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Edexcel IGCSE Physics Best Guide

Introduction: Measurements and units

Physical quantity
A physical quantity is one that can be measured. It is made up of two parts: a numerical magnitude and a unit.

Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
G(giga) 1 000 000 000 109 GB(gigabyte)
M(mega) 1 000 000 106 MW(megawatt)
k(kilo) 1 000 103 kHz(kilohertz)
d(deci) 1 10-1 dm3(decimetre cube)
10
c(centi) 1 10-2 cm(centimetre)
100
m(milli) 1 10-3 mL(millilitre)
1 000
µ(micro) 1 10-6 µg(microgram)
1 000 000
n(nano) 1 10-9 ns(nanosecond)
1 000 000 000

Scientific notation
Numbers written using powers of ten are in scientific notation or standard form.

Base quantities— length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of a substance and luminous
intensity.

Derived quantities— all the other quantities like area, speed, force, etc. are derived from the base quantities.

SI units(Systeme International)
The units for scientific measurements are internationally agreed and are referred to as SI units.
Quantity SI Unit unit symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K

Quantity Measuring instrument Common errors

length metre rule, vernier calipers, micrometer random error
parallax error
Mass Balance random error
systematic error
Time stopwatch, light-gate timer reaction time error
volume of liquid measuring cylinder random error
parallax error
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Chapter 1: Movement and Position

Distance-time graphs
1. The gradient on a distance-time graph represents speed.
2. The steeper a distance-time graph is, the greater the speed it represents.

• If the graph is flat, the slope is zero and therefore the speed is zero.
• If the graph is straight and not flat, the slope of the graph is constant and not zero. Therefore the
speed is constant.
• If the graph is curved, the slope of the graph changes and therefore the speed changes.

(a) Car at rest (b) Car moving with a uniform speed of 10 m/s.

The car is parked 25 m from the post, so the

distance remains the same. Distance increases 10 m for every 1 s.
(c) Car moving with increasing speed (d) Car moving with decreasing speed (decelerating)
(accelerating)

Speed decreases, so the car travels a shorter distance

Speed increases, so the car travels a longer as time increases.
distance as time increases.

Displacement(𝐬𝐬⃗)
Displacement means distance travelled in a particular direction.

The SI unit of displacement is the metre.

Displacement is a vector quantity.
The negative gradient of a displacement graph means the object is moving in the opposite direction.
The instrument for measuring displacement is the metre rule.
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Speed(v)
Speed is the distance travelled per second.

𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐦𝐦) 𝐝𝐝
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐯𝐯 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭
Speed is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit of speed is the metre per second.

Multiflash photograph of a golf swing

Velocity(𝐯𝐯�⃗)
Velocity is speed in a given direction.

Velocity is a vector quantity.

The SI unit of velocity is the metre per second(m/s).
• An object moving at constant speed long a straight line has a constant velocity.
• An object moving steadily round in a circle has constant speed. Its direction of motion changes as it
goes round so its velocity is not constant.
• Two moving objects can have the same speed but different velocities when they are moving in
different directions.

Average speed
Average speed is the total distance travelled, divided by the time taken for the journey.

𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐦𝐦) 𝐝𝐝

𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐯𝐯 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐞𝐧𝐧(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

The non-SI units of average speed are the centimetre per second(cm/s) and the mile per hour(mph).

Instantaneous speed
The speed of a car changes from instant to instant as the accelerator or brake is used.
The speedometer shows the instantaneous speed of a car.

Acceleration (𝐚𝐚�⃗)
Acceleration is the rate change of velocity .

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 − 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯

𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 ) = =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭
𝐯𝐯 − 𝐮𝐮
𝐚𝐚 =
𝐭𝐭

The unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared(m/s2).

Acceleration is a vector quantity.
A negative acceleration is deceleration which means slowing down.
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Types of motion

I. Uniform motion II. Accelerated motion

(speed constant)
a = zero (speed increasing) (speed decreasing) (speed is constant ,
distance
speed = time a = positive a = negative but direction is changing)
v−u
a= t
① v = u + at
② v 2 = u2 + 2as
1
③ s = ut + 2 at 2
If the acceleration is uniform,
total distance = average speed × total time
u+V
= 2 ×t

Modern version of Galileo’s experiment

A glider is placed on a slightly sloping air-track.

The glider rides on an air-cushion that is pumped continuously through holes along the air-track, and hence,
the air-track reduces friction.
As the glider accelerates down the sloping track, the white card mounted on it brakes a light beam.
The time the glider passed is measured electronically.
If the length of the card is measured, and this is entered into the spreadsheet, the velocity of the glider can be
d
calculated by the spreadsheet programme using v = t .
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Using a ticker timer

A ticker timer is a machine that makes a series of dots on a paper tape moving through the machine.
Most ticker timers make 50 dots each second.
So every 5 dots show the distance moved in 0.1 second.

• If the tape is pulled at a steady speed, the dots are equally spaced.

• If the tape is pulled slowly, the dots are close together.

• If the tape is pulled quickly, the dots are further apart.

(a) moving with constant speed (b) moving with acceleration (c) moving with deceleration
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Using motion graphs

Distance-time graphs Velocity-time graphs

-gradient of distance-time graph = speed - gradient of velocity-time graph = acceleration

30 m 250 m/s
speed = 2.5 s = 12 m/s acceleration = 50 s = 50 m/s2
-gradient of displacement-time graph = velocity -area under speed-time graph = distance
travelled
1
distance = 2 × 50 m × 250 m/s = 6250 m

Speed-time graphs
(a) Car at rest (= 0 m/s) (b) Car moving with uniform speed (= 10 m/s)

(c) Car moving with uniform acceleration (= 4 (d) Car moving with uniform deceleration (= 4 m/s2)
m/s2)

Speed of car decreases by 4 m/s for every 1 second

Speed of car increases by 4 m/s for every 1 second
increase in time.
increase in time.
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(e) Car moving with increasing acceleration (f) Car moving with decreasing acceleration

Acceleration increases, so speed increases more

when time increases. Acceleration decreases, so speed increases less when
time increases.

Types of motion
Example: Figure shows the speed-time graph for a journey of a boy from his house to school. Describe the
type of motion in each stage.
Solution
O left home
O-A moving with uniform acceleration
A-B moving with uniform speed
B-C moving with uniform deceleration
C-D moving with uniform speed(speed lower than A-B)
D-E moving with non-uniform deceleration(decreasing
acceleration)
E-F not moving
F-G moving with non-uniform acceleration(increasing acceleration)
G-H moving with uniform deceleration
H reached school

Chapter 2: Forces and Shape

Forces
Forces are simply pushes and pulls.
Force is a vector quantity.
The instrument to measure force is the newton meter.
The SI unit of force is the newton(N).

One newton
One newton is the force needed to make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at one metre per second squared.

Weight of an apple = 1 N
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Types of forces

• Weight is the downward pull of gravity on an object.

• Friction between two surfaces
• Air resistance
• Normal reaction is the upward force from the ground.
• An upthrust force acts on objects immersed in liquids or gases.
• Tension is the force in a stretched material.
• Magnetic force
• Electrostatic force

Balanced forces
The two forces are balanced when they have the same size but act in opposite directions.

Unbalanced forces
Unbalanced forces acting on an object cause it to change the way of moving.

If an object is acted on by two forces:

• in the same direction, the resultant force is the sum of the two forces
• in opposite directions, the resultant force is the difference between the two forces.
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Newton’s first law of motion

If no net external force is acting on it, an object will
-if stationary, remain stationary
-if moving, keep moving at a steady speed in a straight line.

Friction
Friction occurs when solid objects rub against other objects and when objects move through fluids(liquids
and gases). Friction causes moving objects to slow down and finally stop.

Dynamic friction
Once an object starts to slide, the friction drops. So dynamic friction is less than static friction.
Dynamic friction heats materials up.

Investigating friction
The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
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• The weight on the nylon line pulls the block horizontally along the track and friction opposes this
force.
• The weight is increased until the block just starts to move.
• Rough surfaces such as sandpaper have greater friction.

Changing shapes
Forces can change the shape of an object, permanently or temporarily.

Temporary changes of shape

If you apply a force to an elastic band, its shape changes— the band stretches and gets longer.
Temporary changes, such as a spring, is a useful way of absorbing and storing energy.
• Resilient or elastic materials, like rubber, do not brake easily and tend to return to their original
shape when the forces acting on them are removed.
• Plastic materials, like aluminium, change shape permanently when even a small force is applied on
them.

Springs and wires

Springs are coiled lengths of certain types of metals.
Springs change length when a force acts on them and return to their original length when the force is
removed.

A suspension spring in a bicycle

Hooke’s law
The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the weight it supports.

• The line is straight and passes through the origin.

• If the load is doubled, the extension is also doubled.
F ∝ 𝑥𝑥
𝐅𝐅 = 𝒌𝒌 𝒙𝒙 where F = the stretching force(N)
x = the extension(mm)
k = spring constant(N/mm)
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Elastic bands
Elastic bands are usually made of rubber.

The graph of load against extension is not a straight line— rubber bands do not obey Hooke’s Law.

Chapter 3: Forces and Movement

Vector
A vector is a physical quantity that has a direction. For example, velocity, force and weight.

Scalar
A scalar is a physical quantity that does not have direction. For example, speed, mass, and energy.

The parallelogram of forces

The parallelogram of forces is used to find the resultant of two forces that do not act along the same line.

Resultant force: This is a single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on the object.
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When the resultant force on an object is zero, the object:

• remains at rest if it was already at rest
• continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction if it was already moving.

When the resultant force not zero, the object moves according to the direction of the resultant force.

Investigating force, mass and acceleration

The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
The slope of the ramp is adjusted to compensate the friction.
The force acting on the trolley is provided by the masses hung on the nylon line.

For a given mass, the greater the force, the greater the acceleration.

Force is proportional to acceleration.

𝐅𝐅 𝛂𝛂 𝐚𝐚

For a given force, the greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration.

Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass.

𝟏𝟏
𝐚𝐚 𝛂𝛂
𝐦𝐦

Newton’s second law of motion

The relationship between force, mass and acceleration is called Newton’s second law of motion.

𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 ) 𝐅𝐅⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐚�⃗

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Deceleration in a collision
• When a moving object is stopped, it decelerates.
• A negative acceleration is a deceleration.
• A large force may cause a large deceleration.
• A car is usually stopped by using brakes in a controlled way so that deceleration is not excessive.
• In an accident, the car may collide with another vehicle or obstacle, causing a very rapid deceleration.

Friction and braking

• Brakes on cars and bicycles work by increasing the friction between the rotating wheels and the body
of the vehicle.
• The friction force between the tyres and the road will depend on the condition of the tyres and the
surface of the road. It also depends on the weight of the vehicle.
• If the road is wet or the tyres are in bad condition, the friction force will be smaller.
• If the brakes are applied too hard, the tyres will not grip the road surface and the car will skid.
• Modern cars are fitted with ABS(anti-lock braking system) to avoid skidding.

𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 + 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝

The faster the car is travelling, the greater the stopping distance will be.

1 Thinking distance and reaction time

• When a driver suddenly sees an obstacle ahead, it takes time for him to respond to the new situation
before taking any action. This time is called reaction time and will depend on the driver.
• It will also depend on other factors such as whether the driver is tired or under the influence of
alcohol or other drugs that slow reaction time.
• Poor visibility may take the driver longer to respond.

2 Braking distance
• If the two cars are braking from the same velocity, the car that is being braked harder comes to rest
in a shorter time.
• If the two cars having different speeds are being braked at the same rate, the slower car will stop first
and the braking distance will be shorter.
• If the road is wet, icy or slippery because of oil spillage, the braking distance will be longer.
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Free fall
If there is no air to resist the motion of falling objects, the acceleration of free fall is 9.8 m/s2 or 10 m/s2.

In free fall, the velocity of falling object approximately increases by 10m/s every second.

The acceleration of free fall is denoted as g = 10 m/s2 .

① v = u + gt
② v 2 = u2 + 2gh
1
③ h = ut + 2 gt 2
On the Moon, the acceleration of free fall is only 1.6 m/s2.

Comparing free fall and projectile motion

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Finding the acceleration due to gravity

Measure the distance between metal ball and the
trapdoor.
A metal ball is dropped by cutting the power to the
electromagnet.
The electronic timer is automatically switched on.
The timer is switched off when the ball strikes the
trapdoor.
The initial speed is zero in the equation:
1
h = ut + gt 2
2
The acceleration due to gravity is calculated by:
2h
g= 2
t

Assumption: the air resistance is negligible.

Precaution: the experiment is repeated for different

heights and the results are averaged for better accuracy.

