i) They originate from (+) charge and terminate at (-)charge.

(ii) It gives an idea about the magnitude of charge.

|q|  number of field lines
Here |q1| < |q2|

(iii) It gives an idea about the strength of electric field.

Density of electric field lines (EFL)  strength of intensity of electric field.
❖ If electric field lines are denser electric field intensity is high.
❖ If electric field lines are rarer electric field intensity is low.
E A = EC > E B
EA EB
A B C
E A > EB
(iv) Tangent drawn at any point of the electric field line,
gives the direction of force on a charge particle
placed at that given point.

Note: It gives the direction of force not the direction of

motion.
(v) Two electric field lines can never intersect each other.
Reason: If they do so, then at the point of intersection, there will be two
tangents at same point representing two different directions of electric field
at the point which is not possible.
(vi) Electrostatic field lines can never form any closed loop, but induced electric field lines can form a
closed loop.
Electric Field

Electrostatic field Induced electric field

Produced due to static charges Produced due to change in magnetic field
(no close loops) (forms close loops)

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 NEET : Physics
(vii) Electric filed lines due to a pair of like nature of charges.

(viii) Electric filed lines due to a pair of equal and opposite charges.

Illustration 48:
Identify the correct option/s
(1) |Q1| > |Q2|
(2) |Q1| < |Q2|
(3) Q1→ +ve ; Q2 → –ve
(4) Q1 → –ve ; Q2 → +ve
Solution:
(3) and (1) both correct
field lines starts from +ve and ends at -ve, and no. of field lines ∝ q

• Lines of force starts from (+ve) charge and end on (–ve) charge.
• Lines of force start and end normally on the surface of a conductor.

+S + – –S
+ –
+ E=0
+ –
E=0 + –
+ –

Fixed point charge

Near infinite metal
plate edge effect

• Lines of force never intersect because, the field at a point (point of intersection) cannot have two
distinct directions.
• Electric field inside a solid conductor is always zero.
• Electric field inside a hollow conductor may or may not be zero (E ≠ 0 if net charge is present inside
the sphere).
• The electric field due to a circular loop of charge and a point charge are identical provided the
distance of the observation point from the circular loop is quite large as compared to its radius i.e.
x >> R.

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Electrostatics
Electric flux
• This physical quantity is used to measure strength of electric field dA
(also called flux density).
• The electric flux can be understood graphically by the total number
of electric field lines passing through an area. 
E
• For an area element dA , placed in an electric field E as shown,
electric flux is defined as d = E.dA
Area element
• Flux is a scalar quantity.
• Unit of flux : Nm2/C or Vm.
• Dimensional formula of  is [M1L3T-3A-1].
• Electric flux through a large surface.
 =  d = E.dA

❖ If field is uniform  E = constant

 = E. dA  dA = total area vector of a plane surface
 =E . A

  = EA cos 
Different cases:
(i) When surface is perpendicular to the field and A is parallel to E
Here θ is 0°.
 = EAcos0 ° = EA (positive flux means outgoing or leaving)

(ii) When surface is along the field and A is perpendicular to E

Here  is 90°
 = EAcos900 = 0 (No flux leakage)
(iii) When surface is perpendicular to the field and
A is anti parallel to E
Here θ is 1800
ϕ=EAcos 1800 = –EA
Negative flux means incoming or entering
Illustration 49:

( ) ( )
If E = 2i + 3j − 5k N/C and A = 2i − j − k cm2 then find electric flux.

Solution:
=E . A

( )(
 = 2i + 3jˆ − 5kˆ . 2i − j − k )
 = 4 – 3+ 5 = 6
 = 6Ncm2/C

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Illustration 50:

( )
A thin disc of area 2m2 is placed in x-y plane in a uniform field of strength E = 2i − j + 4k N/C , find flux of

the field passing through the disc.

