Course : System and Network Administration

Introduction & Basic Concepts

 System Administration Overview

o What is System Administration, its importance, and scope.
 System Administration Components
o Major components of system administration include:
 Server Hardware: Physical components like processors,
memory, and storage.
 Software: Operating systems and applications that manage the
server.
 Networks: Routers, switches, firewalls, and load balancers for
network management.
 Server Environments: Microsoft & Linux
o Microsoft Environment:
 User-friendly, GUI-based system with features like Active
Directory and IIS.
 Commonly used in enterprises for tasks like user management
and web hosting.
o Linux Environment:
 Open-source, highly customizable, and secure system.
 Used by large-scale companies for scalable and cost-effective
solutions.
o Differences:
 Microsoft is GUI-based with higher licensing costs.
 Linux is open-source, offering more flexibility and lower costs.

2. Server Setup and Maintenance

 Reliable Products, Server Hardware Costing, and Maintenance

Contracts
o Importance of choosing reliable hardware products.
o Cost considerations for server hardware.
o Role of maintenance contracts in ensuring long-term reliability.
 Maintaining Data Integrity
o Best practices for ensuring the integrity of data.
 o Methods for protecting data from corruption or loss.
 Client-Server OS Configuration & Remote Console Access
o Steps to configure client-server operating systems.
o How to set up remote console access for efficient system
management.

3. Comparative Analysis of OS

 Important Attributes & Key Features of OS

o Key attributes and features of different operating systems (e.g.,
Microsoft vs. Linux).
o How these features affect system performance and management.
 Pros and Cons of Microsoft & Linux
o Microsoft:
 Pros: Easy-to-use GUI, enterprise-level security, strong
integration with other Microsoft products.
 Cons: High licensing costs, more resource-intensive.
o Linux:
 Pros: Free and open-source, highly customizable, less resource-
intensive.
 Cons: Steeper learning curve, less commercial support.

4. Linux Installation and User Management

 Linux Installation & Verification

o Steps for installing Linux and verifying the installation.
 Configuring Local Services & Basic System Issues
o How to configure local services on Linux.
o Troubleshooting common system issues.
 User and Group Administration
o How to administer users and groups in a Linux environment.
o Setting permissions and managing user roles.

5. System & Network Management

  Software Management
o Methods for managing software in a system.
o Installing, updating, and removing software packages.
 Network Services & Monitoring Tools
o Managing network services.
o Tools for monitoring system performance and network traffic (e.g.,
Nagios, Zabbix).
 Boot Management & Process Management
o Methods for managing system boot and processes.
o How to prioritize processes and manage system resources efficiently.
 IP Tables, Filtering, & Securing Network Traffic
o Configuring IP tables for network security.
o Filtering traffic and securing the network against unauthorized access.

6. Advanced Topics

 Advanced File Systems & Logs

o Managing advanced file systems and system logs.
o Techniques for monitoring and maintaining system logs.
 Bash Shell Scripting
o Basics of Bash shell scripting.
o Examples of simple scripts for system automation.
 Server Configuration
o Configuring various servers, including:
 FTP, NFS, Samba, DHCP, DNS, Apache.
System Administration
 System Administration is the process of managing computer
systems, servers, and networks to ensure smooth operation.
 System Administrator is responsible for setting up, configuring,
maintaining, and troubleshooting systems to provide uninterrupted
services to users.

Components of System Administration

1. Server Hardware
o Physical infrastructure that powers servers. Key components
include:
 Processors (CPU): The brain of the system,
responsible for running tasks.
 Memory (RAM): Temporarily stores data for quick
access by applications.
 Storage Devices (HDD/SSD): Used for long-term data
storage.
 Power Supplies & Cooling: Prevent overheating and
ensure uninterrupted server operation.
o Real-Life Example:
In a company’s server room, multiple servers store business
data. Proper maintenance of server hardware (cooling, power
supply) is critical, or a failure can lead to a system crash.
2. Software
o System administrators manage server operating systems and
applications, including:
  Operating Systems (OS): Systems like Windows
Server, Linux, or macOS that handle basic system
functions.
 Virtualization Software: Tools like VMware or
Hyper-V that allow multiple virtual machines to run on
a single server.
 Monitoring & Management Tools: Tools such as
Nagios or Zabbix that monitor server health and
performance.
o Real-Life Example:
In a web hosting company, an administrator configures
Apache or NGINX servers to ensure websites run without
interruptions.
3.Networks
o Network components are essential in system administration
and include:
 Routers and Switches: Route and distribute network
traffic.
 Firewalls: Protect systems from unauthorized access.
 Load Balancers: Balance traffic across multiple
servers to prevent overload.
o Real-Life Example:
In an office, multiple computers connect to the same
network. If the network slows down or disconnects, the
system administrator checks routers and switches to resolve
the issue.

Server Environments: Microsoft & Linux

1. Microsoft Environment
o Windows Server OS is primarily used in Microsoft
environments, known for being user-friendly and GUI-based.
 o Key Features:
 Active Directory: Centrally manages users and groups.
 PowerShell: Command-line tool for automation and
system configuration.
 IIS (Internet Information Services): Built-in web
server for web hosting.
o Pros:
 Easy-to-use GUI (Graphical User Interface).
 Strong integration with other Microsoft products
(Office 365, Exchange).
 Enterprise-level security and support.
o Cons:
 High licensing costs.
 Requires more hardware resources.
o Real-Life Example:
In a large organization, Windows Server manages user
logins, permissions, and network resources. Active
Directory efficiently handles users.
2.Linux Environment
o Linux servers are popular for open-source and cost-effective
solutions. Common distributions are Ubuntu Server,
CentOS, and Red Hat.
o Key Features:
 Command-line Interface (CLI): Offers flexibility for
system configuration and management.
 Open-source Software: Free and supported by the
community.
 High Security: Considered more secure against
attacks.
o Pros:
 Free and open-source, lower cost.
 Highly customizable with more control for
administrators.
 Stable and lightweight, requiring fewer resources.
 o Cons:
 Steeper learning curve for beginners.
 Less commercial support than Windows.
o Real-Life Example:
Large-scale companies like Google, Amazon, and Facebook
run their data centers and web servers on Linux for
scalability and cost-effectiveness.