When there is no air resistance, a metal ball and a feather will fall with the same acceleration.
However, when there is air resistance, the feather will fall with a much less acceleration.

The effect of air resistance on sky-diving

velocity(m/s)

time(s)

Terminal velocity
At that point when the air resistance equals to the weight, there is no acceleration and the object will fall with
terminal velocity.

Centripetal force: the force needed to keep an object moving round in a circle.

Throwing the ‘hammer’ A satellite in circular orbit

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(1) When a sky-diver jumps out of a plane, the only force acting on him is
the pull due to gravity.
He accelerates downwards at 10 m/s2.

(2) As he starts to fall, the air resistance opposing his motion begins to build
up. The net force downwards is reduced. He still accelerates, but at a rate
lower than 10 m/s2.

(3) Air resistance increases with speed. Eventually the air resistance is
equal to the weight of the sky-diver. The forces are balanced. The
acceleration becomes zero. The sky-diver falls at a steady speed(terminal
velocity) of about 200 km/h.

(4) The sky-diver now opens his parachute. The large surface area of the
parachute gives rise to high air resistance acting upwards which is greater
than the weight of the sky-diver. The net force is upwards and the sky-diver
decelerates— his speed reduces.

(5) The sky-diver continues to slow down until the air resistance acting
upwards equals the weight of the sky-diver. By this time, the sky-diver
reaches a new terminal velocity of around 10 m/s. The sky-diver now drifts
to the ground with this speed.

(6) When the sky-diver is travelling at the terminal velocity, the net force
acting on the sky-diver is zero irrespective of whether the parachute is
closed or open. When the forces acting on him are not balanced, he speeds
up or slow down.
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Chapter 4: Momentum
Momentum(𝐩𝐩 �⃗)
Momentum is possessed by masses in motion.
It is a measure of how difficult it is to stop something that is moving.

𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) �⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯�⃗

𝐩𝐩
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second(kgm/s).
Momentum is a vector quantity.
The greater the mass of a moving object, the greater the momentum.
The greater the velocity of a moving object, the greater the momentum.

Momentum and acceleration

𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 − 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦

𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭
∆𝐩𝐩�⃗ 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯�⃗ − 𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐮 �⃗ 𝐯𝐯�⃗ − 𝐮𝐮
�⃗
= = 𝐦𝐦 = 𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐚�⃗ = 𝐅𝐅⃗
𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭
∆𝐩𝐩�⃗ = 𝐅𝐅⃗ t
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = 𝐅𝐅⃗ 𝐭𝐭 = 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢

Assumption: the total mass of space shuttle and the fuel does not change.

Impulse(𝐉𝐉⃗)
Impulse is the product of force and the time interval that force is acting.
𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢(𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) × 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐉𝐉⃗ = 𝐅𝐅⃗ 𝐭𝐭
The SI unit of impulse is the newton second(Ns).
Impulse is a vector quantity.
1. When vehicles collide, the force of impact depends on mass, change of velocity and the duration of impact.
2. The longer the impact time, the more the impact force is reduced.

Law of conservation of momentum

In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event.

𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛𝐛 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜

Car safety
Many cars are fitted with air-bags to reduce the forces acting on passengers during collisions, by extending
the time of deceleration.
Crumple zones at the front end and rear end of a car are designed to lessen the force of impact. However, they
only work if the passengers are wearing seat belts.

Testing the front crumple zones in the cars

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Types of collisions Before After

1. perfectly inelastic collision -two railway trucks -joined together
-momentum is conserved
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2 )vc
-kinetic energy is not conserved

2. partially inelastic collision -rubber ball strikes a hard wall -deformed during collision
-momentum is conserved -bounced off -kinetic energy decreased
mb ub + mw uw = mb vb + mw vw
-kinetic energy is not conserved

3. elastic collision -two billiard balls -did not deform

-momentum is conserved
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
-kinetic energy is conserved

Explosions
Two gliders having the same mass are fitted with magnets trying to push them apart.
When the thread is burned through, they move off with the same speed but in the opposite directions.
The momentum before and after explosion is unchanged, though there will be a huge increase in movement
energy.

Rockets
Rocket motors use the principle of conservation of momentum. They produce continuous controlled
explosion that forces large amounts of fast-moving gases out of the back of rockets. The spacecraft gains an
equal amount of momentum in the opposite direction to that of the moving exhaust gases.

Newton’s third law

When you push something, it pushes back just as hard, but in the opposite direction.

Pairs of forces
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Chapter 5: The Turning Effect of Forces

Moment of a force
The turning effect of the force about a hinge or pivot is called the moment of the force.

𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) × 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐦𝐦) 𝐋𝐋 = 𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅

The moment of the force can be increased by:

• increasing the size of the force
• increasing the perpendicular distance to the pivot (e.g. using a spanner with a longer handle)

Moments in balance
For any object in equilibrium:
• there is no resultant force on it.

• there is no resultant turning effect on it

(a) anticlockwise moment < clockwise moment (b) anticlockwise moment = clockwise moment
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The Principle of Moments

For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.

W1d1 + W2d2 = W3d3

Turning effects at work

Centre of gravity (centre of mass)

Centre of gravity of an object is the point where the whole of its weight appears to act.

Practical: Locating the centre of gravity of a flat object

• Suspend the card freely from a rod.

• At equilibrium, the centre of gravity is directly below the rod.
• Use a ‘plumbline’ to draw a vertical line on the card from the thin rod downwards.
• Repeat the procedure from a second point to draw a second line.
• The centre of gravity of the card is where the two lines meet.
1. When a suspended object is in equilibrium, its centre of mass is directly beneath the point of suspension.
2. The centre of mass of a symmetrical object is along the axis of symmetry.
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Stability
Lots of objects are designed for stability so they can’t topple over easily: tractor safety, bus test and ladders.

The stability of objects can be increased: by lowering centre of gravity and by widening the base area.

(a) Stable object (b) Unstable object

Practical: Tilting and toppling tests

(a) If you tilt the brick slightly and release it, then the turing effect of the weight returns it to original position.
(b) If you tilt more until the centre of mass is directly above the edge, then the weight has no turning effect.
(c) If you tilt it some more until the weight has a turning effect in clockwise direction, then it will topple over.
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Chapter 6: Astronomy
The Solar System
Our solar system consists of an average star(the Sun), the planets, the satellites of the planets, numerous
comets, asteroids, meteoroids and the interplanetary medium.

Planets are held in orbit by the gravitational pull of the Sun.

The orbits of the planets are elliptical with the Sun close to the centre.
The nearer planets, for example Mercury, has a much more tightly curved than Neptune because of strong
gravitational pull of the Sun.
Planets are non-luminous objects— they do not emit light. We can see the first other five planets with the
naked eye, but the last two planets can only be seen with a telescope.

Planets and stars are very similar in the night sky, but if you watch them, the planets will change their
positions against the background of the distant stars.

May, 2016 June, 2016

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Planet Average Time for one Diameter Average surface Gravitational

distance from orbit of the compared temperature(⁰C) field
Sun Sun in Earth with the strength(N/kg)
compared years Earth
with the
Earth
Mercury 0.4 0.2 0.4 +350 4
Venus 0.7 0.6 0.9 +470 9
Earth 1.0 1.0 1.0 +15 10
Mars 1.5 1.9 0.5 -30 4
Jupiter 5.0 12 11 -150 23
Saturn 9.5 30 9 -180 9
Uranus 19 84 4 -210 9
Neptune 30 165 4 -220 11

Moons
Moons are natural objects that orbit a planet.
Moons are non-luminous objects— we can see them because they reflect light from the Sun.
The Earth has just one moon which is approximately 400000km from the Earth.
The mass and the surface gravity of the Moon is just one sixth of the Earth.
The Moon has no atmosphere and has a surface with craters caused by the impact of meteorites.
It takes the Moon 29.5 days(1 lunar month) to orbit the Earth.
The Moon, like the Earth, spins on its axis, but much slowly than the Earth turns.
It completes one full rotation every 29.5 days.
Because the time it takes to complete one orbit around the Earth is the same as the time for one rotation, the
Moon always keeps the same part of its surface facing the Earth.
Some planets have no moons and some have more than one. For instance, Mars has two moons, Jupiter has
over 60 moons and Uranus has 27 moons.
Some moons are very small and not easily seen from the Earth.
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Comets
Comets orbit the Sun. They are approximately 1-30 km in diameter and made of dust and ice.
Their elliptical orbits are very elongated.
At times they are easily seen when they are very close to the Sun, while they are found at the outer reaches of
the Solar system.
The tail of a comet always points away from the Sun.
Close to the Sun, some of a comet’s frozen gases evaporate, forming a long tail that shines in the sunlight.
The famous Halley’s comet was last visible from the Earth in 1986.

Asteroids
Asteroids are minor planets or rocks that orbit the Sun.
There is a belt of asteroids between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
They vary greatly in size from a few metres to several hundreds of kilometres across.
The first asteroid to be discovered was called Ceres.
Asteroids are the rocky remains of a planet that broke apart or failed to form.

Satellites
Satellites are objects that orbit a planet. They are held in orbit by gravitational forces.
Moons are examples of natural satellites. Some artificial satellites are man-made.

Gravitational forces
The movements of all astronomical bodies— for example, planets, comets and asteroids— are determined by
gravitational forces.

Astronomical models
• In 150 AD, the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy suggested that the Earth was at the centre of the
Universe.
• In 1530, Nicolai Copernicus suggested the Sun-centered model of the Solar System.
• In 1687, Isaac Newton proposed a theory of gravity.
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Newton’s Laws of Gravity

Newton suggested that between any two objects there is a force of attraction. This gravitational force is
directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
m1 m2
F ∝
r2
m m
F = G 1r2 2 (where G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2)
The attraction between two objects with small masses is extremely small. Only when one or both of the
objects has a very large mass— for example, a moon or a planet— is the force of attraction noticeable.

Orbital speeds of satellites

The speeds of satellites vary greatly depending on their tasks, for example, communication satellites in high
orbitals(3 km/s) and satellites that monitoring the surface of the Earth in low polar orbits(8 km/s).
distance 2 × π × orbital radius
speed = =
time period T
The Milky Way
Our nearest star is the Sun. It is approximately 150 million kilometres from the Earth. Its surface is
approximately 6000⁰C whilst its core about 15 000 000⁰C.
Gravitational forces between stars cause them to cluster together in enormous groups called galaxies.
Galaxies consist of billions of stars. Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way.

The Universe
The Universe is mainly empty space within which are scattered large numbers of galaxies. There are billions
of galaxies in the Universe. The distances between galaxies are millions of times greater than the distances
between stars within a galaxy. The distances between the stars in a galaxy are millions of times greater than
the distances between planets and the Sun.

Photograph of two spiral galaxies interacting taken with the Hubble Space Telescope
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Chapter 7: Mains Electricity

Mains electricity
Mains electricity is the electricity supply from power stations to households.
Mains electricity is supplied as alternating current(a.c.).
Alternating current a.c. is one which is constantly changing i.e. the current flows in one direction and then in
the opposite direction, again and again(continuously).
The frequency of a.c. supply is 50 cycles per second or 50 hertz.
The mains voltage in UK is 230 volts.

Why a.c.?
Alternating current can easily be converted to higher and lower voltages by a transformer.
By transporting the electrical energy from a power station at a high voltage and low current is more efficient
because less energy is wasted as heat due to the resistance in the power lines.

Mains electricity generated from power stations is supplied to households via the National Grid.
Households are connected to the National Grid by the underground cables.
The cable is connected to an electrical meter, which measures the amount of electrical energy used.
From here, the cable is connected to a consumer unit(distribution board) or a fuse box.

The wires that leave the fuse box are connected to ring main circuits that are hidden in the walls around each
room. Individual pieces of electrical equipment are connected to these circuits using plugs.
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Ring circuits consist of three wires— the live wire, the neutral wire and the earth wire.

The live wire provides the path along which the electrical energy from the power station travels. The wire is
alternately positive and negative causing alternating current(ac) to flow along it.

The neutral wire completes the circuit.

The earth wire usually has no current flowing through it. It is there to protect you if an appliance develops a
fault.

Plugs and sockets in different countries look different, but the principles of electrical wiring are similar.

A correctly wired UK plug A wrongly wired plug

If you come into direct contact with mains electricity, you could receive a severe electric shock, which is fatal.
The outer part of a plug, called the casing is therefore made from plastics, which is a good insulator.
Connections to the circuits are made via three brass pins, as brass is an excellent conductor of electricity.

Using electricity safely

Electricity is very useful, but it can be dangerous if it is not used safely. There are safety devices built into
houses and electrical appliances such as switches, fuses, earth wires and double insulation.