Solution:

( )
E = 2i − 3j + 4k N/C and A = 2k m2 ( )
2
ˆ ˆ = 8 Nm
 = E.A = (2iˆ − 3jˆ + 4k).2k
C
Illustration 51:

( )
An uniform electric field E = 10i + 5j V/m is present in space. Find out flux passing through the area of

10m2, if it lies in,

(1) x-y plane (2) x-z plane (3) y-z plane
Solution:
(1) Only Ez field will be passed through the x-y plane
(x-y plane) =0 (because Ez is zero)

( )( )
(x-y plane) = E.Az = 10i + 5j . 10k =0

(2) Flux passing through x-z plane

Only Ey field will be passed through the x-z plane

( )( )
( x −z plane) = E.A y = 10i + 5j . 10j , ( x −z plane) =50 V-m

(3) Flux passing through y-z plane

Only Ex field will be passed through the y-z plane

( )( )
(y-z plane)= E.A x = 10i + 5j . 10i

(y-z plane)=100V-m
Illustration 52:
A hemispherical shell of radius R, is placed in a uniform field E as shown.
Find flux through the hemisphere.
Solution:
Here projected area by which flux is passing is πR2
Flux passing out will be  = ER 2

or

Projected area

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Electrostatics
Illustration 53:
A cone (radius R & height h) is placed in a uniform field E as shown. Find flux through the cone.

Solution:
entering = leaving = E × projected area
entering = leaving = ERh 1
Projected area = (2R)h
So, net flux through the cone is zero 2
Illustration 54:
If E = x 2 ˆi , find net flux passing through cube

cube of
side
a = 1m

Solution:
( )
in = −Ex1 a2 = −(12 )(12 ) = −1 unit

out = Ex 2 (a ) = 2 1
2 2 2
= 4 unit
net = 4 − 1 = 3 unit

Note: Electric flux through a large surface (open):  =  E.dA

S

Electric flux through a closed surface (having non-zero volume)  =  E.dA

S

Gauss’s Theorem & Applications of Gauss’s theorem

Gauss’s Theorem: Net electric flux passing through any closed imaginary surface (Gaussian surface) is
1
ε0
times of the total charge enclosed by it. +q1 –q4

Q enclosed –q3
net =
0 +q3 +q5

To understand this concept, consider a closed surface as shown -

( q − q 2 + q3 )
net = 1 Gaussian Surface
0
Charges present outside the closed surface –q4 and +q5 do not play any role in net flux passing through the
surface (also called gaussian surface).
Q enclosed
net =  E.ds =
0

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 NEET : Physics
Note:
(i) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of location of charges within Gaussian surface.

(ii) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of shape and size of Gaussian surface.

(iii) In Gauss’s theorem

E → due to all the charges , but closed → due to enclosed charges only.
Net flux passing out is only due to (+q1-q2+q3) charges
but field at surface is due to (+q1-q2+q3-q4+q5).

Given diagram shows that

why external charges don’t
contribute in flux through
the gaussian surface.

(iv) Gauss’s theorem is applicable for all the forces following inverse square law.
(v) When an imaginary closed surface placed in an external electric field, net flux passing through it,
will be zero and If net flux is non zero, definitely charge is enclosed by the closed surface.

(entering) =  (leaving) (entering)  (leaving)

 Net flux is zero
And

(vi) For a Gaussian surface  = 0 does not imply E = 0, but E = 0 implies  = 0.

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Electrostatics

(vii) When net flux is going out then positive When net flux is coming in then negative
charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface

Gaussian surface
Gaussian surface
Illustration 55:
What effect will be observed on closed and electric field at point P, if
(i) charge q1 is shifted to A
(ii) charge q1 is shifted to B and
(iii) charge q2 is shifted to A
Solution:
(i) when q1 is shifted to A (ii) when q1 is shifted to B (iii) charge q2 is shifted to A
closed  same closed  change closed  change
EP  change EP  change EP  change

Illustration 56:
Find total flux through cube and flux through each face of cube and also flux through each corner.

+q

Solution:
Total flux passing through cube will be
Q q
net = enclosed (From Gauss’s theorem)  T =
0 0
q
Due to symmetry, flux passing through each face will be same  face =
6 0
q
Again due to symmetry, flux through each corner,  corner =
80
Illustration 57:
Find total flux through give cube.

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 NEET : Physics
Solution:
q
Total flux passing through both the cubes will be T =
0
q
Flux passing through each cube will be  =
20
Note: Flux through the surface containing charge is zero.
Illustration 58:
Find flux passing through sheet.