Need and Scope of System Administration

 Need:
o Every organization, small or large, needs properly
functioning systems and servers. Downtime can cause
significant business loss. A system administrator ensures
systems are always available and secure.
 Scope:
o The scope of system administration is vast. System
administrators are needed across industries, including IT
companies, banks, hospitals, and educational institutions. As
technology use increases, so does the demand for system
administrators.

Server Setup and Maintenance

1. Reliable Products, Server Hardware Costing, and
Maintenance Contracts
 Reliable Hardware Products:
o Server Setup: Choose reliable hardware products for long-
term performance and stability as servers run continuously.
o Manufacturers: Well-known reliable brands include Dell, HP,
IBM, and Cisco.
o Key Components:
 Processors (CPUs): Intel Xeon and AMD EPYC are
powerful and reliable processors designed for servers.
 Memory (RAM): ECC (Error-Correcting Code) RAM is
more reliable as it automatically detects and corrects
data errors.
 Storage: SSDs (Solid-State Drives) are faster and more
reliable compared to traditional HDDs (Hard Disk
Drives).
 Power Supplies: Redundant power supplies are used
so if one fails, the backup takes over.
 Server Hardware Costing:
o Server costs vary based on the type and specifications.
Important factors:
 Performance: Higher-performance servers have more
powerful processors, larger memory, and faster
storage, making them more expensive.
 Reliability: Reliable components like ECC RAM and
redundant power supplies increase costs but ensure
server uptime.
 Scalability: Choose scalable servers with extra storage
and memory slots for future upgrades.
 Maintenance Contracts:
 o Importance: Maintenance contracts with manufacturers or
service providers ensure quick support in case of
breakdowns.
o Benefits:
 Timely Repairs: Technicians provide repairs within an
agreed time frame.
 Spare Parts Availability: Quick availability of spare
parts minimizes server downtime.
 Cost Efficiency: Regular maintenance reduces long-
term costs and prepares for unexpected failures.
o Real-Life Example: Large companies like Amazon use Dell or
HP servers with 24/7 maintenance contracts, ensuring quick
repair and preventing downtime.

2. Maintaining Data Integrity

 What is Data Integrity?
o Ensuring the accuracy and consistency of data during
storage, transmission, or retrieval. Inaccurate data can
negatively affect business decisions.
 Best Practices to Maintain Data Integrity:
o Regular Backups: Periodic data backups help recover data in
case of accidental loss.
 Example: Hospitals take daily or weekly backups of
patient records to protect against system failure.
o Data Validation: Implement input validation to prevent
invalid or inaccurate data entry.
 Example: Banking systems use validation algorithms to
ensure the correct format for transactions.
 o Encryption: Protect data with encryption to secure sensitive
information from breaches.
 Example: Online platforms like Amazon and eBay
encrypt stored credit card information.
o Access Controls: Limit data modification permissions to
authorized users to maintain data integrity.
 Example: Universities secure student and faculty data
with separate access controls.

3. Client-Server OS Configuration &

Remote Console Access
 Client-Server OS Configuration:
o Client-Server Model: Clients send requests, and the server
responds by handling the requests efficiently.
o OS Installation: Install reliable server operating systems like
Windows Server, Ubuntu Server, or Red Hat Enterprise
Linux.
 Example: A small business can host its website by
configuring Apache on Ubuntu Server.
o Network Configuration: Assign an IP address to the server
and configure DNS/DHCP for client-server connectivity.
 Example: In an office, a Windows Server configures
DHCP and DNS to automatically assign IP addresses to
users.
o Service Configuration: Configure services like file sharing,
email, web hosting, and databases (e.g., Active Directory on
Microsoft Server or Samba on Linux).
 Example: A software company uses GitLab server for
multiple developers to host code repositories.
  Remote Console Access:
o Allows control of the server remotely without physical
access to the server room. Useful for managing servers from
distant locations.
o SSH (Secure Shell): Commonly used for encrypted remote
access to Linux servers via command-line interface.
 Example: Access and manage a Linux server from home
using SSH to update configurations.
o RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol): Used for GUI-based
remote access to Windows Servers, allowing control of the
desktop remotely.
 Example: Use RDP to troubleshoot a Windows server in
another city by accessing its desktop.
o IPMI (Intelligent Platform Management Interface): A
hardware-based solution that provides remote access and
monitoring, even when the server is powered off.
 Example: Data centers use IPMI to remotely reboot
servers or check their health without physical access

Comparative Analysis of Operating Systems

Operating systems (OS) are crucial for managing the interface between
hardware and software on computing devices. Here, we will analyze two
major operating systems — Microsoft Windows and Linux

Windows OS

Attributes:
  GUI-based (Graphical User Interface): Windows has a user-
friendly interface, featuring icons, windows, and menus that make
it easy for users to navigate.
 Proprietary Software: Windows is a closed-source operating
system developed by Microsoft, meaning its source code is not
publicly accessible.

Key Features:

 Active Directory: Essential for managing users, computers, and

network resources, especially in enterprise environments.
 PowerShell: An advanced command-line tool that helps with
system configuration and automation.
 Compatibility: Windows supports a vast range of software and
hardware, making it the most compatible OS for various
applications and games.

Pros:

 User-friendly: Ideal for beginners due to its intuitive graphical

interface.
 Widely Supported: Most software developers and hardware
manufacturers design their products to work with Windows.

Cons:

 Licensing Cost: Windows is a paid OS, which can be expensive

for individuals and businesses.
 Resource-heavy: It requires more CPU and RAM, making it
slower on low-end machines. Frequent updates also increase
resource consumption.

2. Linux OS

Attributes:
  Open-source: Linux is an open-source OS, meaning its source
code is publicly available for anyone to modify and distribute.
 Command-line based: While Linux has GUI options (like
GNOME, KDE), its core operations are typically done via the
command line.

Key Features:

 High Security: Linux’s robust structure makes it highly secure,

which is why it is the preferred OS for servers and security-
sensitive systems.
 Customizable: Linux allows users to modify almost every aspect
of the OS, from appearance to core functionality.
 Package Management Systems: Tools like APT (Debian-based),
YUM (Red Hat-based), and pacman (Arch-based) are used to
install and manage software.

Pros:

 Free: Linux distributions are free, making it a cost-effective

solution for businesses and individuals.
 Lightweight: It can run efficiently on low-end hardware without
consuming many resources.
 Secure: File permissions, user roles, and firewall rules make Linux
a stable and secure OS.