Harmful hazards of electricity

• Broken plugs and frayed wires can expose the metal wires or parts of the plug that are carrying
electricity. (They should be replaced as soon as the damage occurs.)
• Anyone poking a metal object into a socket will get an electric shock.
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• Cables to electrical appliances should be kept as short as possible to prevent them from spills.
Spilling water onto an electrical equipment can be dangerous.
• Water should be kept away from sockets.
• Never use electrical equipment with wet hands.

Fuses
Many plugs contain a fuse. The fuse is usually in the form of a cylinder or cartridge, which contains a thin
piece of wire made from a metal that has a low melting point.
If too large a current flows in the circuit, the fuse wire becomes very hot and melts. The fuse blows, shutting
the circuit off. This prevents you getting a shock and reduces the possibility of an electric fire.

Fuses Circuit symbol

After the fault causing the surge of current has been corrected, the blown fuse must be replaced with a new
one of the correct size.
There are several sizes of fuses. The most common for domestic appliances are 3A, 5A and 13A.
The correct fuse for a circuit is the one that allows the correct current to flow but blows if the current is a
little larger.
If the correct current is 2A, then it should be protected with a 3A fuse.
If the correct current is 4A, then a 5A fuse should be used.

Trip switches or circuit breakers

Circuit breaker is a modern safety device that opens if too large a current flows in a circuit.
Once the fault in the circuit has been corrected, the switch is reset by pressing a reset button.
There is no need for the switch or circuit breaker to be replaced, as there is when fuses are used.

Earth wires
Many appliances have a metal casing. This should be connected to the earth wire so that if the live wire
becomes frayed or breaks and comes into contact with the casing, the earth wire provides a low-resistance
path for the current. The current is large enough to blow the fuse and turn the circuit off. Without the earth
wire, anyone touching the casing of the faulty appliance would receive a severe electric shock.
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Double insulation
Some modern appliances now use casings made from an insulator such as plastic rather than from metal.
These appliances are said to have double insulation. They use a two-wire flex and there is no need for an
earth wire.

Switches
Switches in the mains circuit should always be included in the live wire so that when the switch is open, no
electrical energy can reach an appliance. If the switch is included in the neutral wire, the user could receive an
electric shock.

The heating effect of current

Some electrical appliances such as a toaster or a kettle contain heating elements which have a high resistance.
As the current passes through the element, energy is transferred and the element heats up.
Light bulbs have a very thin filament which gets so hot when current passes through it that it glows white.

Electrical power(P)
The electrical power of an appliance is the rate at which it transforms energy.

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐏𝐏 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭
The SI unit of power is the watt(W). (1W = 1J/s)
Electrical power is a scalar quantity.

Calculating electrical power

E = VQ
E VQ
=
t t
𝐏𝐏 = 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐕𝐕) × 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀)

Electrical energy and potential difference

When charge flows through a resistor, electrical energy is transformed into heat energy.
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐕𝐕 𝟐𝟐 𝐭𝐭
𝐄𝐄 = 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 = 𝐈𝐈𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 =
𝐑𝐑
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Chapter 8: Electric Charge

Static electricity
Static electricity is the electric charge on an object.

Inside the atom

Every atom has a positively charged nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. Electrons move about in the
space round the nucleus.

Charge is measured in coulombs(C).

charge of 1 electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
1 C of charge = 6 million million million electrons

• A proton has a positive charge.

• An electron has an equal negative charge.
• A neutron is uncharged.
• An uncharged atom has equal number of electrons and protons. Only electrons can be transferred to
or from an atom.

Charging materials by friction

Some insulators become charged by rubbing them with a dry cloth.
• Rubbing a polyethene rod makes it negatively charged as it gains electrons.
• Rubbing a perspex rod makes it positively charged as it loses electrons.

polyethene ⇒ negatively charged

perspex ⇒ positively charged

Forces between two charged objects

Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.

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Forces between charged and uncharged objects

• The comb induces a charge in the paper, and the two attract.
• When the comb is removed, the charges redistribute, and the paper becomes uncharged.

The ballon experiment

• The ballon is negatively charged and is brought closer to the wall.
• Negative electrons are repelled from the surface of the wall.
• The surface of the wall becomes positively charged.
• Unlike charges attract each other.

The gold leaf electroscope

The electroscope is an instrument used to detect small amounts of charge.
The metal cap(plate) at the top is connected to the metal rod inside the
instrument, but insulated from the rest of the apparatus.
The metal rod has a sheet of very thin metal(gold leaf) attached to it.
If an electrically charged object is brought near the cap, the gold leaf rises.

(a) An uncharged electroscope

(b) A positively charged rod is brought close to the metal plate.
(c) The electroscope is earthed by touching the plate.
(d) The electroscope is left with a negative charge.
(e) A positively charged rod reduces the deflection of the gold leaf.
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Uses of static electricity

Electrostatic paint spraying
As the droplets of paint emerge from the spray gun, they are charged. As the droplets all carry the same
charge, they repel and spread out forming a fine spray.

The bicycle frame has been given the opposite charge. The paint droplets are therefore attracted to the
surface of the frame. Once the charged paint droplets get settled on the frame, they repel other charged paint
droplets because like charges repel each other. The advantage is it creates an even coating of paint.
Another benefit is that the paint can be attracted to tight corners.

Inkjet printers
Each spot of ink is given a charge so that it falls between a pair of deflecting plates.
The charges on the plates change hundreds of times each second so that each drop falls in a different position,
forming pictures and words on the paper.

Photocopiers
1 Drum, having a photoconductive surface made of selenium or zinc oxide, is given positive charges.
2 Light is shone onto the original document. The white parts of the document reflect light onto the drom; the
dark or printed parts do not reflect light.
3 In those places where light is reflected onto the drum the selenium loses its charge; but where no light is
reflected onto the drum the charge remains.
3 A fine negatively charged carbon powder called toner is blown across the drum and sticks to the
charged areas.
4 Surplus toner is removed.
5 A sheet of paper is pressed against toner image to give the image on the paper.
6 The paper is heated to melt toner image. This forms permanent image on paper.
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Electrostatic precipitators
The negatively charged dust particles are attracted by earthed metal plates.
The cleaner smoke is then released into the atmosphere.
When the earthed plates are completely covered with dust, they are given a sharp rap to clean.
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Problems with static electricity

• As aircraft fly through the air, they can become charged with static electricity. The charges can
possibly escape to the earth as a spark during refuelling, which would cause an explosion. The
solution is the plane and fuel tankers must be earthed to remove the static charges.
• Television screens and computer monitors become charged with static electricity which attracts
uncharged dust particles.
• Our clothing can sometimes become charged with static electricity. We receive a small electric shock
when we remove the clothes because the charges escape to earth.

Chapter 9: Current and Voltage in Circuits

Conductors
In conductors(metals) some valence electrons are free to drift between atoms.

Under normal circumstances this drifting is random— there is therefore no overall flow of charge.
If, however, a cell or battery is connected across the conductor, more of the electrons are attracted towards
the positive terminal— there is now a net flow of charge(current).

Electric current
An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐂𝐂) 𝐐𝐐
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀) = 𝐈𝐈 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭
The SI unit of current is ampere(A). 1 A = 1 C/s
Electric current is a scalar quantity.
The direction of convectional current is taken as opposite to the direction of electron flow.

Ammeter
An ammeter is an electrical instrument used to measure electric current in amperes.

Ammeter is connected in series in the circuit.

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Circuit diagrams
A circuit diagram shows, by using symbols, how components are connected together.

Battery
A battery consists of electric cells connected together.

Cells in series
The total emf of cells in series acting in the same direction is the sum of the individual emfs of the cells.
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Electromotive force(emf)
The electromotive force of a source of electrical energy(eg. a battery) is the electrical
energy produced per coulomb of charge.

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐕𝐕) = 𝐕𝐕 =
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐂𝐂) 𝐐𝐐

emf of a battery
The emf of a battery is a measure of ‘push’ on 1 coulomb of charge.
The SI unit of emf is the volt. ( 1V = 1 J/C )

A voltmeter is connected in parallel to measure the emf of a battery.

Potential difference or voltage(V)

The potential difference across an electrical component is the electrical energy supplied to it per coulomb of
charge flowing through it .
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐕𝐕) = 𝐕𝐕 =
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐂𝐂) 𝐐𝐐

Chapter 10: Electrical resistance

Electrons passing through a lamp have to push their way through lots of vibrating atoms. The atoms in the
lamp resist the passage of electrons through the lamp(high resistance).
A significant amount of energy is used to move the charges through the lamp; this energy is converted into
heat.
The atoms in the connecting wires, however, allow charges to pass through easily(low resistance).

Ohm’s law
The current in a resistor at constant temperature is proportional to the potential difference across the resistor.

V ∝I
𝐕𝐕 = 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 (R is a constant of proportionality.)

Resistance of a component(R)
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐕𝐕) 𝐕𝐕
𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫(𝛀𝛀) = 𝐑𝐑 =
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀) 𝐈𝐈

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm(Ω). ( 1Ω = 1 V/A )

Resistance is a scalar quantity.

Resistors
A resistor is an electrical component designed to have a certain resistance.

Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors are made of carbon to adjust the current and voltage in the circuit.
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Variable resistors
Variable resistors are used to adjust the current.

sliding type potentiometer

Special resistors
① Thermistors
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases when the temperature increases.

② LDR
An LDR is a resistor whose resistance decreases when light falls onto it.

③ Diodes

When the diode is forward biased, the resistance of the diode is very low and the current flows.
When the diode is reverse biased, the resistance of the diode is very high and there is no current.

Diodes are used in rectifier circuits that convert alternating current(a.c.) into direct current(d.c.).
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Current/voltage graphs
① Ideal ohmic resistor

(i) at constant temperature (ii) at higher temperatures

⍟ current and voltage increase proportionally ⍟ atoms in the wire vibrate more vigorously
⍟ the graph passes through the origin ⍟ the resistance of the wire increases

② Filament lamp ③ diode

⍟ at first resistance is quite low ⍟ at least 0.6 V must be supplied to turn on

⍟ later the lamp becomes hot ⍟increases in voltage increases in current
⍟ the resistance increases ⍟ no current for reverse bias connection
⍟ it does not matter the way the voltage is supplied

Series circuits
1. The same current passes through alcomponents in series with each other.

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐀𝐀𝟏𝟏 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐

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2. The effective resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their separate resistances.

𝐑𝐑 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 + 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐

3. The total potential difference across a voltage supply in a series circuit is shared between the components.

𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 + 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐

Parallel circuits
1. The current from the power supply is the sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel circuit.

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐀𝐀 𝟏𝟏 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐 + 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐀𝐀 𝟑𝟑

2. The reciprocal of the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is equal to the reciprocal sum of their
separate resistances.

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= + +
𝐑𝐑 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝐑 𝟑𝟑
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3. The potential difference across each component of a series circuit is the same.

𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐

4. In a parallel connection— the bigger the resistance of a component, the smaller the current.

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 < 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

Chapter 11: Properties of waves

Waves are disturbances that transfer energy from one place to another.

Wavefronts
Wavefronts are points along a crest or trough of a wave as it progressess.

Waves on a rope

Move the end of a rope from side to side repeatedly.

The movement of rope from side to side is perpendicular to the direction of wave from left to right.
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Transverse waves
The vibrations of a transverse wave are perpendicular to the direction in which the waves are travelling.

For example, waves on a vibrating rope and all electromagnetic waves

Longitudinal waves
The vibrations of a longitudinal wave are parallel to the direction in which the waves travelling.

For example, sound waves and waves in a slinky spring

Describing a wave
One complete wave is from one wave peak to the next

Wavelength(λ)
The wavelength of the waves is the distance from one wave crest to the next.

Amplitude
The amplitude of the waves is the height of the wave crest or the depth of the wave trough from the middle.
.
Frequency(f)
The frequency of the waves is the number of complete waves passing a point in one second.

Period(T)
The time period of a wave is the time taken to produce one complete wave cylce.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐬𝐬) = 𝐓𝐓 =
𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇) 𝐟𝐟

The wave equation

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇) × 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰(𝐦𝐦) 𝐯𝐯 = 𝐟𝐟 𝛌𝛌

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The ripple tank

The vibrations of wodden bar create patterns of water waves.

Light shines through the water and we can see the patterns of the waves on the floor.

Wavelength and frequency

The motor can be adjusted to produce slow or fast vibrations.

When the motor vibrates slow(low frequency), the water waves have longer wavelengths.
When the motor vibrates fast(high frequency), the water waves have shorter wavelengths.

Reflection
Reflection is the return of waves after they reach a smooth surface.

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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Refraction
Refraction is the change of direction of waves when they travel across a boundary where their speed changes.