Solution:
If we assume 6 similar sheets and arranged them in form of a cube in such a way
that charge +q comes at centre
q
Now from gauss’s theorem flux  = a/2
6 0 a
Illustration 59:
Find flux passing through sheet. a
a

a
Solution:

a
Here, electric field and area vector
a of the sheet will be perpendicular so flux through it will be zero.
Illustration 60: y
cube of
If Ex is 5 x , and Ey & Ez is zero then find, side
(1) Net flux passing through cube a = 1m

(2) Net charge enclosed by the cube x

Solution: a = 1m
in = −Ex1 ( a2 ) = −5 1 (1) = −5 unit
2
z

( )
out = Ex2 a2 = +5 2 (1) = 5 2 unit
2

net = 5 2 − 5 = 5 ( )
2 − 1 unit
q
According to Gauss’s theorem net =
0

Or 5 ( )
2 −1 =
Q in
0
 Qin = 5( 2 − 1)  0

Charge enclosed by the cube is Qin = 5 ( 2 − 1) 0

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Electrostatics
Illustration 61:
Find flux passing out from cube of side L where linear charge densities of line charges kept in cube are 
and – as shown in the figure ?
–
Solution:
Charge enclosed by cube
Qin = +3L − L
+3
Qin = +2L
According to Gauss’s theorem
Q 2L
Q in = in =
0 0
Applications of Gauss’s theorem
Gauss’s Law is the most useful tool to find E, in situations where the charge distributions has some what
symmetry. Alternatively, if we are given the field, we can use Gauss’s Law to determine about the charge
distributions.
To determine E for symmetric charge distributions, we select a symmetric Gaussian surface as follows :
Charge Distributions Direction of EF Gaussian surface
Point charge Radial (along the radius of sphere) Concentric surface
Spherical charge Radial (along the radius of sphere) Concentric surface
Line charge Radial (along the radius of sphere) Coaxial cylinder
Planar charge or Normal to surface Parallel planes like cylindrical
Charged sheets
Different shapes of Gaussian surfaces -

Infinite
Point charge and linear charge Infinite sheet
charged sphere

Concentric spherical
Gaussian surface
Gaussian surface
Coaxial Cylindrical
Gaussian surface
(1) Electric field due to a uniformly charged long wire :
Considering a coaxial gaussian cylinder of radius r and length L as
shown.
Then applying Gauss’s theorem
q in
 E.ds =  0
…(i)

Here, Gaussian Cylinder has three surfaces as :

Surfaces (i) and (ii) are flat, and for these surfaces area vector is
perpendicular to E

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 NEET : Physics
Surfaces (iii) is curved and for this surfaces area vector is along E

 E.ds =  S1 
S2

S2

Edscos90 + Edscos  + Edscos90 = 0 + Eds + 0 =
S2
 Eds = E  ds =E(2rL)
S2 S2

From equation No. (i)

L  2k
E ( 2rL ) = = or E =
0 20 r r
Variation of E with r
(2) Electric field due to uniformly charged long cylindrical pipe/cylindrical shell (for students
self practice) :
(i) Electric field at any point outside the cylinder (r>R)

Considering a cylindrical Gaussian surface around charged cylinder.

from to Gauss’s theorem
q in
 E.ds = 
S 0

q in
E(2rL) =
0
2RL
E ( 2 rL ) =
0

R R 1
E= or E = E
r0 0 r r
(ii) For the point lying on the surface ( r  R )

R  
Putting r = R in E =  Es = 
0 r  0 

(iii) For the point inside the surface (r < R)

0
Using Gauss’s theorem  = E ( 2 rL ) =
0
Ein = 0

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Electrostatics
Electric field intensity due to uniformly charged infinite sheet
(i) Non conducting sheet -
Gaussian surface

According to Gauss’s theorem

Q A 
closed = EA + EA + 0 = in or 2EA = or E =
0 0 20
Electric field due to non conducting sheet is uniform Variation of E with r

(ii) Conducting sheet or metal plate -

According to Gauss’s theorem
q A 
closed = EA + 0 + 0 = in  EA =  E=
0 0 0

Electric field due to conducting sheet is uniform Variation of E with r

Illustration 62:
Find EA, EB and EC

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 NEET : Physics
Solution:
At point A -

Electric field due to sheet 1 will be leftwards E1 =
20
2 
Electric field due to sheet 2 will be rightwards E2 = =
2 0 0
  
