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27 views3 pages

5 Com

compiler short notes

Uploaded by

Keerthana
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Introduction to Compilers

A compiler is a program that translates code written in a high-level programming


language (like C, Java, or Python) into a lower-level language, typically machine
code or assembly, which can be understood and executed by a computer. Compilers are
essential in software development as they enable programmers to write code in
human-readable languages and then convert it for efficient execution by machines.

Phases of Compilation
The compilation process is generally divided into several phases, each responsible
for a specific task in translating and optimizing the source code:

Lexical Analysis (Scanning): The compiler reads the source code and breaks it down
into tokens, which are the smallest units in a programming language (e.g.,
keywords, operators, identifiers).
Syntax Analysis (Parsing): Checks the sequence of tokens to ensure they follow the
grammatical structure of the language, constructing a syntax tree based on rules
defined in the language grammar.
Semantic Analysis: Ensures that the syntax tree adheres to the logical rules of the
language, such as type checking, variable declaration validation, and scope
management.
Intermediate Code Generation: Translates the syntax tree into an intermediate
representation, a code that’s independent of machine-specific details, making it
easier to optimize.
Optimization: Enhances the intermediate code by making it more efficient, reducing
execution time, memory usage, or both.
Code Generation: Converts the optimized intermediate code into machine-specific
assembly or machine code that the target computer can execute.
Code Linking and Loading: Combines the compiled code with other libraries or
modules and loads it into memory for execution.
Lexical Analysis in Detail
In this phase, the lexer (lexical analyzer) scans the source code to identify
tokens. Tokens are classified into types, such as identifiers (e.g., variable
names), keywords, literals, and operators. Lexical errors can occur if an
unrecognized sequence of characters is detected.

Syntax Analysis and Parsing


The parser uses rules defined by a grammar to check the sequence of tokens and
structure them into a syntax tree. There are two main types of parsers:

Top-Down Parsers: Start from the root and move toward the leaves, including
recursive descent parsers and LL parsers.
Bottom-Up Parsers: Start from the leaves and move toward the root, including LR
parsers like SLR, LALR, and CLR.
Grammar in Compilers
A grammar defines the syntactic structure of a programming language, using rules to
specify how tokens can be combined. Context-Free Grammar (CFG) is commonly used,
consisting of production rules that dictate valid syntax patterns. For example:

Non-terminals: Abstract symbols (e.g., statements, expressions) that can be


expanded into other symbols.
Terminals: Concrete symbols like tokens (e.g., ‘+’, identifiers) that do not expand
further.
Semantic Analysis
In this phase, the compiler verifies semantic rules, such as type correctness,
function calls, and scope resolution. Symbol tables are created to track variables,
functions, and their attributes throughout the program. Errors in this phase
include type mismatches, undeclared variables, and improper function usage.

Intermediate Code Generation


The compiler generates an intermediate representation (IR) of the program, which is
typically simpler and easier to optimize than the original code. Common forms of IR
include:

Three-Address Code: Uses statements with at most three operands (e.g., a = b + c).
Abstract Syntax Trees (ASTs): Represents the hierarchical structure of expressions
and statements.
Control Flow Graphs: Depict the flow of control between various blocks of code,
used especially in optimization.
Code Optimization
Optimization improves the intermediate code for faster and more efficient
execution. There are two main types:

Machine-Independent Optimization: Modifications that improve code regardless of the


target machine, like loop unrolling and dead code elimination.
Machine-Dependent Optimization: Tailored to the target machine's architecture,
focusing on register allocation, instruction scheduling, and pipeline optimization.
Code Generation
In this phase, the optimized intermediate code is converted into machine-specific
assembly or machine code. The code generator handles memory management, register
allocation, and instruction selection, tailoring the final code for the target
architecture.

Code Linking and Loading


Linking combines the object code with other code libraries and resolves external
references. Static linking embeds libraries into the executable, while dynamic
linking loads libraries at runtime. The loader then loads the executable into
memory for execution.

Compiler Design Challenges

Error Handling and Recovery: Ensuring the compiler can identify and provide helpful
error messages, sometimes attempting to recover from errors without halting
compilation.
Optimization Complexity: Balancing the speed of optimization with the performance
benefits.
Target-Specific Code Generation: Tailoring code for different hardware
architectures while maintaining cross-platform compatibility.
Types of Compilers

Single-Pass Compilers: Complete the entire compilation in one pass through the
source code, usually in simpler languages.
Multi-Pass Compilers: Require multiple passes through the code for complex
languages and optimizations.
Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilers: Compile code during execution, commonly used in
runtime environments like Java and .NET.
Cross Compilers: Compile code on one platform to run on another, useful in embedded
systems.
Applications of Compilers

Programming Languages: All major programming languages rely on compilers to convert


code into executable instructions.
Interpreted Languages: Some interpreted languages, like Python, use a combination
of interpretation and compilation (e.g., bytecode compilation).
Operating Systems: The kernels and core components of OSs are written in compiled
languages, making them fast and efficient.
Conclusion and Summary
Compilers are essential in translating human-readable code into machine-readable
instructions, enabling the creation and execution of complex programs. By breaking
down compilation into phases like lexical analysis, parsing, and optimization,
compilers transform code efficiently while handling syntax and logic errors.
Mastering compiler design concepts opens up opportunities in software development,
systems programming, and language processing, making it a valuable skill for
advanced programming and systems engineers.

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