Refraction test using a ripple tank

When the waves travel from deep water to shallow water,
• the speed decreases
• the wavelength decreases (closer)
• the frequency does not change

Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of waves when they pass through a gap or move round an obstacle.
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The wider the gap, the more the waves spread out.
The narrower the gap, the more the waves spread out.

Chapter 12: Using Waves

The electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum of waves, which includes the visible light.

• They all are transverse waves.

• They all transfer energy but not matter.
• They all can travel through vacuum at the speed of light(3 × 108 m/s).
• They all can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
• They obey the wave equation 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜆𝜆 .
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Radio waves
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.
They are used mainly for communication.

Diffraction Reflection
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Microwaves
Micro waves are used for cooking foods, communications and radar.
• Microwave ovens cook more quickly because water molecules in the food absorb the microwaves
and become very hot.
• Microwaves are used to carry signals to orbiting satellites because they can pass easily through the
Earth’s atmosphere.

Infra-red
Infra-red radiation ia emitted by hot objects. It is used in toasters, special cameras and remote controls.
Infra-red waves are not harmful because they have a low penetrating power and a shorter range.

Visible light
Visible light contains the spectrum of seven colours(VIBGYOR), and is visible to the human eye.
It can be used in reading compact discs and barcodes, optical fibres and cameras.
Red light has the longest wavelength and lowest frequency.

Fluorescent tubes glow when UV light hits the fluorescent coating in the tube.

X-rays
X-rays are used for taking X-ray pictures to check a pacient’s bones or for the security checking in airports.
Overexposure to X-rays can cause cancer.

Gamma rays
Gamma rays are used to sterilise medical instruments and to kill cancer cells.
Gamma rays can both cause cause cancer(gene mutations) and cure cancer(radiotherapy).
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Communicating using waves

We can use waves in telecommunication systems(telephone, fax machines and internet-linked computers).

Digital signals
In digital signals, the information is converted into a sequence of numbers(binary code) which uses just two
digits(0 or 1). These numbers are converted into electrical pulses and are sent down the telephone lines.

Analogue signals
In the analogue method, the information is converted into electrical voltages or currents that vary
continuously.

Advantages of using digital signals

• Digital systems are easier to design and buid than analogue systems.
• Digital signals are easy to regenerate, while analogue signals are easily distorted.
• They can take a wide range of frequencies to broadcast TV or radio programmes.
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Chapter 13: Light Waves

Seeing the light
We see objects because they emit or reflect light.

Luminous objects
Objects, such as the Sun or a light bulb, emit their own light are called luminous objects.

Non-luminous objects
Most objects, which they do not emit light, are called non-luminous objects.

Reflection
When a ray of light strikes a plane mirror, it is reflected so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

𝑖𝑖 = angle of incidence
𝑟𝑟 = angle of reflection

Normal
The normal is an imagery line at right angles to the mirror.

Formation of a virtual image by a plane mirror

• The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is

infront.
• The image is virtual(it cannot be formed on a screen).
• The image is of the same size as the object.
• The image is laterally inverted.

Virtual image
A virtual image is viewed through a lens or a mirror at a point where light appears to come from.

Real image
A real image is formed by focusing light rays onto a screen.

Refraction of light
Refraction is the change of direction of waves when they travel across a boundary where their speed changes.
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Refraction occurs because the speed of light changes in passing different media.

If the light hits the boundry at 90⁰, the ray does not bend.

Refractive index
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of reflection.

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝐢𝐢)
𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 = ( i is in air and r is in glass )
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝐫𝐫)
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐜𝐜
𝐧𝐧 = 𝐧𝐧 =
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐯𝐯

Total internal reflection

If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of a transparent substance, the light ray is totally
internally reflected from the boundary.
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Refraction (i<C) Refraction (i=C) Total internal reflection (i>C)

Critical angle
Critical angle is the angle of incidence of a light ray in a transparent substance when it is refracted along the
boundary.
𝟏𝟏
𝐧𝐧 =
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐂𝐂)
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Dispersion
Dispersion is the splitting of white light into the colours of the spectrum using a prism.

Each colours travels through the prism at a slightly different speed, so each colour is refracted by a different
angle.

Using total internal reflection

The prismatic periscope
The critical angle for glass is 42⁰ so the ray is totally internally reflected.

Reflectors
Prisims can also be used as reflectors.
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Optical fibres

• Optical fibres are very thin glass fibres in which light is transmitted.
• The light ray is totally internally reflected and leaves at the other end.
• Large numbers of these fibres fixed together form a bundle which can carry sufficient light for images
of objects to be seen through them.

Optical fibres in telecommunications

• Modern telecommunication systems use optical fibres rather than copper wires to transmit
messages.
• Electrical signals from a telephone are converted into light signals(lasers).
• The signal travels at the speed of light that data transfer is very fast.
• A light-sensitive detector at the other end changes back into electrical signals, which then flow into a
telephone receiver(ear piece).
• The advantage is that, unlike radio waves, the signal cannot be detected along the way.
• More information is carried by an optical fibre than a radio wave.

Endoscope
• The medical endoscope uses two bundles of fibres— one to shine light and the other to view images.
• Medical endoscopes are used to examine inside a patient’s body.
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Chapter 14: Sound

Sound waves
Sound waves are vibrations of layers of air that the sound travels through.

• The surface of a loudspeaker vibrates repeatedly, producing alternate compressions and rarefactions
of air molecules.
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves because the molecules vibrate along the direction of motion of
the waves.

Properties of sound
• Sound waves travel through solids, liquids and gases.
• Sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum.

• Young people can hear frequency range of 20Hz to 20000Hz.

Echoes

Echoe is the reflection of sound from a smooth hard surface.

The speed of sound

speed of sound in air(330m/s) < in water(1460m/s) < in copper(3560m/s)
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Measuring the speed of sound in air

• Two people stand in an open field about 500m apart.
• As soon as one person crash two symbals together, the other person start
the timer. When the bang is heard, the timer is stopped.
• Speed of sound is calculated by
distance
speed =
time taken
• The two people swap positions and repeat the procedure. The results are
averaged.

The speed of sound in water

• The speed of sound depends on the temperature of medium(water).

• The speed of sound in sea water is greater than speed of sound in fresh water.

Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

• You must be standing 50m away from a large wall.
• Clap two pieces of wood together.
• Set up a rhythm of claps so that the echo comes exactly between two claps.
• Ask a friend to time 20 claps.
• During this time the sound has travelled 2000 m(50 m × 2 ways × 20 claps).
• Divide this distance by the recorded time to find the speed of sound.

Measuring the speed of sound using a resonance tube and tuning forks
• If you waggle one end of the fastened rope, you can set up a standing wave.

• A resonance tube is a Perspex tube with a water reservoir.

• The height of water can be adjusted to change the length of the tube.
• A sound of known frequency is made by striking a tuning fork and holding it
above the open end of the tube.
• The water column is adjusted until the loudest sound can be heard.
• The first resonance can be heard when the length of column is equal to a
quarter of the wavelength.
3
• You can check your result by lowering the water level to find the next resonance, at 4 λ .
• The speed of sound is calculated using the formula v = f λ .
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Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

• Set the signal generator to give a sound with a frequency of about 1 kHz.
• Start with the microphones close together, and observe how the two traces on the oscilloscope
compare.
• Then move one microphone further away from the loudspeaker until it is one complete wavelength
away from the first— when the traces on the oscilloscope are exactly above one another.
• Measure the distance between the microphones to get the wavelength of the sound.
• Use the oscilloscope screen to find the accurate value for the frequency.
• The speed of sound can be worked out using the formula v = f λ .

Reflection
Sound waves are reflected in the same way that light waves are reflected.
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Echo sounding

• Pulses of sound are produced downward from a transimtter.

• A microphone at the same depth detects the reflected sound(echo).
• The time taken by each pulse of sound is measured.
• The depth of sea is calculated by
𝟏𝟏
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = × 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 × 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
𝟐𝟐

Diffraction

The wavelength of some sound waves is approximately the same as the width of a doorway.
These waves are diffracted, and therefore, they spread out as they pass through the door.
If a wave did not diffract, there would be “sound shadows” where no sound waves would reach.

Musical sounds

• Musical notes are easy to listen because they are rhythmic.

• Noises consist of sound waves that has no regular frequency nor pattern.

Investigating different sounds

Use a microphone connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope to display the waveforms of different sounds.

A tuning fork is struck to see the waveforms of sound of constant frequency.

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• Increasing the loudness increases the amiplitude of waveform.

• Increasing the frequency increases the pitch of sound.

• You can find the time period for one complete wave(T) using a CRO.
1
• You can find the frequency by using the formula f = T .

Audible range
The average person can only hear sounds that have frequencies between 20 Hz
to 20 000 Hz. This spread of frequencies is called the audible range or hearing
range.

Ultrasounds
Some objects vibrate at frequencies greater than 20 000 Hz that cannot be heard by human beings. These are
called ultrasounds.
Dolphins can communicate using ultrasounds.

Infrasounds
Some objects vibrate so slowly at frequencies less than 20 Hz that cannot be heard by human beings. These are
called infrasounds.
Elephants can communicate using infrasounds.

Resonance
When the natural frequency of an object matches the frequency of a vibrating sources nearby, the object gets
vibrated. This effect is called the resonance.

Some examples of resonance are window panes gets vibrated when airplanes taking off or landing, and a
musical instrument produces the loud sound at a certain frequency.

Chapter 15: Energy Transfers

Energy
Energy is the capacity for doing work.
Whenever a thing happens, energy is transferred from one to another.
Also for things to happen, we need to use energy.

Different forms of energy

Form of energy Description Example

kinetic energy energy of an object due to its motion vehicle in motion
gravitational energy of an object due to its position book lifted
potential energy
chemical energy energy stored in a substance and released car battery
when chemical reactions take place
electrical energy energy transferred by an electric current electric heater switched on
elastic strain energy energy stored in an elastic object when we stretched spring
stretch or squash it
nuclear energy energy released when the nucleus of an atom a uranium fuel rod in a nuclear
splits or disintegrates reactor
internal energy energy of an object due to internal motion and magnetised object; a hot
position of its molecules object(thermal energy)
heat energy energy transfer from a hot object to a cold heat radiation from burning
object coals
sound energy energy transfer by sound waves sound from a drum
light energy energy transfer by light light from a troch
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Energy transformation
Energy can be changed from any one form into other forms.
(a) Stretching bow and arrow

energy input process energy output

mechanical work stretching bow and kinetic energy of moving
stretching string and bow releasing arrow arrow
(b) A pole vaulter

chemical energy → kinetic energy → elastic energy → gravitational potential energy → heat and sound energy
(c) A pile-driver in action

gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy → heat and sound energy on impact

The law of conservation of energy

Energy is not created nor destroyed in any process.
The total amount of energy before and after a change is the same.
The total energy of the universe is constant.

Loss of p.e. = Gain of k.e. A simple pendulum

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Sankey diagram
The energy flow in a car is shown by using a Sankey diagram.

Efficiency of a device
Efficiency is a measure of how much energy supplied to a device is usefully used.
𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢

The unit of energy is the joule.

Efficiency is unitless.

Chapter 16: Thermal Energy

Thermal energy
Thermal or heat energy is a form of energy that is possessed by “hot” matter.

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of a body.

Fixed points on temperature scales

Temperature scales Fahrenhiet Celsius Kelvin
melting point of ice 32⁰F 0⁰C 273K
boiling point of water 212 F
⁰ 100⁰C 373K

Absolute zero temperature

Absolute zero temperature is the lowest possible temperature. It is −273⁰C or 0 K .
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Heat transfer
Thermal energy travels from a hotter place to a colder place.
There are three different types of thermal transfer— conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction
This is transfer of energy due to a temperature difference within a substance as a result of vibrations of atoms in
any substance and the movement of free electrons in a metal.

The paper over the brass does not burn.

Good thermal conductors

Metals contain lots of conduction (or free) electrons. When a metal is heated, electrons gain kinetic energy and
move faster. They collide with each other and with the metal ions. As a result, they transfer kinetic energy.

Comparing conduting powers Water is a poor conductor of heat.

Poor thermal conductors or Good insulators

Non-metals are poor conductors because they do not contain free electrons. Materials like wool and fibre glass
are good insulators because they contain trapped air which is a good insulator.

Convection
This is transfer of energy in a liquid or a gas due to a temperature difference causing circulation within the
liquid or gas.
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Using convection
• convector heater

• hot-air ballon
• sea breezes

On a sunny day, the ground heats up faster than the sea. So, the air above ground warms up and rises. Cooler
air from the sea displaces the warm air.

Radiation
This is transfer of energy from a hot object by means of infra-red radiation.

Experiment to detect infra-red radiation

• A beam of white light is dispersed by a glass prism.
• A thermometer with a blackened bulb is placed beyond the red colour.
• The thermometer reading increases due to infra-red radiation.
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1. Infra-red radiation is a part of electromagnetic spectrum.