Net electric field will be rightwards EA = E2 – E1 = − =
0 20 20
At point B –
Electric field due to both sheets will be rightwards
 2 3
Net electric field will be rightwards EB = E1 + E2 = + =
2 0 2 0 2 0

At point C –

Electric field due to sheet 1 will be rightwards = E1 =
2 0
2 
Electric field due to sheet 2 will be leftwards E2 = =
2 0 0
2  
Net electric field will be leftwards EA = E2 – E1 = − =
2 0 2 0 2 0
Illustration 63:
Find EA, EB and EC

Solution:
At point A -

Electric field due to sheet 1 will be leftwards E1 =
2 0

Electric field due to sheet 2 will be rightwards E2 =
2 0
 
Net electric field will be zero EA = E2 – E1 = − =0
2 0 2 0
At point B -
Electric field due to both sheets will be rightwards
Net electric field will be rightwards
  
EB = E1 + E2 = + =
20 20 0

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Electrostatics
At point C -

Electric field due to sheet 1 will be rightwards E1 =
2 0

Electric field due to sheet 2 will be leftwards E2 =
2 0
 
Net electric field will be zero EA = E2 – E1= − =0
2 0 2 0
Electric field due to the charged conducting sphere and non conducting sphere
(1) Electric field due to point charge.
According to Gauss’s theorem
Gaussian surface
q in
 =  E.ds =
0
Angle between E and ds is 00
q
 Eds = 0
q q
E  ds =
0
(
or E 4r2 =
0
)
q kq
E= or E =
40 r( )2
r2
Electric field due to a point charge
Considering a concentric spherical gaussian surface of radius r, as shown,
We now apply gauss’s theorem as :
q
 E.ds = in0 …(i)

Angle between E and ds at every point of the Gaussian surface is 0°

  E.ds =  Edscos  =  Eds
Since all points on spherical Gaussian surface are equidistant from the point charge :
  Eds = E  ds = E(4r2 )

q q kq
From E ( 4r2 ) =  E= or
0 40 r2 r2

variation of E with r
(2) Electric field due to uniformly charged thin shell or conducting sphere.
(i) EF at any point outside the sphere (r>R)
Considering a Gaussian surface and applying Gauss’s theorem
q
 E.ds = in0 Gaussian surface

For spherical surface, we can directly write

 E .ds = E(4r
2
)

q q kq
 E(4πr2) = or E= or E =
0 ( )
40 r 2
r2
Thus for point lying outside the sphere, sphere behaves as point charge centered at centre.

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 NEET : Physics
(ii) EF at any point lying on the surface of sphere (r = R)
kq
For the point on surface, we putting r = R in E = , we have
r2
kq
ES = (max. value of electric field)
R2

q   q 
ES = =   = 4R 2 
40 R 0
2
 
(iii) EF at any point inside the sphere (r < R)
In this case, charge enclosed by the GS is zero, so
using Gauss’s theorem
0
E in .ds =
0
 Ein = 0

(iv) Variation of E with r

(3) Electric field due to uniformly charged nonconducting sphere.

(i) EF at any point outside the sphere (r > R)
Gaussian surface
According to Gauss’s theorem
q in
 Eds =  0

q q
 Eds =  0
 E  ds =
0

q kq
 E(4πr2) =  E= 2
0 r
Thus for point lying outside the sphere, sphere behaves as point charge centered at centre.
(ii) EF at any point lying on the surface of sphere (r=R)
kq
ES = (max. value of electric field)
R2
q qR R
ES = = =
40R 2
4  3 0
3  R 3  0
3 
[  is volume charge density]

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Electrostatics
(iii) EF at any point inside the sphere (r<R)
If qin is the charge enclosed by G.S., then
4  q 4 3
 qin =   r3  =  r 
 3  4 3 3 
R
3
According to Gauss’s theorem
q
 E.ds = in0
q in q in q 1 1 q kq
 Eds =   E  ds =
0
( )
 E 4r2 = 3 r3
R 0
( )
 E=
40 R 3 ( )
r = 3 (r)
R
0

Inside the nonconducting sphere electric field is directly proportional to r.