Cons:

 Steep Learning Curve: The command-line interface can be

challenging for beginners, requiring knowledge of system
commands and shell scripting.
 Limited Support for Proprietary Software: Some software, like
Adobe Creative Suite or Microsoft Office, doesn’t run natively on
Linux, requiring alternatives or emulation.
3. Mac OS

Attributes:

 Unix-based: Mac OS is built on a Unix foundation, which makes

it stable and secure.
 Premium Hardware Integration: It is designed to work
seamlessly with Apple hardware, providing optimized
performance.

Key Features:

 User-friendly Interface: Mac OS is known for its sleek, intuitive

design, making it popular among creatives and designers.
 Security: Built-in security features like Gatekeeper and XProtect
help prevent malware and unauthorized access.

Pros:

 Stable: Optimized for Apple hardware, Mac OS offers smooth and

reliable performance.
 Secure: Mac OS’s architecture and default security tools protect
users from viruses and malware.
 Integrated Hardware and Software: Its tight integration with
Apple hardware ensures an enhanced user experience.

Cons:

 Expensive: Mac OS only runs on Apple devices, which are

generally costly, making it less accessible to average users.
 Limited Hardware Options: Apple controls its hardware
ecosystem, limiting customization and hardware choices for users.
Linux Installation and Verification (Example:
Ubuntu Linux)
step-by-step guide to installing and verifying a Linux OS using Ubuntu
as an example. While the process is similar for most Linux distributions,
slight variations might occur.

Step 1: Select a Linux Distribution

 First, choose a Linux distribution based on your requirements.

Popular options include:
o Ubuntu (user-friendly, best for beginners)
o CentOS (ideal for servers)
o Fedora (cutting-edge features, great for developers)
o Debian (known for stability and security)

Step 2: Prepare Installation Media

1. Download the ISO File:

o Go to the official website of the chosen Linux distribution
and download the ISO image.
 Example: You can download the Ubuntu ISO from
ubuntu.com.
2. Create a Bootable USB Drive:
o You’ll need to make a USB drive bootable so you can install
Linux from it. Tools like Rufus (for Windows users) or
Etcher (cross-platform) can be used.
o Steps to Use Rufus:
1. Download and open Rufus.
2. Select your USB drive.
3. Choose the ISO file you downloaded and click "Start"
to create a bootable USB.
Step 3: Boot the System from USB

1. Enter Boot Menu:

o Restart your computer and press the appropriate key (usually
F12, F10, or Esc) to enter the boot menu.
2. Select USB Boot:
o In the boot menu, select your USB drive as the boot device.
This will start the Linux installation process, and you’ll see
the installation screen.

Step 4: Install Linux

1. Select Language:
o During the installation process, choose your preferred
language.
2. Choose Installation Type:
o Erase Disk and Install Linux: This option erases the entire
hard drive and installs Linux, ideal for beginners.
o Dual Boot: If you want to keep an existing OS (like
Windows) and install Linux alongside it, select "Install
alongside" for dual boot.
3. Partitioning (Optional):
o If you want to manually create partitions, select “Something
Else.” Common partitions include:
 Root Partition (/): Where system files are stored.
 Swap Partition: Used for virtual memory (usually
twice the size of your RAM).
4. Select Time Zone and Keyboard Layout:
o Choose your time zone and preferred keyboard layout.
5. Create a User Account:
o Set up a username and password that will be used for logging
into your system.
 6. Start the Installation:
o After setting all options, begin the installation process. This
might take a few minutes.

Step 5: Post-Installation

1. Reboot:
o Once the installation is complete, the system will prompt you
to restart.
o Remove the USB drive to ensure the system boots from the
newly installed Linux OS.

Step 6: Verify the Installation

After installation, follow these steps to verify that the Linux OS is

properly installed:

1. Log In:
o Log into your system using the username and password you
created during the installation.
2. Check Linux Version:
o Open the terminal and run the following command to check
the installed Linux version:
lsb_release -a

3. Verify Network Configuration:

o Ensure that the system is connected to the internet by using
the following command:
ping google.com

4. Update Software:
 o It’s essential to update the system after installation. Run these
commands to update your system:
sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade

5. Check Hardware Drivers:

o Ensure that hardware components such as sound, display, and
network are functioning correctly.
6. Verify Disk Partitions:
o Check if the disk partitions are configured properly using this
command:
df -h

o This will display the disk usage of your partitions.

Configuring Local Services and

Managing Basic System Issues
how to configure local services, troubleshoot basic system issues,
monitor system performance, and manage system updates/upgrades.
These skills are essential for effective system administration.

1. Setting Up Local Services

Local Services:

Local services refer to services that run on your local machine or

network. Two common examples are Print Servers and File Sharing.
Print Server Setup (Using CUPS):

1. Installation:
o Install the CUPS (Common UNIX Printing System) for
managing print services.

sudo apt install cups

2. Configuration:
o Start and enable the CUPS service.

sudo systemctl start cups

sudo systemctl enable cups

o To configure it via a web interface, enter

http://localhost:631 in your browser. From there,
you can add and manage printers.

File Sharing (Using Samba):

1. Installation:
o Install Samba for file sharing between Linux and Windows
systems.

sudo apt install samba

2. Configuration:
o Edit the Samba configuration file.

sudo nano /etc/samba/smb.conf

o Define a shared directory within the configuration file:

[shared]
path = /path/to/shared/directory
available = yes
valid users = username
 read only = no
browsable = yes
public = yes
writable = yes

o Create a Samba user for accessing the shared folder:

sudo smbpasswd -a username

o Restart the Samba service:

sudo systemctl restart smbd

2. Troubleshooting Hardware Issues

Common Hardware Issues:

1. Driver Problems:
o If a device is not working, first check if the appropriate driver

is installed. Use lsusb or lspci commands to view

connected devices.
o To install drivers:

sudo apt install <driver-package-name>

2. Device Conflicts:
o Devices may conflict if they use the same resources (e.g.,

IRQ, address). You can identify conflicts using the dmesg

command.
o Resolution: Adjust device or BIOS settings to resolve
resource conflicts.