2. All bodies emit infra-red radiation.
3. The hotter a body is, the more infra-red radiation it emits.
4. Shiny and white surfaces reflect thermal radiation, while matt black surfaces absorb it.

Heat transfer at work

Cooling by design
• a vehicle radiator— water flows through copper pipes; pipes are connected to radiator gills; the gills
with flattened surfaces lose heat to the air; a colling fan increases flow of air.
• a heat sink— a metal plate is attached to integrated-circuit board to increase heat conduction and
convection; blackened metal increases radiation.

Keeping warm

Roof insulation Cavity wall insulation Double-glazed window

The vacuum-flask
Heat transfer can be increased by increasing the surface area and by making dull black surfaces.

Insulating people and animals

• Fire fighters wear shiny and white protective clothing to reduce the amount of heat getting to their
bodies.
• Wind-proof outer garments are worn to reduce wind-chill effct.
• Marathon runners are often wrapped in highly reflective balnkets to reduce thermal radiation.
• Penguins fluff up their feathers and huddle together for warmth.
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Chapter 17: Work and Power

Work done
Work done by a force is defined as the force multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the force.

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐉𝐉) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) × 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐦𝐦) ∆𝐖𝐖 = 𝐅𝐅 × 𝐝𝐝

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭

Work done is the energy transferred by a force when it moves an object or changes its shape.
Work done is a scalar quantity.
Energy is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit of work is the joule.
The SI unit of energy is the joule. 1 J = 1 Nm

Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its position.

𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐍𝐍/𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡(𝐦𝐦)

𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆 = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦

Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of an object is its energy due to its motion.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) = × 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 × 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

Power
Power is the rate of transfer of energy.

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐉𝐉) 𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐉𝐉) 𝐖𝐖 𝐄𝐄

𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = = 𝐏𝐏 = =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭

The SI unit of power is the watt(W).

Power is a scalar quantity.
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Chapter 18: Energy Resources and Electricity Generation

Non-renewable energy resources

Non-renewable enerhy resource is one that effectively cannot be replaced once it has been used.
Fossil fuels— coal, oil and natural gas.
Nuclear fuels— uranium and plutonium.

Renewable energy resources

Renewable energy resources are those that will not run out.
Biofuels— wood, straw, methane gas and ethanol;
Hydroelectric power, tidal power, wave energy, wind power, solar power and geothermal energy.

Fuel for electricity

Power stations generate electricity by burning fuels—fossil fuels, biofuels or nuclear fuels.

The heat energy released is used to make an engine turn the electricity generator.

Coal- or oil-fired power station or Biofuel power station

• The burning fuel heats water in a boiler to produce steam.
• The steam drives a turbine that turns the electricity generator.
• The steam is then condensed to water and is returned to the boiler.

Gas-fired power station

• Natural gas is burned directly in a gas turbine engine.
• This produces hot gases that drives the turbine.
• A gas-fired turbine can be switched on very quickly.
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Fossil fuels are reliable energy resources. • Buring fuels release carbon dioxide which is a
• Fossil fuels provide valuable chemicals for greenhouse gas.
manufacturing useful products. • Greenhouse effect causes global warming.
• Gas-fired power stations can respond quickly. • Coal and oil contain sulfur which is burned into
sulfur dioxide.
• Sulfur dioxide dissolves in rain water to form acid
rain.

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a process in which a uranium nucleus splits in two to form smaller nucleui.

• The nucleus of a uranium is unstable and can split in two when a neutron from outside the atom
collides with it.
• During the fission process, energy is released. The energy released by 1 kg of uranium is about 10
000 times as much energy as 1 kg of fossil fuels.
• Two or three neutrons are also released, and a chain reaction occurs in the core of the reactor.
• A coolant fluid is circulated between the reactor and the heat exchanger.
• In the heat exchanger, water is turned into steam that drives turbines and the electricity generator.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Nuclear fuels are reliable energy resources. • Nuclear fuels are non-renewable energy
• Nuclear power stations do not produce resources.
greenhouse gases. • Nuclear power stations produce harmful
• Nuclear fuels can produce much more amount of radioactive waste.
energy than fossil fuels. • Nuclear power stations cannot respond quickly.
• Low running cost. • Nuclear power stations are expansive ( very long
pay-back time).

Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process in which two samll nuclei fuse together to form a larger nucleus.
• The sun is 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. The core is very hot and consists of a plasma of bare
nuclei with no electrons.
• These nuclei move about very fast and fuse together when they collide.
• During the fusion process, energy is released.

Advantages Disadvantages
• A little amount of hydrogen could provide a lot of • Because the two positively charged nuclei repel
energy during the fusion process. each other, very high temperature is required to
accelerate them.
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Wind energy
A wind turbine is an electricity generator at the top of a narrow tower.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Wind turbines do not emit greenhouse gases (no • If the wind does not blow, they cannot produce
air pollution). electricity (unreliable).
• No fuel cost.

Wave energy
The motion of waves makes turbine turn to drive the generator.

An oscillating water column system for using wave energy

Advantages Disadvantages
• Wave generators do not • Wave generators need to withstand
emit greenhouse gases (no Storms (costly).
pollution). • They spoil the view of coastline.
• No fuel cost. • They effect the habitats of marine
life and birds.

Hydroelectric power
Rain water collected in an uphill reservoir flows downhill. This water drives turbines that turn electricity
generators at the foot of the hill.
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Large hydroelectric power stations can supply • Constructing large dams and flooding lands have
enough electricity for a city. an environmental impact.
• They do not produce greenhouse gases (no
pollution).
• No fuel cost.

Tidal energy
An estuary traps each high tide behind a barrage. The high tide is then released into the sea through turbines
that drive generators.

A tidal barrage in Canada

Advantages Disadvantages
• Tidal energy is more reliable than wind energy •Tidal power stations have an environmental
because ocean tides occur twice every day. impact.
• No fuel cost.

Solar energy
1. Solar cells
Solar cells(photovoltaic cells) convert light energy directly into electrical energy.

The International Space Station

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Advantages Disadvantages
•They are useful for small power appliances • They are expensive to buy.
(watches and calculators). • You need lots of them to generate higher power.
• They are useful in remote locations (satellites). • They don’t work at night and on a cloudy day.
• No fuel cost.

2. Solar heating panel

Solar heating panels absorb thermal radiation and use it to heat water.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is heat energy stored deep inside the Earth. Geothermally heated water is readily
available in springs and geysers. This is used to drive the turbines in electricity generation stations.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Geothermal power stations do not need energy • Deep drilling is difficult and expensive.
from the Sun (reliable). • They are avaible only in some places.
• No fuel cost.

Supply and demand

Many different energy resources can be used to generate electricity, and they all have advantages and
disadvantages. Supply and demand also need to be taken into account.

The demand for electricity varies from hour to hour, day to day and season to season. The companies that
supply electricity must be able to cope with these changes in demand, otherwise they are forced to cut off
electricity to some customers.

Nuclear power stations cannot be turned on instantly. The process of starting the fission reaction and heating
up the core of the nuclear reactor is a lengthy one.
Fossil-fueled power stations can be started more quickly but can still take many hours to develop steam.
Coal-fired stations take longer then oil-fired stations to start producing electricity.
Gas-fired stations can respond most quickly to demnd surges.

Hydroelectric power stations provide a very reliable energy source with the advantage of quick response.
Unlike other types of power station, they are able to operate in reverse. The surplus electricity can be used to
pump water back up into the high-level reserviors.

Wind and tidal power are not available continously.

Output Location
hydroelectric power station 500 MW per station hills or mountains
tidal power station 2000 MW per station Estuary
wave power generators 20 MW per km of coastline Coast
wind turbines 2 MW per wind turbine windy site(offshore, costal or inland)
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Chapter 19: Density and Pressure

Solids are often very dense, i.e. they have a high mass for a certain volume.
Liquids are often less dense than solids, and gases have very low densities.

Hot-air ballons, submarines and skis are well designed to harness density and pressure.

Density (𝛒𝛒)
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) 𝐦𝐦
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤/𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝛒𝛒 =
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) 𝐕𝐕
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre(kg/m3).
Density is a scalar quantity.

Floating in the Dead Sea

1. Measuring the density of a regular solid object

πd2
volume of cuboid = a × b × c volume of cylinder = 4
×h
• Measure the mass of the object with a balance.
• Measure the dimensions of the object with a ruler or a micrometer.
• Find the volume of the object and its density using the formulae.

2. Measuring the density of a liquid

• Measure the volume of an amount of liquid with a measuring cylinder.
• Measure the mass of an empty beaker with a balance.
• Pour the liquid into the beaker and measure the total mass.
• Substract the masses to find the mass of liquid.
• Calculate the density.
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3. Measuring the density of an irregular solid

• Measure the mass of an iregular solid with a balance.

• Measure the volume of the object with a beaker and a displacement can.
• Calculate the density by using the formula.

Pressure under a solid

You can push a drawing pin into wood easily, but you cannot make a hole in the wood with your thumb, no
matter how hard you push!

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.
𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) 𝐅𝐅
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏) = 𝐩𝐩 =
𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 ) 𝐀𝐀
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal.
Pressure under a solid is a vector quantity.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Pressure in liquids and gases

1 Pressure in liquids increases with depth.

2 Pressure in liquids acts equally in all directions. Therefore, pressure at one depth acts equally in all
directions.

Therefore, the pressure along a horizontal line in a liquid is constant.

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3 A liquid finds its own level.

4 Pressure depends on the density of the liquid.

mass of water = ρ × A × h
F = w= ρ×A×h×g
ρ×A×h×g
p=
A

pressure(Pa) = density of liquid(kg/m3 ) × 10N/kg × depth(m) 𝐩𝐩 = 𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒

Hydraulic pressure at work

Pressure can be transmitted through a fluid, and hydraulic systems use this fluid pressure to exert a force.
• mechanical digger

• robots
• vehicle brakes
• hydraulic car jack

Hydraulic piston
The force exerted by a hydraulic system depends on the pressure and the area of the input cylinder.

Pin = Pout
𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹
𝑎𝑎
= 𝐴𝐴
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Pressure measurement
Mercury barometer
Mercury barometer is an instrument used to measure the atmospheric pressure.

Patm = 760 mmHg = ρgh = 13600 kg/m3 × 9.8 N/kg × 0.76 m = 101000 Pa

Atmospheric pressure collapses the evacuated can.

Boundon pressure guage

In a Bourdon guage, when a pressure is applied, the curved metal tube tries to straighten out and rotates a
pointer over a scale.

The harder you blow, the greater the pressure and the more it uncurls.
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U-tube manometer
U-tube manometer is a instrument used to measure the pressure of a gas relative to the atmosphere.

𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 + 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜

= 760 mmHg + h mmHg
= 101 000 Pa + ρgh

Chapter 20: Solids, Liquids and gases

All matter is made up of tiny particles that are moving. The properties of a meterial, such as the physical state
or density, depend upon the arrangement and movement of partices.

The states of matter

Every matter is made up of solid, liquid or gas.
Matter can change from one state to another.

Properties of the different states of matter

Solids
Solids have a definite rigid shape and they have high densities.

• Some solids have high densities because the particles are very closely packed in regular arrangement.
• The forces of attractions between particles are strong that they have definite shapes and have a great
strength.
• Solid particles vibrate about their fixed positions. When the solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic
energy and its temperature increases.
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Liquids
Liquids share a property with gases— they have no definite shape. However, liquid particles tend to stick
together, unlike gas particles. Liquids will occupy the lowest part of any container but gases will expand to fill
the whole container.

• Liquids have much greater densities than gases because the particles are still very close together.
• Because liquid particles are still close together, they still attract one another and hold together.
• In liquids, there is no fixed pattern and the aprticles can move around more freely than in solids.
• When the liquid is heated, the movement of particles becomes more energetic.

Gases
In gases the particles are very spread out, with large spaces between them. This means that the forces of
attractions are small.

• Gases have very low densities and no definite shape.

• Gases can also be compressed.
• Gas particles are moving randomly all the time. They will collide each other and with the surfaces of
the container. The overall colliding forces create the pressure of the gas.

Solids and liquids are very difficult to compress because the particles are almost as close together.

Property Solids Liquids Gases

definite shape yes no no
can be easily compressed no no yes
relative density high high low
can flow(fluid) no yes yes
expands to fill all available space no no yes

Brownian motion [Rober Brown(1773-1858)]

Brownian motion is the erratic motion of microscopic particles due to random impacts of gas molecules on each
particle.

