International Islamic University

Islamabad

Instrumentation and Measurement LAB

Experiment No. 2: Errors and Measured Data Statistics

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Lab conducted on: ________________________________

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 Errors and Measured Data Statistics
1. Objective
 To develop understanding of multiple data values, their errors and statistical analysis.

2. Equipment:
1. Digital Multimeter
2. Resistors: 05 samples of 02 values of same order

3. Introduction of Errors and Data Statistics

No electrical component or instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inaccuracy. It is
important to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even greater
errors in measurement systems. Although it is possible that in some cases errors might almost
completely cancel each other out, the worst case combination of errors must always be assumed.

The errors can be broadly classified in two types: Random errors or Systematic errors. Errors of
unexplainable origin, like reading the meter incorrectly, are classified as random errors. While errors
due to faulty measurement systems used for measurements, are systematic errors.

3.1 Absolute and relative error

If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500Ω with a possible error of ±50Ω, the ±50Ω is an
absolute error. This is because 50Ω is stated as an absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the 500Ω
resistance. When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total resistance, it becomes
a relative error. Thus ±50Ω is ±10%, relative to 500Ω.

3.2 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Tolerance and Significant Figures

Accuracy refers to how closely the measured value agrees with the true value of the parameter being
measured. Precision means how exactly or sharply an instrument can be read. It is also defined as how
closely identically performed measurements agree with each other. The resolution of an instrument is
the smallest change in the measured value to which the instrument will respond. Tolerance is a term
that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.

The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision.

3.3 Statistical Analysis

a) Arithmetic Mean

When a number of measurements of a quantity are made and the measurements are not all exactly equal,
the best approximation to the actual is found by calculating the average value, or arithmetic mean, of
the results. For n measured values of x1, x2, x3, … , xn, the arithmetic mean is

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 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑥̅ =
𝑛

b) Deviation

The difference between any one measured value and the arithmetic mean of a series of measurements
is termed the deviation. The deviations (d1, d2, d3 … dn) may be positive or negative, and the algebraic
sum of the deviations is always zero. The average deviation may be calculated as the average of the
absolute values of the deviations.

|𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + |𝑑3 | + ⋯ + | 𝑑𝑛 |

̅=
𝐷
𝑛

c) Standard Deviation and Probable error

The mean-squared value of the deviations can also be calculated by first squaring each deviation value
before determining the average. This gives the quantity known as the variance. Taking the square root
of the variance produces the root mean squared (rms) value, also termed the standard deviation (σ).

𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛2

𝜎=√
𝑛

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = 0.6745 𝜎

4. Procedure

1. Note down the specified (nominal) and measured values of supply and resistors.
2. Connect the circuit according to the following diagram and power it up.

3. Five different values of each of the resistor can make a total of twenty-five (25) combinations.
While plugging in each of the combinations, note down Vout.

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5. Observations

Input Data

Sr No. Parameter Nominal Value Measured Value

1. Vin

a. a.

b. b.

2. R1 c. c.

d. d.

e. e.

a. a.

b. b.

3. R2 c. c.

d. d.

e. e.

Output Data

Sr No. Parameter Equation Value

1.
Vout – Nominal

2.
Vout – Min

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 3.
Vout – Max

Sr No. Measured Value Deviation

Parameter

1. Vout – R1(a), R2(a)

2. Vout – R1(a), R2(b)

3. Vout – R1(a), R2(c)

4. Vout – R1(a), R2(d)

5. Vout – R1(a), R2(e)

6. Vout – R1(b), R2(a)

7. Vout – R1(b), R2(b)

8. Vout – R1(b), R2(c)

9. Vout – R1(b), R2(d)

10. Vout – R1(b), R2(e)

11. Vout – R1(c), R2(a)

12. Vout – R1(c), R2(b)

13. Vout – R1(c), R2(c)

14. Vout – R1(c), R2(d)

15. Vout – R1(c), R2(e)

16. Vout – R1(d), R2(a)

17. Vout – R1(d), R2(b)

18. Vout – R1(d), R2(c)

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 19. Vout – R1(d), R2(d)

20. Vout – R1(d), R2(e)

21. Vout – R1(e), R2(a)

22. Vout – R1(e), R2(b)

23. Vout – R1(e), R2(c)

24. Vout – R1(e), R2(d)

25. Vout – R1(e), R2(e)

Analysis Data

Sr No. Parameter Value

1. Vout - Mean

2. Vout - Min

3. Vout - Max

4. Deviation – Avg

5. Deviation – Std

6. Probable Error

Figure 10. A Digital Multimeter.

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