3. Monitoring System Performance

Performance Metrics:

Monitor system performance using various tools:

1. CPU Usage:
o Use the top command to view real-time CPU usage.

top

2. RAM Usage:
o Check memory usage with the free -h command.

free -h

3. Disk Usage:
o View disk usage using the df -h command.

df -h
Real-Life Example:

 If your system is slow, you can use the top command to identify
processes consuming high CPU or RAM. If necessary, you can
terminate those processes.

4. Handling System Updates and Upgrades

System Updates:

Keeping your system updated is crucial for security and performance.

1. Update System:
o To update your package lists and install package updates:

sudo apt update # Updates package

lists
 sudo apt upgrade # Upgrades
installed packages

2. Full Upgrade:
o For a full system upgrade, which also manages additional
dependencies:

sudo apt full-upgrade

System Upgrades:

For upgrading to a newer version of your Linux distribution:

1. Release Upgrade:
o To upgrade from one major version (e.g., Ubuntu 20.04 to
22.04):

sudo do-release-upgrade
Real-Life Example:

 If security patches are released, run apt update and apt

upgrade to ensure your system stays secure and up-to-date.

Managing Users and Groups

User and group administration is a crucial aspect of system

administration in Linux. It involves creating user accounts, setting up
groups and permissions, understanding file ownership, and
implementing sudo for administrative privileges.

1. Creating and Managing User Accounts

Creating a User Account:

To create a new user account, you can use the useradd command as
follows:
sudo useradd -m username

 -m: This option creates a home directory for the user.

Setting a Password:

After creating the user account, you need to set a password for it:
sudo passwd username
Managing User Accounts:

 Viewing User List: To see a list of all users, you can check the
/etc/passwd file:

cat /etc/passwd

 Deleting a User Account: To delete a user account, use:

sudo userdel username

If you also want to delete the user’s home directory, add the -r
option:
sudo userdel -r username

2. Setting Up Groups and Permissions

Creating Groups:

To create a new group, use the groupadd command:

sudo groupadd groupname

Adding Users to Groups:

To add a user to a group, use the usermod command:

sudo usermod -aG groupname username

 -aG: This option adds the user to the group without removing
them from other groups.

Setting Permissions:

Permissions define what actions users can perform on files or

directories. Each file has three types of permissions:

 Read (r): Users can read the file.

 Write (w): Users can modify the file.
 Execute (x): Users can execute the file (for scripts or programs).

To change permissions, you can use the chmod command:

sudo chmod 755 filename

In 755, the first digit (7) sets permissions for the owner (read, write,
execute), the second digit (5) for the group (read, execute), and the last
digit (5) for others (read, execute).

3. Understanding File Ownership and Access Control

File Ownership:

Every file and directory has an owner and an associated group. To check
a file's ownership, use the ls -l command:

ls -l filename
The output will look like this:
-rwxr-xr-- 1 owner group 0 Sep 30 10:00 filename

 Owner: The user who owns the file.

 Group: The group that has access to the file.

Changing Ownership:

To change the owner of a file, use the chown command:

sudo chown newowner:newgroup filename

This command changes both the owner and the group of the file.

4. Implementing sudo for Administrative Privileges

What is sudo?

The sudo command allows users to run commands with the security
privileges of another user (by default, the superuser). This is necessary
for performing administrative tasks without giving full root access to
users.

Adding Users to the sudo Group:

To grant a user sudo privileges, you can add them to the sudo group:

sudo usermod -aG sudo username

Using sudo:

Once the user is in the sudo group, they can execute commands with
elevated privileges by prefixing the command with sudo:

sudo command
For example, to update package lists:
sudo apt update
Configuring sudo Access:

You can configure sudo access by editing the /etc/sudoers file.

Always use the visudo command to safely edit this file:

sudo visudo
Example Entry:
username ALL=(ALL) ALL

This entry means that the user username can run any command on any
host.

System and Network Management:

Software Management
Software management is a crucial aspect of Linux and Unix-like
operating systems. It involves the use of package management systems
to install, update, and remove software packages.

1. Package Management Systems

Package management systems provide a way to manage software

packages. These systems allow you to easily install, update, and remove
software. Some popular package management systems include:
1.1 APT (Advanced Package Tool)

 Distributions: Debian, Ubuntu, and their derivatives.

 Commands:
o Install:

sudo apt install package-name

o Update:

sudo apt update

o Upgrade:

sudo apt upgrade

o Remove:

sudo apt remove package-name

1.2 YUM (Yellowdog Updater Modified)

 Distributions: Red Hat, CentOS, Fedora.

 Commands:
o Install:

sudo yum install package-name

o Update:

sudo yum update

o Remove:

sudo yum remove package-name

1.3 Pacman

 Distributions: Arch Linux and its derivatives.

  Commands:
o Install:

sudo pacman -S package-name

o Update:

sudo pacman -Syu

o Remove:

sudo pacman -R package-name

2. Installing, Updating, and Removing Software Packages

Installing Software Packages

Installing software packages is straightforward; you just need to specify

the package name through your package manager. For example:
sudo apt install nginx

This command will install the Nginx web server.

Updating Software Packages

To update installed software, use the update command of the package

manager:
sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade

 apt update: Updates the available package list.

 apt upgrade: Upgrades installed packages to their latest versions.
Removing Software Packages

If you need to uninstall a package, you can do so with:

sudo apt remove package-name

This command will remove the specified package from the system.

3. Managing Dependencies and Repositories

Dependencies

Dependencies are the packages that are required for a software package
to function correctly. When you install software, the package manager
automatically installs the necessary dependencies.

Repositories

Repositories are servers where software packages are stored. You can
manage repositories within your package manager:

 APT: Repositories can be added or removed in the

/etc/apt/sources.list file.
 YUM: Repository configuration files are located in the
/etc/yum.repos.d/ directory.

Example of adding a repository (APT):

sudo add-apt-repository ppa:repository-name/ppa
sudo apt update

4. Automating Software Updates with Cron Jobs

Cron jobs allow you to set up scheduled tasks. You can use cron jobs to
automate software updates.

Setting Up a Cron Job

To edit the cron table (crontab), use the command:

crontab -e

Adding a Cron Job: You can add a cron job that will automatically
update software daily. For example:
0 2 * * * sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y

This job will run every day at 2 AM and update the system.