• The air molecules are moving very fast and are too small to be seen.
• The smoke particles are big enough to be seen.
• As air molecules collide with the smoke particles, they give it a push.
• The direction of the push changes at random.
• You will see bright specks of smoke particles constantly moving and changing diraction.
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Diffusion
Gases and liquids spread out to occupy all the available space. This process is called diffusion.

Boyle’s law [Robert Boyle(1627-1691)]

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if the temperature is kept constant.

Halving the volume doubles the pressure.

1
V ∝ ( mass and temperature are kept constant )
p
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐩𝐩𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = 𝐩𝐩𝟐𝟐 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐
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The pressure law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the volume is kept
constant.

1
p ∝ ( mass and volume are kept constant )
T
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐩𝐩𝟏𝟏 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 = 𝐩𝐩𝟐𝟐 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐

Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature for any gases.
At absolute zero, molecular motion ceases and a substance has no internal energy.

Kelvin temperature scale

The kelvin temperature scale starts from absolute zero. The kelvin tmperature of a gas is proportional to the
average kinetic energy of its molecules.
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Charles’ law
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the pressure is kept
constant.

V ∝ T ( mass and pressure are kept constant )

𝐕𝐕 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐
= 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 =
𝐓𝐓 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐

Evaporation
Molecules with sufficient energy leave the liquid. This process is called evaporation.

When molecules with sufficient energy leave the liquid, the average kinetic energy of the liquid decreases.
So, the liquid is cooled.

Using evaporation
• Making salt from sea water
• An air-conditioning system using a volatile liquid

Factors affecting evaporation

• increasing the surface area causes evaporation faster
• increasing the temperature of liquid causes evaporation faster
• creating a draught air across the liquid surface causes evaporation faster

Chapter 21: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnets and electromagnets are widely used in devices.

Using a compass Using an electromagnet

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Magnetic poles
Magnetic poles are the ends of a magnet where the lines of force are concentrated.

The magnetic field between the ends is the strongest.

Magnetic materials
It is a ferrous material, such as steel, that contain iron. Any ferrous material can be magnetised and
demagnetised.

Magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials

Objects containing iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys are also attracted to a magnet.

Magnetic atoms
Each atom of a magnetic material has its own magnetic field like a bar magnet because of the arrangement and
motion of the electrons in the atom.
In a bar magnet, the magnetic atoms are lined up with each other.

Magnetic domains
In a magnetic material that is unmagnetised, the atoms align with each other in small regions called domains.
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Hard magnetic material

It is a magnetic material that is hard to magnetise and demagnetise, for example, steel.
Steel is used to make a permanent magnet.

Soft magnetic material

It is a magnetic material that is easy to magnetise and demagnetise, for example, iron.
Iron is used to make an electromagnet.

Magnetic induction
It is a process in which magnetism is induced in an unmagnetised ferrous bar by holding a permanent magnet
near it.

Investigating bar magnets

• Suspend a bar magnet to mark its north pole and south pole.
• Hold the north pole of another maget near the north pole of the suspended magnet.

Law of magnetic poles

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
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Magnetic fields
Magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet in which a plotting compass would be affected.

Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

Magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux

We can show magnetic fields by imaginary lines of force or flux lines.
The magnetic lines of force:
• show the shape of the magnetic field
• show the direction of the magnetic field
• show the strength of the magnetic field.

Plotting lines of force by compass method

Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper.
Place the plotting compass at a point such as A, near one pole of the magnet.
Mark the position of the poles of compass by pencil dots, A and B.
Move the compass so that the pole s is exactly over B, mark the new position of the pole n by dot C.
Contine this process until the other pole of the bar magnet is reached.
Join the dots to give one line of force and show its direction by putting an arrow on it.
Plot other lines by starting at different points round the magnet.

The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet curve from the north pole to the south pole.

The force between two magnets is a result of the interaction of their magnetic fields.
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Plotting lines of force by iron filings method

Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
Tap the paper gently with a pencil and the filings should form pattern showing the lines of force.
Each filing turns in the direction of the field when the paper is tapped.

If two magnets are placed near each other, their magnetic fields affect each other.

When North pole and South poles are placed near each other, there is an almost uniform field between them.
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Making an iron nail a magnet

(i) An iron nail can be magnetised by moving one end of a bar magnet repeatedly in the same direction.
• The head of the nail becomes N-pole as if it tries to repel.
• The tip of the nail becomes S-pole as if it tries to attract.

N S

(ii) An iron nail is withdrawn in a d.c. current carrying coil.

To demagnetise the nail

• The S-pole of a bar magnet is moved repeatedly along the nail from head to tip.
• By heating strongly
• By hammering
• By passing through a coil of wire carrying a.c. current.

Electromagnetism
When a current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. This phenomenon
is called electromagnetism.

Magnetic field patterns

When an electric current passes along a wire, a magnetic field is set up around the wire.
The field around the wire is weak and circular in shape.

If the wire is made into a flat, circular coil, the magnetic field around the wirs is as shown;
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The strength of the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire can be increased by:
• increasing the current in the wire
• wrapping the wire into a coil or solenoid.

Solenoid
Solenoid is a long coil of wire wound round a tube that may contain iron core or be air-filled.

The strength of the field around a solenoid can be increased by:

• increasing the current
• increasing the number of turns
• wrapping around a soft iron core.

Electromagnet
When a current flows through the solenoid, the iron core is magnetic and will attract unmagnetised ferrous
objects.

If the direction of the current flowing through the solenoid is reversed, so too are the positions of the poles.

Right-hand grip rule for fields Right-hand grip rule for poles
thumb → current fingers → curl in direction of the current
fingers → curl in circular directions of magnetic field thumb → north pole
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Using electromagnets
The electric bell
When the bell push is pressed, the circuit is complete and current flows.
The soft iron core of the electromagnet becomes magnetised and attracts the iron armature.
When the armature moves, the hammer strikes the bell and at the same time a gap is created at the contact
screw.
The circuit is imcomplete and current stops flowing.
The electromagnet is now turned off so the spring’s armature returns to its original position.
The circuit is again complete and the whole process begins again.

Circuit breaker
The circuit breaker uses an electromagnet to cut off the current if it becomes larger than a certain value.
If the current is too high the electromagnet becomes strong enough to pull the iron catch out of position so
that the contacts open and the circuit breaks.
Once the problem in the circuit has been corrected, the catch is repositioned by pressing the reset button.
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The relay switch

A relay switch uses a small current in one circuit to turn on a second circuit that is carrying a much larger
current.
When switch S is closed, a small current flows around the circuit on the left.
As current passes through coil C, the soft iron core becomes magnetised and attracts the iron armature.
Because the armature is pivoted at X, its lower end Y pushes the contacts of the second circuit together.
The circuit is complete and current flows without the user coming into contact with the potentially more
dangerous circuit.
If the switch S is opened, the electromagnet is turned off.
The iron armature moves back to its original position and the contacts spring spart, turning the right-hand
circuit off.
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Chapter 22: Electric Motors and Electromagnetic induction

Movement from electricity
A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a force, as long as its motion is not parallel to
the field.

The motor effect

When a current-carrying wire is in a magnetic field aligned at right angles to the magnetic field, a force is
exerted on the wire.

Overlapping magnetic fields

The field around the wire and the field around the magnet overlap.

In certain places, the fields are in the same direction and so reinforce each other, producing a strong magnetic
field. In other places, the fields are in opposite directions, producing a weaker field.

The wire experiences a force, pushing it from the stronger part of the field to the weaker part. This is called
the motor effect.
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Fleming’s left hand rule(the motor rule)

1. The force can be increased by:

• increasing the current
• using a stronger magnet.
2. The direction of the force is reversed by:
• reversing the current direction
• reversing the poles of the magnetic field.

The moving-coil loudspeaker

There is a movable coil in the space between the central cylinder and the ring.
When there is an ac-current in the coil, the coil interacts with the ring magnet and is vibrated.
A diaphragm attached to the coil also gets vibrated, creating sound waves.
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The electric motor

A simple motor has a rectangular coil of wire that spins in a magnetic field when a current passes through the
coil.
• The split-ring commutator reverses the current for every half-turn of the coil.
• The sides swap over each other, so the coil is pushed into the initial position.
If the current direction is reversed, the turning direction is reversed.

To increase the rate at which the motor turns, we can:

• increase the number of turns
• increase the strength of the magnetic field
• increase the current flowing through the loop of wire.
The rotation of an electric motor is reversed by reversing the current.

Practical motors
• The permanent magnets are replaced with curved electromagnets capable of producing very strong
magnetic fields.
• The single loop is replaced with several coils of wire wrapped on the same axis.
• The coils are wrapped on a laminated soft iron core. This make the motor more efficient and more
powerful.

Electromagnetic induction
When a wire moves across a magnetic field at right angles, there is an induced voltage and induced current in
the wire. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

The size of the induced voltage (and current) can be increased by:
• moving the wire more quickly
• using a stronger magnet
• wrapping the wire into a coil so that more pieces of wire move through the magnetic field.

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

The size of the induced voltage across the ends of a wire(coil) is directly proportional to the rate at which the
magnetic lines of flux are being cut.
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We can also generate a voltage and current by pushing a magnet into a coil.

N S

The size of the induced voltage (and current) can be increased by:
• moving the wire more quickly
• using a stronger magnet
• using a coil with more turns
• using a coil with a larger cross-sectional area.

The alternating current generator(alternator)

The simple ac generator consists of a coil that spins in a uniform magnetic field.
• The commutator rings and brushes provide a continuous connection between the coil and the meter.
• When the coil cuts at right angles to the magnetic field lines, the peak value of induced emf is formed.
• When the coil moves parallel to the magnetic field lines, the induced emf is zero.
• If we watch just one side of the coil, we see that the wire moves up through the field and down for
each turn of the coil. This kind of current is called an alternating current.
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Using generators
A dynamo
When the cyclist pedals, the wheel of the bicycle rotates and a smallmagnet within the dynamo spins around.
As this magnet turns, its magnetic field cuts through the surrounding coil inducing a current in it.
This curent can be used to work the cyclist’s lights.

Transformers
A transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wrapped on the same iron core.

How a transformer works

• An alternating current in the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field.
• The lines of the alternating magnetic field pass through the secondary coil and induce an alternating
voltage in it.
• If the secondary coil is connected to a complete circuit, an alternating current is induced in the
secondary coil.

Step-up transformer
In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the number of turns in the
primary coil. So the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage.

Step-down transformer
In a step-down transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the number of turns in the
primary coil. So the secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage.

The transformer equation

𝐍𝐍𝐩𝐩 𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩 𝐈𝐈𝐬𝐬
= =
𝐍𝐍𝐬𝐬 𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬 𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩
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High-voltage transmission of electricity

High-voltage transmission of electricity is much more efficient than transmission at much lower voltages.

• The cables of the grid waste energy because current flowing has a heating effect.
• By operating the grid at a high voltage, we can reduce the current and energy loss.
• Transformers are used to step voltages up or down.

Transformer efficiency
Transformers are almost 100% efficient. This means that almost all the input electrical energy is transferred
to the devices connected to the output coil.
For a transformer with 100% efficiency,
Pp = Ps
𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩 𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩 = 𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬 𝐈𝐈𝐬𝐬

Chapter 23: Atoms and Radioactivity

Atomic structure
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the electrons are in orbits around the outside.
The diameter of the nucleus is about 10 000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom.
Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass. They are about 2000 times heavier than electrons.
Protons carry positive electric charge but beutrons are electrically neutral or uncharged.
The amount of charge on a proton is equal to that on an electron but opposite in sign.
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons because they are found in the nucleus of the atom.
The electron is a very light particle with very little mass. It has a negative electric charge.
Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom.
Atomic particle Relative mass Relative charge
electron 1 −1
proton 1839 +1
neutron 1836 0
Atomic number or Proton number(Z)
The atomic number of a nuclide is the number of protons in the nucleus of of any atom of the element.
Mass number or Nucleon number(A)
The mass number of a nuclide is the total number of protons and neutrons in any atom of that nuclide.

By using atomic notation, the above nuclides are represented as 11H , 42He and 73Li .
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Isotopes
Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
The different nuclides of the same element are referred to as isotopes of the elements.
The isotopes of hydrogen are hydrogen ( 11H ) , deuterium ( 21H ) and tritium ( 31H ).
Two isotopes of carbon are called carbon-12 ( 126C )and carbon-14 ( 146C ).

The stability of isotopes

Isotopes of an element have different physical properties such as mass. Another difference is the stability of
the nucleus.
The protons are held in the nucleus by the nuclear force. This force is so strong that it can hold the repelling
protons together. However, the presence of too many or too few neutrons affects the balance of the forces
causing the nucleus unstable.
An unstable nucleus will eventually decay. When the nucleus of an atom decays, it gives out energy and may
also give out alpha or beta particles.