1 q q 
3 ( ) (
Ein  r  Ein = r = r) = (r)
40 R 4  30
3  R 3 
3 
For r = 0, E = 0  electric field intensity at the centre of the sphere is zero.
(iv) Variation of E with r

Illustration 64:
Electric field at a distance 20 cm from a charged metallic sphere of radius 10 cm is E. Find E at a distance :
(1) r = 5cm (2) r = 10cm (3) r =30cm, from centre.
Solution:
(1) 5cm (r <R), so E = 0 (for conductor E= 0 at inside point)
kQ kQ kQ kQ
(2) 10cm (r = R), Es = 2 As E= = 2 so Es = 2 = 4E
(20) 4R
2
R R
kQ 4E
(3) 30cm (r > R), Eout = so Eout =
9R 2 9
Illustration 65:
Electric field at a distance 30 cm from a uniformly charged non conducting sphere of radius 15 cm is E.
Find E at a distance :
(1) r = 5 cm (2) r = 15 cm (3) r =20 cm, from centre.
Solution:
kQ
(1) 5 cm (r <R), Eout =
r2
kQ
Eout = = E (given) or kQ = (30)2E
r2
(30) E 5 = 4 /3E
2
kQ
Ein = 3 ( r ) = 3 ( )
R (15)
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 NEET : Physics

(30) E = 4E
2
kQ
(2) 15cm (r = R), ES = 2  Es =
R (15)
2

kQ (30) E 9E
2

(3) 20cm (r > R), Eout = 2 = =

(20)
2
r 4

Illustration 66:
Two concentric conducting spherical shells are shown in figure. Find electric field at points 1,2 & 3.

Solution:
For GS1 charge enclosed is +Q1 and +Q2 i.e.
k (Q1 + Q 2 )
E1 =
r12
For GS2 charge enclosed is +Q1, i.e.
kQ 1
E2 =
r12
For GS3 charge enclosed is zero, i.e.
E3 = 0
Illustration 67:
A point charge +Q1 is placed at the centre of a thick conducting shell of inner radius R1 and outer radius
R2 as shown then find. (1) σinner surface (2) σouter surface

Solution:
due to charge at centre -Q1 & Q2 will be induced charge on inner & outer surface respectively of shell.
−Q1
(1) inner surface =
4R 12

(2) outer surface =

( Q1 + Q 2 )
4R 22

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Electrostatics

BEGINNER’S BOX-4
1. Two point charges Q and 4Q are 12 cm apart. Sketch the lines of force and calculate the distance of
neutral point from 4Q charge.
2. A charge Q is uniformly distributed over a large plastic (non-conducting) sheet. The electric field at
a point close to the centre of the plate near the surface is 20 V/m. If the plate is replaced by a copper
plate of the same geometrical dimensions and carrying the same charge Q, then what is the electric
field at that point?
3. What is the net flux of a uniform electric field E = 3× 10 î NC–1 through a cube of side 20 cm oriented
such that its faces are parallel to the coordinate planes ?
4. Charges Q1 and Q2 lie inside and outside a closed surface S respectively. Let E be the field at any
point on S and  be the flux of E over S. Which statement is wrong?
(A) If Q1 changes, both E and  will change.
(B) If Q2 changes, E will change but  will not change.
(C) If Q1=0 and Q2 0 then E  0 but  =0
(D) If Q1 0 and Q2=0 then E=0 but  0
5. A charge 'q' is placed at the centre of a cube whose top face is open (it has only 5 faces). Calculate
the total electric flux passing through the cube.
6. A point charge of 2.0 µC is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian surface of edge 9.0 cm. What is the net
electric flux through the surface ?
7. An electric flux of – 6 × 10–3 Nm2/C passes normally through a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
10 cm, due to a point charge placed at its centre.
(a) What is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface ?
(b) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface ?
8. A Gaussian surface encloses two of the four positively charged particles as shown in figure. Which
of the particles contribute to the electric field at a point P on the surface ? P
q4
9. Is it possible to have flux associated with an imaginary closed surface to be zero
  q1
even when electric field on this surface is non–zero. If yes, then give one example.
10. Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. The plates have q3  q2
surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0 × 10–12 C/m2 on
their inner faces. What is electric field,
(a) in the outer region of the first plate ?
(b) between the plates ?
11. Plot the following graphs –
(a) Electric field inside a conducting sphere with distance from its centre.
(b) E versus (1/r) where E is electric field due to a point charge and r is the distance from the charge.

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