Cron Job Syntax:

* * * * * command-to-execute

 *First : Minute (0-59)

 *Second : Hour (0-23)
 *Third : Day of the month (1-31)
 *Fourth : Month (1-12)
 *Fifth : Day of the week (0-6, 0 = Sunday)

Managing Network Services and Network

Monitoring Tools
Network services and monitoring tools are crucial components of system
and network management. Proper configuration and management of
these services ensure the reliability and performance of your network.
1. Configuring Network Services

Network services facilitate communication between clients and servers.

Some important network services include:

1.1 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

 Function: DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses to devices

when they connect to the network.
 Configuration Steps:
1. Install DHCP Server:

sudo apt install isc-dhcp-server

2. Edit Configuration File: Define subnets and options in the

configuration file /etc/dhcp/dhcpd.conf.

subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0

{
range 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.100;
option routers 192.168.1.1;
option domain-name-servers 8.8.8.8;
}

3. Restart DHCP Service:

sudo systemctl restart isc-dhcp-server

1.2 DNS (Domain Name System)

 Function: DNS translates domain names into IP addresses,

allowing users to access web resources easily.
 Configuration Steps:
1. Install DNS Server:
 sudo apt install bind9

2. Edit Configuration File: You need to define zones and

records in /etc/bind/named.conf.local.

zone "example.com" {
type master;
file "/etc/bind/db.example.com";
}

3. Restart DNS Service:

sudo systemctl restart bind9

1.3 NTP (Network Time Protocol)

 Function: NTP synchronizes the time across network devices.

 Configuration Steps:
1. Install NTP Server:

sudo apt install ntp

2. Edit Configuration File: Specify NTP servers in

/etc/ntp.conf.

server 0.pool.ntp.org
server 1.pool.ntp.org

3. Restart NTP Service:

sudo systemctl restart ntp

2. Monitoring Tools

Network monitoring tools help analyze network performance and traffic.

These tools are used to diagnose network issues and track resource
utilization.
2.1 Wireshark

 Function: Wireshark is a network protocol analyzer that captures

and analyzes network packets.
 Features:
o Live packet capture.
o Detailed packet analysis.
o Protocol filtering and analysis.
 Usage Example:
1. Start Wireshark:

sudo wireshark

2. Capture Traffic: Select an interface and capture packets.

3. Analyze Packets: Filter by specific protocols or IP addresses.

2.2 Nagios

 Function: Nagios is a network monitoring tool that monitors the

availability of services and hosts.
 Features:
o Alerting system.
o Performance metrics.
o Web-based interface.
 Usage Example:
1. Install Nagios:

sudo apt install nagios3

2. Configure Nagios: Define hosts and services in configuration files.

3. Access Web Interface: Access the Nagios web interface and
start monitoring.
2.3 Zabbix

 Function: Zabbix is an open-source monitoring tool that tracks

performance and availability.
 Features:
o Distributed monitoring.
o Real-time data collection.
o Graphical visualization.
 Usage Example:
1. Install Zabbix:

sudo apt install zabbix-server zabbix-

frontend zabbix-agent

2. Configure Zabbix: Configure database and server settings.

3. Access Zabbix Dashboard: Monitor data through the web
interface.

3. Managing Firewall Rules

Firewalls are an important aspect of network security. They control

incoming and outgoing traffic.

3.1 UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall)

 Function: UFW provides a user-friendly interface for managing

firewall rules in Linux.
 Basic Commands:
o Enable UFW:

sudo ufw enable

o Allow a Port:
 sudo ufw allow 80/tcp

o Deny a Port:

sudo ufw deny 22/tcp

3.2 firewalld

 Function: firewalld is a dynamic firewall management tool that

manages zones and services.
 Basic Commands:
o Start firewalld:

sudo systemctl start firewalld

o Allow a Service:

sudo firewall-cmd --zone=public --add-

service=http --permanent

o Reload Rules:

sudo firewall-cmd --reload

4. Analyzing Network Traffic and Performance

Analyzing network traffic and performance helps you understand the

health of your network and identify issues. This analysis provides
insights into bandwidth usage, latency, and packet loss.

4.1 Tools for Analyzing Traffic

 Wireshark: As previously mentioned, Wireshark is the best tool

for analyzing network packets.
 iftop: A real-time bandwidth monitoring tool that shows the
traffic on network interfaces.
 sudo iftop
4.2 Metrics for Performance Analysis

 Bandwidth Usage: The proportion of available bandwidth being

utilized.
 Latency: The time taken for data packets to travel through the
network.
 Packet Loss: The number of packets transmitted that were not
received.

4.3 Performance Tuning

 Load Balancing: Distributing network traffic evenly.

 QoS (Quality of Service): Prioritizing specific types of traffic

Boot Management and

Process Management
Boot management and process management are two critical aspects of
system administration..

1. Boot Loaders (GRUB)

What is a Boot Loader?

  A boot loader is a small program that executes before loading the
operating system. It is the first part of the system's startup
process.

GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader):

 GRUB is a popular boot loader used in Linux distributions.

 It supports multiple operating systems and presents a boot menu
from which the user can select the desired OS.

Configuration of GRUB:

1. Configuration File: GRUB settings are located in the

/etc/default/grub file.
o Example:

GRUB_TIMEOUT=5
GRUB_DEFAULT=0

oHere, GRUB_TIMEOUT specifies how many seconds the

boot menu is displayed.
2. Update GRUB:
sudo update-grub

Features of GRUB:

 Menu Entry: Allows listing multiple OS options.

 Kernel Parameters: Provides flexibility to specify specific kernel
options.

2. Managing Boot Sequences and Startup Services

Boot Sequence:
  The boot sequence is the order in which system components load
when the computer starts. This process begins with the POST
(Power-On Self-Test), where hardware is checked.

Startup Services:

 Services must be enabled or disabled during system startup.

These services are essential for system functionality.

Systemd:

 Modern Linux distributions use systemd for boot management

and service management.

Managing Services:

1. Check Service Status:

sudo systemctl status <service_name>

2. Enable/Disable Services:
o Enable: To enable a service to start at boot.

sudo systemctl enable <service_name>

o Disable: To prevent a service from starting at boot.

sudo systemctl disable <service_name>

3. Start/Stop Services:
o Start Service:

sudo systemctl start <service_name>

o Stop Service:

sudo systemctl stop <service_name>

3. Monitoring and Managing Processes

Process Management:

 Processes are instances that utilize system resources for running

applications. Process management allows you to monitor and
control processes.