Ionising radiation
When unstable nuclei decay, they give out ionising radiation. Ionising radiation causes atoms to gain or lose
electric charge, forming ions.
Unstable nuclei decay at random. This means that it is not possible to predict which unstable nucleus in a
piece of radioactive material will deacy, or when decay will happen.

Observing nuclear radiation

• Henri Becquerel(1896) first discovered radiation produced from uranium detected on a
photographic film.
• Marie Curie(1903) was awarded the Nobel prizes for the discovery of radioactivity, polonium and
radium.
• Ernest Rutherford(1908) compared the penetrating of alpha radiation and beta radiation.
• Paul Villard(1900) discovered gamma radiation.

Radioactivity
An unstable nucleus of a radioactive substance becomes stable by emitting alpha, beta or gamma radiation.
Radioactive substances give out radiation all the time.

Alpha radiation
Alpha radiation consists of fast-moving particles that are thrown out of unstable nuclei when they decay.
An alpha particles is similar to a helium nucleus which consists of two protons and two neutrons.
Here is an example of an alpha decay:
222 218 4
88Ra ⟶ 86Rn + 2He + energy
radium atom ⟶ radon atom + alpha particle + energy
Alpha particles have a relatively large mass as they are made up of four nucleons. The relative mass of an
alpha particle is 4. They are also charged because of two protons, having the relative charge of +2 .
Alpha particles have a short range. The range of ionising radiation is the distance it can travel through matter.
Alpha particles can only travel a few centimetres in air and cannot penerate more than a few millimetres of
paper. They have a limited range because they interact with atoms along their paths, causing ions to form.
This means that they rapidly give up energy that they had when they were ejected from the unstable nucleus.
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Beta radiation
Beta particles are very fast-moving electrons that are ejected by a decaying nucleus.
The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons, so where does the electron come from? The stability
of a nucleus depends on the proportion of protons and neutrons it contains. The result of radioactive decay is
to change the balance of protons and neutrons in the nucleus to make it more stable. Beta decay involves a
neutron in the nucleus splitting into a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus and the
electron is ejected at high speed as a beta particle.
Beta particles are very light— they have only 0.000 125 times the mass of an alpha particle. The relative
charge of a beta particle is −1 .
Beta particles interact with matter in their paths less frequently than alpha particles. This is because they are
smaller and carry less charge. This means that beta particles have a greater range than alpha particles. Beta
particles can travel long distances through air, pass through paper easily and are only absorbed by denser
materials like aluminium. A millimetre or two of aluminium foil will stop all but not the most energetic beta
particles.
Here is an example of beta decay:
14 14 0
6C ⟶ 7N + −1e + energy
carbon atom ⟶ nitrogen atom + beta particle + energy

Gamma rays
Gamma radiation is high-energy electromagnetic radiation.
After an unstable nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle, it sometimes has surplus energy. It emits this
energy as gamma radiation. Gamma rays are pure energy, so they do not have any mass or charge.
When a nucleus emits a gamma ray, there is no change to either the atomic number or the mass number of
the nucleus.
Gamma radiation spreads out in air without being absorbed, having an unlimited range. However, it gets
weaker as it spreads out.

Summary of the properties of ionising radiations

Radiation Type Ionising Penetrating Absorber Range in

power power materials air
alpha helium nuclei very strong weak thick paper 5-10cm
beta high-speed weak medium aluminium 5-10m
electrons sheet(1cm)
lead sheet(3mm)
gamma electromagnetic very weak strong lead sheet(5cm) unlimited
concrete(1m)
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Chapter 24: Radiation and Half-life

Detecting ionising radiation
Using photographic film
Henri becquerel(1852-1908) studied X-rays. He believed that the uranium emitted X-rays after being exposed
to sunlight. He placed some wrapped, unused photographic plates in a drawer with some samples of uranium
ore on top of them. He found a strong image of the ore on the plates when he develpoed them. He had
discovered radioactivity.

The unit of radioactivity is named after Becquerel.

The becquerel(Bq) is a measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating per second— one becqueral
means a rate of one disintegration per second. The becquerel is a very samll unit. More practical units are the
kBq(an average of 1000 disintegrations per second) and the MBq(an average of 1 000 000 disintegrations per
second).

Photographic film is still used to detect radioactivity. Scientists who work with radioactive materials wear a
strip of photographic film in a badge. If the film becomes fogged, it shows that the scientist has been exposed
to a certain amount of radiation. These badges are checked regularly to ensure that the safety limit for
exposure to ionising radiation is not exceeded.

The Geiger-Müller tube

The Geiger-Müller tube is a glass tube with an electrically conducting coating on the inside surface. The tube
has a thin window made of mica. The tube contains a special mixture of gases at very low pressure. In the
middle of the tube, electrically insulated from the conducting coating, there is an electrode. This electrode is
connected, via a high value resistor, to a high-voltage supply(300-500 V).
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When ionising radiation enters the tube, it causes the low pressure gas inside to form ions. The ions allow a
pilse of current to flow from the electrode to the conducting layer. This is detected by an electronic circuit.

The GM tube is usually linked up to a counting circuit. This keeps a count of how many ionising particles (or
how much γ radiation) have entered the GM tube. Sometimes GM tubes are connected to rate meters. These
measure the number of ionising events per second, and so give a measure of the radioactivity in becquerels.
Rate meters usually have a loudspeaker output so the level of radioactivity is indicated by the rate of clicks
produced.

Background radiation
Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is produced all the time. This background radiation
has a number of sources. Some of these are natural and some are artificial.

Natural background radiation from the Earth

Some of the radiation we receive comes from rocks in the earth’s crust. When the Earth was formed, around
4.5 billion years ago, it contained many radioactive isotopes. Some decayed very quickly but others are still
producing radiation. Some of the decayed products of these long-lived radioactive materials are also
radioactive, so there are radioactive isotopes with much shorter half-lives still present in the earth’s crust.
One form of uranium is a radioactive element that decays very slowly. Two of its decay products are gases.
These are the radioactive gases radon and thoron. Radon-222 is a highly radioactive gas produced by the
decay of radium-226. Thoron, or radium-220, is an isotope of radium formed by the decay of a radioactive
isotope of thorium (thorium-232).
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As these decay products are gases, they seep out of radioactive rocks. They are dense gases so they build up in
the basements and foundations of buildings. Some parts of the Earth’s crust have higher amounts of
radioactive material so the amount of background radiation produced in this way varies from place to place.
In Cornwall in the UK, for example, where the granite rock contains traces of uranium, the risk of exposure to
radiation from radon gas is greater than in other parts of the UK.

Natural background radiation from space

Violent nuclear reaction in stars and exploding stars called supernovae produce very energetic particles and
cosmic rays that continuously bombard the earth. Lower energy cosmic rays are given out by the Sun. Our
atmosphere gives us fairly good protection from cosmic rays.

Internal radiation
The atoms that make up our bodies were formed in the violent reactions that took place in stars created at
the beginning of the universe. Some of these atoms are radioactive so we carry our won personal source of
radiation around with us. Also, as we breathe in tiny amounts of radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14.
Because carbon-14 behaves chemically just like the stable isotope, carbon-12, we continuously renew the
amount of radioactive carbon in our bodies.

Artificial radiation
We use radioactive materials for many purposes. Generating electricity in nuclear power stations has been
responsible for the leaking of radioactive material into the environment. The levels are usually small, but
there have been a number of major incidents around the world, notably at Three Mile Island in the USA in
1979 and at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986. Testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere has also increased
the amounts of radioactive isotopes on the Earth.

Radioactive tracers are used in industry and medicine. Radioactive materials are also used to treat certain
forms of cancer. However, the majority of background radiation is natural— the amount produced from
medical and civil use in industry is very small indeed.

Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random process.

It is just like tossing a coin, we cannot say certainly whether it will come down head or tail. If we toss a
thousand coins, we cannot predict which will land heads and which will land tails. Also, it is impossible to tell
which nuclei will disintegrate at any particular time. However, if we tossed a thousand coins we would be
surprised if the number that landed as heads was not around 500. We know that a fair coin has an equal
chance of landing as a head or a tail, so if we got 600 heads we would think it was unusual. If the proportion
were much greater than this we would be right to think that the coin was not fair.

Half-life
The half life of a radioactive sample is the average time taken for half the original mass of the sample to decay.

The half-life is different for different radioactive isotopes.

radioactive isotope half-life
boron-12 0.02 seconds
radon-220 52 seconds
iodine-128 25 minutes
radon-222 3.8 days
strontium-90 28 years
radium-226 1602 years
carbon-14 5730 years
plutonium-239 24 400 years
uranium-235 7.1× 108 years
uranium-238 4.5× 109 years
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Each unstable nucleus(aprent nucleus) changes into a nucleus of a different isotope(daughter nucleus) when
it decays. Because the number of parent nuclei goes down, the activity of the sample decreases. Figure shows
how the count rate of a sample decreases with time.

45 minutes 45 minutes 45 minutes

600 cpm �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 300 cpm �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 150 cpm �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 75 cpm
The number of unstable atoms and the activity decrease to half in one half-life.
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Chapter 25: Applications of Radioactivity

The use of radioactivity in medicine

Using tracers in diagnosis
A radioactive tracer is a chemical compound that emits gamma radiation. The tracer is taken orally by the
patient (swallowed) or injected. Its passage around the body can be traced using a gamma ray camera.

For example, iodine-123 is absorbed by the thyroid gland in the same way as the stable form of iodine. The
isotope decays and emits gamma radiation. A gamma ray camera can then be used to form a clear image of
the thyroid gland. The half-life of iodine-1is about 13 hours. A short half-life is important as this means the
activity of the tracer decreases to a very low level in a few days.

Technetium-99 is used in medical imaging. Scanners are used to provide 3D images of a patient’s body. Then
doctors can identify which part of the patient’s body is having problems.

Treatment
Radiation from isotopes can have various effects on the cells that make up our bodies. Low doses of radiation
may have no lasting effect. Higher doses may cause the normal function of cells to be changed. This can lead
to abnormal growth and cancer. Very high doses will kill living cells.

Cancer can be treated by surgery that involves cutting out cancerous cells. Another way of treating cancer is
to kill the cancer cells inside the body. This can be done with chemicals containing radioactive isotopes.
Unfortunately, the radiation kills healthy cells as well as diseased ones. To reduce the damage to healthy
tissue, chemicals are used to target the location of the cancer in the body. They may emit either alpha or beta
radiation. Both these types of radiation have a short range in the body, so they will affect only a small volume
of tissue close to the target.

Sterilisation using radiation

Ionising radiation can kill living cells. It is therefore used to kill micro-organisms on surgical instruments and
other medical equipment. The technique is called irradiation. The items to be sterilised are placed close to
strongly ionising radiation sources. The items can be packed in airtight bags to ensure that they cannot be re-
contaminated before use. The radiation will penetrate the packaging and destroy bacteria without damaging
the item.

Some food products are treated in a similar way to make sure that they are free from any bacteria that will
cause the food to rot or will cause food poisoning. Irradiation does not destroy vitamins in the food like other
means of killing bacteria, such as high-temperature treatment.
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The use of radioactivity in industry

Gamma radiography
A gamma ray camera is like the X-ray cameras used to examine the contents of your luggage at ariports. A
source of gamma radiation is placed on one side of the object to be scanned and a gamma camera is placed on
the other. Gamma rays are more penetrating than X-rays. They can be used to check for imperfections in a
welded joints and for flaws in metal castings. Without this technique of gamma radiography, neither problem
could be detected unles the welding or casting were cut through. An additional advantage of gamma
radiography over the use of X-rays for this purpose is that gamma sources can be small and do not require a
power source or large cumbersome equipment.

Gauging
In industrirocesses, raw materials and fuel are stored in large tanks or hoppers. Radioactive isotopes are used
to guage, or measure, how much material there is in a storage vessel.

The coal absorbs a large amount of the radiation so the reading on the lower detector will be small. As the
upper part of the hopper is empty, the upper detector will have a high reading.

This method of gauging has several advantages over other methods. There is no contact with the material
being gauged. Also, coal dust might cause false readings with an optical gauging system (one using light
beams). Coal dust is much les dense than coal so the gamma ray system still works properly.
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Another example of gauging uses a similar process to monitor the thickness of plastic sheeting and film. The
thicker the sheet, the greater the amount of radiation it absorbs. By monitoring the amount of radiation, the
thickness of the sheeting can be closely controlled during manufacture.

Tracing and measuring the flow of liquids and gases

Radioisotopes are used to track the flow of liquids in industrial processes. Very tiny amounts of radiation can
easily be detected. Complex piping systems, like heat exchangers in power stations, can be monitored for
leaks. Radioactive tracers are even used to measure the rate of dispersal of sewage.