3.1 Monitoring Processes

 top Command:
o The top command displays real-time running processes and
their resource utilization.

top

o You will see information about CPU, RAM, and running

processes.
 ps Command:
o The ps command provides a list of currently running
processes.

ps aux

o This command gives information about user, PID, CPU usage,

and command.

3.2 Managing Processes

 Killing Processes:
o If a process hangs or crashes, it can be terminated using the

kill command.
o Kill by PID:

kill <PID>
 o Force Kill:

kill -9 <PID>

4. Automating Tasks with Systemd Services

Systemd Services:

 Systemd provides the ability to automate tasks. You can create

custom services that start automatically to perform specific tasks.

Creating a Systemd Service:

1. Create a Service File:

o Create a service file in the /etc/systemd/system/

directory, such as my_service.service.

o Example Content:

[Unit]
Description=My Custom Service

[Service]
ExecStart=/usr/bin/my_script.sh

[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target

2. Enable the Service:

o Enabling the service will ensure it starts at boot:

sudo systemctl enable my_service

3. Start the Service:

o To manually start the service:

sudo systemctl start my_service

 4. Check Status:
o To check the status of the service:

sudo systemctl status my_service

IP Tables and Filtering

IP Tables is a powerful tool in Linux used to manage and control
network traffic. It allows you to set rules for incoming and outgoing
traffic, enhancing network security.

1. Configuring iptables for Network Security

What is IP Tables?

 IP Tables is a user-space utility that utilizes the packet filtering

framework of the Linux kernel.
 It enables you to set rules to filter incoming and outgoing network
packets.

Basic Command Structure:

iptables -A <chain> <rule>

 -A: Appends a rule to the specified chain.

 <chain>: Can be INPUT, OUTPUT, or FORWARD.

2. Setting Up Rules for Incoming and Outgoing Traffic

Basic Rules Setup:

Incoming Traffic:

 To filter incoming traffic, use the INPUT chain.

Example: Allow SSH Traffic

iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

 This command allows traffic on port 22 (SSH) via the TCP protocol.

Outgoing Traffic:

 To filter outgoing traffic, use the OUTPUT chain.

Example: Allow HTTP Traffic

iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT

 This command allows HTTP traffic on port 80.

3. Managing NAT (Network Address Translation)

What is NAT?

 NAT is used to translate internal network IP addresses into a

public IP address.
 It is useful for network security and address conservation.

Example: Setting Up NAT

1. Enable IP Forwarding:
o First, you need to enable IP forwarding.

echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

2. NAT Rule Setup:

 o Add a NAT rule using the POSTROUTING chain.

iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j

MASQUERADE

o This command masquerades outgoing traffic through the

eth0 interface.

4. Troubleshooting and Testing Firewall Rules

Testing IP Tables Rules:

 It's essential to test IP Tables rules to ensure your configurations

are functioning correctly.

Checking Current Rules:

iptables -L -v -n

 This command displays the list of current rules.

Flushing Rules:

 To reset the rules:

iptables -F
Log Incoming Traffic:

 You can add a rule to log incoming traffic:

iptables -A INPUT -j LOG --log-prefix "IPTables-

Dropped: "

 This rule will log dropped packets, allowing for easier diagnosis.
Testing Firewall Rules:

 You can test the firewall rules using commands like ping,
telnet, or curl.
 Example: Test SSH Connection

telnet <your_server_ip> 22

 If the connection is successful, your SSH rule is working correctly.

Securing Network Traffic

Securing network traffic is crucial for protecting your data integrity and
privacy. Various methods are employed for this purpose, including
VPNs, encryption, secure protocols, and intrusion detection/prevention
systems.

1. Setting Up VPNs (Virtual Private Networks)

What is a VPN?

 A VPN establishes a secure connection from your private network

to the public network (Internet). It encrypts traffic, protecting your
online activities.

VPN Setup Steps:

1. Choose a VPN Protocol: Common protocols include PPTP,

L2TP/IPsec, OpenVPN, and IKEv2.
2. Install VPN Software: Install VPN server software such as
OpenVPN or strongSwan.
 3. Configure Server Settings: Edit the server's configuration file.
o Example: OpenVPN configuration file (server.conf):

port 1194
proto udp
dev tun
ca ca.crt
cert server.crt
key server.key
dh dh.pem
server 10.8.0.0 255.255.255.0
ifconfig-pool-persist ipp.txt
push "redirect-gateway def1 bypass-dhcp"
push "dhcp-option DNS 8.8.8.8"
push "dhcp-option DNS 8.8.4.4"

4. Start VPN Service: Start the VPN service.

systemctl start openvpn@server

Benefits of VPNs:

 Secure communication
 Anonymous browsing
 Remote access to resources

2. Encrypting Network Communication (SSL/TLS)

What are SSL/TLS?

 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security)

are protocols that secure internet communication. They encrypt
data to prevent unauthorized access.

Setting Up SSL/TLS:
 1. Obtain a Certificate: You need an SSL certificate, which can be
obtained from a certificate authority (CA).
2. Install the Certificate: Install the certificate on your web server.
o Example: Enable SSL on Apache server:

a2enmod ssl

3. Configure Virtual Host: Add SSL settings to the Apache

configuration file (000-default.conf):

<VirtualHost *:443>
ServerName www.example.com
SSLEngine on
SSLCertificateFile
/path/to/your/certificate.crt
SSLCertificateKeyFile
/path/to/your/private.key
SSLCertificateChainFile
/path/to/your/chainfile.pem
</VirtualHost>

4. Restart the Server:

systemctl restart apache2

Benefits of SSL/TLS:

 Data encryption
 Authentication of the server
 Integrity of data

3. Implementing Secure Protocols (SSH, HTTPS)

Secure Shell (SSH):

  SSH is used for remote server management and secure file transfer.

SSH Setup Steps:

1. Install SSH Server:

sudo apt-get install openssh-server

2. Start SSH Service:

systemctl start ssh

3. Configure SSH Settings: Add security settings to the SSH

configuration file (/etc/ssh/sshd_config), such as
disabling password authentication and enabling key-based
authentication.

HTTPS:

 HTTPS (HTTP Secure) is used to encrypt web traffic.

4. Using Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS)

What are IDS/IPS?

 IDS (Intrusion Detection System) monitors network traffic for

suspicious activities, while IPS (Intrusion Prevention System)
blocks those activities.

Setting Up IDS/IPS:

1. Choose a Solution: Popular tools include Snort (IDS) and Suricata

(IDS/IPS).
2. Install IDS/IPS:
sudo apt-get install snort
 3. Configure Rules: Configure the IDS rules:
o Example: Define rules in Snort configuration file
(/etc/snort/snort.conf):

alert tcp any any -> any 22 (msg:"SSH

access"; sid:1000001;)

4. Start Snort:
snort -c /etc/snort/snort.conf -i eth0

Benefits of IDS/IPS:

 Threat detection
 Real-time monitoring
 Response to security incidents

Advanced File Systems and Logs

Advanced file systems and logs are crucial for enhancing system
performance, reliability, and security..

1. Configuring Advanced File Systems (Btrfs, ZFS)

Advanced File Systems Kya Hain?

 Btrfs (B-tree File System): A modern file system developed by

Oracle. It offers features like snapshots, built-in RAID
functionality, and efficient disk space management.
 ZFS (Zettabyte File System): Originally developed by Sun
Microsystems, ZFS combines a file system and volume manager
 into a single solution, providing features like data integrity
verification and automatic repair.

Btrfs Configuration:

1. Install Btrfs Tools:

sudo apt-get install btrfs-progs

oInstalls necessary tools to manage Btrfs file systems.

2. Create Btrfs File System:
sudo mkfs.btrfs /dev/sdX

Replace sdX with your disk identifier (e.g., sda1).

o
3. Mount Btrfs File System:
sudo mount -o compress /dev/sdX /mnt/btrfs

oMounts the file system to the specified directory with

compression enabled.
4. Create Snapshots:
sudo btrfs subvolume snapshot /mnt/btrfs
/mnt/btrfs/snapshot

o Creates a snapshot of the current state of the file system,

allowing you to revert changes if necessary.

ZFS Configuration:

1. Install ZFS:
sudo apt-get install zfsutils-linux

oInstalls ZFS utilities.

2. Create ZFS Pool:
 sudo zpool create mypool raidz /dev/sdX
/dev/sdY /dev/sdZ

oCreates a ZFS storage pool using RAID-Z (which provides

redundancy).
3. Create ZFS File System:
sudo zfs create mypool/myfs

oCreates a file system within the ZFS pool.

4. Enable Compression:
sudo zfs set compression=on mypool/myfs

o Enables compression on the created file system, saving disk

space.

Features of Btrfs and ZFS:

 Snapshots: Allow you to create point-in-time copies of your file

systems. Useful for backups and recovery.
 Data Integrity: Both systems use checksums for data and
metadata, ensuring data integrity.
 Dynamic Resizing: You can easily resize file systems without
unmounting them.

2. Understanding and Managing System Logs (/var/log)

System Logs Kya Hain?

 System logs are records of system events and activities, essential

for troubleshooting issues and monitoring system performance.
Common Log Files in /var/log:

 /var/log/syslog: Contains general system activity logs.

Useful for diagnosing issues.
 /var/log/auth.log: Records authentication events,
including logins and authentication failures.
 /var/log/kern.log: Contains kernel messages, important
for tracking kernel-related events.
 /var/log/boot.log: Logs the boot process details, helpful
for troubleshooting startup issues.

Viewing Logs:

 Using cat or less:

cat /var/log/syslog
less /var/log/auth.log

o cat displays the entire content, while less allows you to

scroll through the log.
 Using tail for Real-Time Monitoring:

tail -f /var/log/syslog

o The -f option keeps the command running, displaying new

log entries as they are added.

3. Log Rotation and Archival (logrotate)

Log Rotation Kya Hai?

 Log rotation is a process that manages the size of log files,

preventing them from consuming excessive disk space. It archives
old log files and creates new ones.
Configuring Logrotate:

1. Default Configuration File: /etc/logrotate.conf contains

global settings.
2. Creating Logrotate for a Custom Log:
o Create a configuration file in /etc/logrotate.d/.
o Example: /etc/logrotate.d/myapp

/var/log/myapp/*.log {
daily # Rotate logs daily
rotate 7 # Keep 7 copies
compress # Compress rotated logs
missingok # Ignore missing log
files
notifempty # Don't rotate empty
logs
create 0640 root adm # Create new log
files with specified permissions
}

o This configuration rotates the logs daily, keeps up to 7

copies, compresses them to save space, and creates new log
files with appropriate permissions.

Log Archival:

 Logrotate automatically compresses archived logs, reducing the

amount of disk space they consume. Archived logs can be
important for compliance and auditing purposes.

4. Monitoring Logs for Security and Performance Issues

Log Monitoring Kya Hai?

 Regularly monitoring logs is essential for detecting security

breaches, unauthorized access, and performance issues.

Monitoring Tools:

 Logwatch: Generates daily summary reports of log activities,

making it easier to spot anomalies.
 Fail2Ban: Monitors logs for failed login attempts and blocks IPs
exhibiting suspicious behavior (e.g., brute-force attacks).
 Splunk: An advanced tool for log monitoring, analysis, and
visualization, useful for large-scale environments.

Monitoring for Security Issues:

 Unauthorized Access: Check /var/log/auth.log for failed

login attempts or unusual access patterns.
 Anomalies: Track suspicious activities like unexpected service
failures or unauthorized file modifications.

Monitoring for Performance Issues:

 Resource Usage: Analyze logs like syslog or dmesg to identify

issues related to CPU, RAM, or disk usage.
 Application Logs: Regularly check specific application logs to
monitor performance metrics and identify bottlenecks.

Bash Shell Scripting

Bash shell scripting is a powerful tool in Linux for automation and task
management..

1. Basics of Bash Syntax and Commands

What is Bash?

 Bash (Bourne Again SHell) is a command-line interpreter used in

Unix-based operating systems. It executes commands and is
utilized for scripting.

Bash Syntax:

 Bash scripts are plain text files that execute commands

sequentially.

Basic Commands:

 Shebang: This line at the beginning of the script specifies the

interpreter.
#!/bin/bash

 Comments: Lines that are not executed in the script.

# This is a comment

 Variables: Used to store data.

myvar="Hello, World!"
echo $myvar # Output: Hello, World!

Example: Simple Bash Script

#!/bin/bash
# This script will show the system date and time
echo "Today's date is: $(date)"

2. Writing Simple Scripts for Automation

How to Write a Script:

1. Create a Script File:

nano myscript.sh

2. Add Commands:
#!/bin/bash
echo "This script will execute an automated
task"
cp /path/to/source /path/to/destination #
Copying a file

3. Make it Executable:
chmod +x myscript.sh

4. Run the Script:

./myscript.sh

Example: Backup Script

#!/bin/bash
# Simple backup script
src="/path/to/source"
dest="/path/to/destination"
cp -r $src $dest
echo "Backup complete from $src to $dest"

3. Handling Input/Output and Errors in Scripts

Input Handling:

 Use the read command to take input from the user.

#!/bin/bash
echo "Enter your name:"
read name
echo "Your name is: $name"

Output Handling:

 Redirect output using > and >> operators.

o >: Overwrites the file.
o >>: Appends to the file.

echo "Hello, World!" > output.txt # Overwrite

echo "Hello, Again!" >> output.txt # Append

Error Handling:

 Capture error messages using the 2> operator.

command_not_found 2> error.log # Logs error

messages

Example: Error Handling

#!/bin/bash
# Reading a file and checking for errors
file="/path/to/file"
if [ -f "$file" ]; then
echo "File found!"
else
echo "File not found!" >&2 # Error output
fi
4. Creating Scheduled Tasks with Cron

What is Cron?

 Cron is used in Linux to run scheduled tasks. You can create cron
jobs to execute scripts or commands automatically at specific
times.

Creating a Cron Job:

1. Edit Crontab:
crontab -e

2. Cron Job Format:

* * * * * /path/to/script.sh

Format: minute hour day month day_of_week command

Example: Run Script Daily at 6 AM

0 6 * * * /path/to/backup.sh

Cron Job Examples:

 Run script every 5 minutes:

*/5 * * * * /path/to/script.sh

 Run script every Sunday at 8 AM:

0 8 * * 0 /path/to/weekly_report.sh
Configuring Servers

1. FTP Server (File Transfer Protocol)

What is FTP?

 FTP is a protocol used for transferring files.

Installing and Configuring vsftpd or ProFTPD:

1. Installation:
o To install vsftpd:

sudo apt update

sudo apt install vsftpd

2. Configuration:
o To edit the configuration file:

sudo nano /etc/vsftpd.conf

o Some common settings:

anonymous_enable=NO
local_enable=YES
write_enable=YES
chroot_local_user=YES

3. Restart Service:

sudo systemctl restart vsftpd

Setting Up Secure FTP (SFTP/FTPS):

 SFTP uses the SSH protocol for secure FTP.

 FTPS provides a secure connection through SSL/TLS.

Example of SFTP Setup:

 1. Install the SSH server:

sudo apt install openssh-server

2. To configure SFTP, edit the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file and add this

line:

Subsystem sftp /usr/lib/openssh/sftp-server

2. NFS (Network File System)

What is NFS?

 NFS is a protocol used for sharing files over a network.

Setting Up NFS Shares:

1. Installation:

sudo apt install nfs-kernel-server

2. Configuration:
o Edit the /etc/exports file and add this line:

/path/to/shared_folder
client_ip(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)

o Example:

/srv/nfs *(rw,sync,no_subtree_check)

3. Export Shares:

sudo exportfs -a

Configuring Access Control for Shared Folders:

 For access control, specify the client IP address or hostname in the

exports file.
3. Samba

What is Samba?

 Samba enables file sharing between Linux and Windows systems.

Sharing Files Between Linux and Windows Systems:

1. Installation:

sudo apt install samba

2. Configuration:
o Edit the /etc/samba/smb.conf file:

[shared]
path = /path/to/shared_folder
available = yes
valid users = username
read only = no
browsable = yes
public = yes
writable = yes

3. Restart Samba Service:

sudo systemctl restart smbd

Configuring User Permissions for Shared Folders:

 To create a Samba user:

bash
Copy code
sudo smbpasswd -a username

4. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

What is DHCP?

 DHCP is a protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses.

Setting Up DHCP Server for Automatic IP Allocation:

1. Installation:

sudo apt install isc-dhcp-server

2. Configuration:
o Edit the /etc/dhcp/dhcpd.conf file:

subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {

range 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.100;
option routers 192.168.1.1;
option domain-name-servers 8.8.8.8,
8.8.4.4;
}

3. Start DHCP Service:

sudo systemctl start isc-dhcp-server

Managing IP Leases and Reservations:

 To monitor IP leases, check the /var/lib/dhcp/dhcpd.leases file.

 For reservations, you need to configure a specific MAC address.

5. DNS (Domain Name System)

What is DNS?

 DNS converts domain names into IP addresses.

Configuring DNS Server (BIND):

1. Installation:

sudo apt install bind9

2. Configuration:
o Edit the /etc/bind/named.conf.local file:
 zone "example.com" {
type master;
file "/etc/bind/db.example.com";
};

3. Zone File Setup:

o Create a new file:

sudo cp /etc/bind/db.empty
/etc/bind/db.example.com

o Edit the file and add records:

$TTL 604800
@ IN SOA ns.example.com.
admin.example.com. (
2 ; Serial
604800 ; Refresh
86400 ; Retry
2419200 ; Expire
604800 ) ; Negative
Cache TTL
;
@ IN NS ns.example.com.
@ IN A 192.168.1.1
www IN A 192.168.1.2

6. Apache

What is Apache?

 Apache is the most widely used web server in the world.

Installing and Configuring Apache Web Server:

1. Installation:

sudo apt install apache2

2. Start and Enable Apache:

 sudo systemctl start apache2
sudo systemctl enable apache2

3. Configuration:
o Edit the default configuration file:

sudo nano /etc/apache2/sites-available/000-

default.conf

Setting Up Virtual Hosts and SSL Certificates:

 Virtual Host Setup:

<VirtualHost *:80>
ServerName example.com
DocumentRoot /var/www/html/example
<Directory /var/www/html/example>
AllowOverride All
</Directory>
</VirtualHost>

 SSL Certificate Setup:

o Use certbot for SSL certificates:

sudo apt install certbot python3-certbot-apache

sudo certbot --apache