Radioactive dating
Radioactive dating is used to find the age of ancient material.
Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating measures the level of an isotope called carbon-14. This is made in the atmosphere.
Cosmic rays from space are continually raining down upon the Earth. These have a lot of energy. When they
strike atoms of gas in the upper layers of the atmosphere, the nuclei of the atoms break apart. The parts fly off
at high speed. If they strike other atoms they can cause nuclear transformations to take place. These
transformations turn the elements in the air into different isotopes. One such collision involves a fast-moving
neutron striking an atom of nitrogen.
14 1 14
7N + 0n ⟶ 6C + 11p

Carbon-14 reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide. These carbon dioxide molecules are
then absorbed by plants in the process of photosynthesis. As a result, a proportion of carbon-14 makes up of
the plants. Incorporated in plant material, carbon-14 enters the food chain, which means that animals and
humans will also have a proportion of carbon-14 in their bodies. These carbon-14 atoms will decay but, in
living plants and animals, they are continuously replaced by new ones.

When a living organism dies, the replacement process stops. As time passes, the radioactive carbon decays
and the proportion of radioactive carbon in the remains of the plant or animal, compared with the stable
carbon isotope, decreases.

The half-life for the decay of carbon-14 is approximately 5600 years. This means that every 5600 years the
proportion of carbon-14 in dead plant and animal material will halve. The amount of carbon-14 that would
have been present when the source of the sample died.

There are limitations to the method of radiocarbon dating. It assumes the level of cosmic radiation reaching
the Earth is constant, which is not necessarily an accurate assumption. Fortunately, the technique has been
calibrated to take the variations of cosmic ray activity into account. This is done by testing samples of a
known age, like materials from the mummies of Egyptian Pharaohs and from very ancient living trees.

The radiocarbon method is not used to date samples older than 50 000 – 60 000 years because, after 10 half-
lives, the amount of carbon-14 remaining in samples is too small to measure accurately.
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Dating rocks
Inorganic, non-living matter does not absorb carbon-14, so different techniques must be used for finding out
the age of rocks and minerals.

When a radioactive substance decays, it transforms into a different isotope, sometimes of the same element,
sometimes of a different element. The original radioisotope is called the parent nuclide(unstable nucleus) and
the product is called daughter nuclide. Many of the products of decay, the daughter isotopes, are also unstable
and these too decay, in turn. This merent isotopes decays it breeds a whole family of elements in what is
called a decay series. The end of the decay series is a stable isotope— one that does not decay further.
The table shows some radioactive parent isotopes with the stable daughters formed at the end of their
particular decay series.

Radioactive parent isotope Stable daughter element Half-life(years)

potassium-40 argon-40 1.25 billion
thorium-232 lead-208 14 billion
uranium-235 lead-207 704 billion
uranium-238 lead-206 4.47 billion
carbon-14 nitrogen-14 5568

For rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the proportion of parent to stable daughter nuclide gives a
measure of the age of the rock. Notice that the half-lives of most of the radioactive parent isotopes are
extremely long, in some cases greater then the lifetime of the earth.
The decay series of potassium-40 ends with argon gas. As potassium-40 decays in igneous rock, the argon
produced remains trapped in the rock. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock becomes solid. Igneous
rocks are non-porous. The proportion of argon to potassium-40 again gives a measure of the age of the rock.

The health hazards of ionising radiation

Ionising radiation can damage the molecules that make up the cells of living tissue. Cells suffer this kind of
damage all the time for many different reasons. Fortunately, cells can repair or replace themselves given time
so, usually, no permanent damage results. However, if cells suffer repeated damage because of ionising
radiation, the cell may be killed. Alternatively the cell may start to behave in an unexpected way because it
has been damaged. We call this effect cell mutation. Some types of cancer happen because damaged cells
start to divide uncontrollably.

Different types of ionising radiation present different risks. Alpha particles have the greatest ionising effect,
but they have little penetrating power. This means that an alpha source presents little risk, as alpha particles
do not penetrate the skin. The problem of alpha radiation is much greater if the source of alpha particles is
taken into the body. Here the radiation will be very close to amny different types of cells and they may be
damaged if the exposure is prolonged. Alpha emitters can be breathed in or taken in through eating food.
Radon gas is a decay product of radium and is an alpha emitter. It therefore presents a real risk to health.
Smokers greatly increase their exposure to this kind of damage as they drew the radiation source right into
their lungs(cigarette smoke contains radon).

Beta and gamma radiation do provide a serious health risk when outside the body. Both can penetrate skin
and flesh and can cause cell damage by ionisation. Gamma radiation, as we have mentioned earlier, is the
most penetrating. The damage caused by gamma rays will depend on how much of their energy is absorbed
by ionising atoms along their path. Beta and gamma emitters that are absorbed by the body present less risk
than alpha emitters, because of their lower ionising power.

In all cases, the longer the period of exposure to radiation, the greater the risk of serious cell damage.
Workers in the nuclear industry wear badges to indicate their level of exposure. Some are strips of
photographic film that become increasingly “foggy” as the radiation exposure increases. Another type of
badge uses a property called thermoluminescence. Thermoluminescence means that the exposed material
will give out light when it is warmed. The radiation releases energy to make heat so the thermoluminescence
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badges give out more light when exposed to higher levels of radiation. Workers have their badges checked
regularly and this gives a measure of their overall exposure to radiation.

Precautions for safe handling of radioactive materials

Samples of radioactive isotopes used in schools are very small to limit the risk to users.
• The radioactive samples are stroed in lead-lined cantainers.
• The source should be moved using long-handled tools.

• The radioactive source should be kept at a safe distance from the user.
• The source should be separated from users by thick lead screens.
• The source should be in use for the shortest possible time.

In the nuclear industry and research laboratories, much larger amounts of radioactive material are used.
• Very energetic sources are handled remotely by operators who are sheilded by lead, concreate and
thick glass viewing panels.

• Radiation workers should carry a film badge which contains monitoring photographic film under
different filters.
• Some radioactive materials have extremely long half-lives so they reamin active for thousands of
years. They must be stored in sealed containers that must be capable of containing radioactivity for
enormously long periods of time.
• Unwanted radioactive substances(waste from power stations and hospitals) should also be disposed
of safely.
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Chapter 26: Particles

About 2500 years ago, a Greek philosopher called Democritus suggested the idea that matter is made up of
tiny, indivisible particles. The name for these particles— atoms— comes from a Greek word meaning “cannot
be cut or divided”.

Dalton’s model
Dalton said that some substances were made up of identical atoms— these substances are called elements.
An important discovery was that atoms of an element always had the same mass— different elements had
atoms with different masses. Each different element has its own type of atom.

John Dalton(1766-1844) was a meteorologist who studied the properties of gases. He proposed his atomic theory in 1803.

Today we know of the existence of more than 110 different elements. About 90 of these occur naturally on the
Earth.
Dalton’s model of the atom is as a solid sphere.

The plum pudding model

J. J. Thomson(1897) discovered the electron while studying the properties of cathode rays. He found that the
atom itself was made up of smaller particles that we now call sub-atomic particles. The electron was the first
sub-atomic particle to be discovered. Thomson showed that it was a negatively charged particle of very light
weight.
He thought that the atom was a ball of positive charge with electrons dotted through it, rather like plums in a
pudding.

The discovery of the nucleus

Earnest Rutherford(1871-1937) was a scientist who studied the atom at the start of the twentieth century. He
worked with Hans Geiger, who is known for developing the Geiger counter for measuring radiation. Geiger
also worked with an undergraduate student called Earnest Marsden. Together they carried out a series of
experiments that involved firing alpha particles at very thin gold foil. Alpha particles are positively charged
particles given off by some radioactive substances.
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The zinc sulfide screen gives out tiny sparks of light, called scintillations, when hit by an alpha particle.
Geiger and Marsden were able to see what happened to the alpha particles as they passed through the gold
foil by noting where the sparks cooured on the screen.
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil as if it wasn’t there at all(A). Once in a while
an alpha particle was knocked off course(B). A very small proportion(about 1 in 8000) actually seemed to
bounce off the gold foil(C).
Rutherford studied these results. He realised that, as most of the alpha particles passed straight through the
gold foil, most of each gold atom must be empty space. However, Rutherford knew that atoms did have mass,
so they could not be just empty space. The rare event of a rebound meant that an alpha particle had run into
something very massive. Rutherford realised that the mass must be concentrated in a very tiny volume at the
centre of the atom, which he called the nucleus. The deflections and rebounds were because the positive
charges on the alpha particles were repelled by positive charges in the nuclei. The amount of deflections
depends on a number of factors:
1 the speed of the alpha particle— the alpha particle is deflected less if it is travelling faster.
2 the nuclear charge— if the nucleus is strongly positive, then the alpha particle will be more strongly
repelled away from it.
3 how close the alpha particle gets to the positively charged nucleus.

Analysis of the results of Geiger and Marsden’s experiment not only gave evidence for the existence of the
nucleus but also allowed Rutherford to estimate the size of the nucleus.
• The nucleus is positively charged because it repels alpha particles.
• The nucleus is much smaller than the atom because most alpha particles pass through without
deflection.
• The nucleus is where most of the mass of the atom is located.
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Generating electricity using nuclear fuels

Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. It is used because its nuclei can be split by a neutron. The
process of splitting an atom is called fission. Uranium-235 is called a fissile material because it goes through
the splitting process easily. The fission process is shown in figure.

In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-235.

The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and splits apart. The fragments of this decay are the two
daughter nuclei of barium-144 and krypton-89. The decay also produces gamma radiation and three more
neutrons. The equation for this decay is:
236 144 89 1
92U → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0n + γ radiation

The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy. This is because some of the mass of the original
uranium-236 nuclei is converted to energy. Most of the energy is carried away as the kinetic energy of the two
lighter nuclei, then the reaction escalates— a bit like an avalanche. This is called a chain reaction. If this
reaction is allowed to take place in an uncontrolled way, the result is a nuclear explosion. This involves the
sudden release of enormous amounts of energy and radiation.
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In a nuclear reactor the process is controlled so that the heat energy is released over a longer period of time.
The heat produced in the core or heart of the reactor is used to heat water. The steam produced then drives
turbines to turn generators. The basic parts of a nuclear reactor are shown in figure.

The reactor core contains fuel rods of enriched uranium. Enriched uranium is uranium-238 with a higher
proportion of uranium-235 than is found in natural reserves of uranium. Graphite is used as a moderator. The
job of the moderator is to absorb some of the kinetic energy of the neutrons to slow them down. This is
because slow neutrons are more easily absorbed by uranium-235. A neutr4on slowed in this way can start
the fission process. In the nuclear reactor there are also control rods, made of boron and cadmium. These
absorb the neutrons and take them out of the fission process completely. When the control rods are fully
inserted into the core, the chain reaction is almost completely stopped and the rate of production of heat is
low. As the control rods are withdrawn, the rate of fission increases producing heat at a greater rate.

The nuclear process in a reactor produces a variety of different types of radioactive material. Some have
relatively short half-lives and decay rapidly. These soon become safe to handle and do not present problems
of long-term storage. Other materials have extremely long half-lives. These will continue to produce
dadgerous levels of ionising radiation for thousands of years. These waste products present a serious
problem for long-term storage. They are usually sealed in containers that are then buried deep underground.
The sites for underground storage have to be carefully selected. The rock must be impermeable to water and
the geology of the site must be stable— storing waste in earthquake zones or areas of volcanic activity would
not be sensible.
Some reactors are designed to produce plutonium. Plutonium is a very radioactive artificial element. Small
amounts of plutonium represent a serious health hazard. Plutonium is another fissile material. If a large
enough mass of plutonium is brought together a chain reaction will start. Plutonium can be used in the
production of nuclear weapons.
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Quantity(Symbol) Usual units Edexcel IGCSE Physics Best Guide
length(l,h) km, m, cm, mm
area(A) 𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 , cm2
volume(V) 𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 , cm3
weight(w) N vector
mass(m) kg, g
time(t) h, min, s
temperature(T, ∆θ) ˚C, K
density(⍴) g/cm3, kg/𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑
speed(u,v) km/h, m/s, cm/s
acceleration(a) m/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 vector
acceleration of free fall(g) m/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 vector
force(F) N vector
gravitational field strength(g) N/kg vector
momentum(p) kg m/s vector
Impulse Ns vector
moment of a force Nm vector
work done(W,E) J, kJ, MJ
energy(E) J, kJ, MJ
power(P) W, kW, MW
pressure(p) N/m2, Pa
atmospheric pressure mmHg
temperature(Ɵ,T) ⁰
C, K
frequency(f) Hz, kHz
wavelength(λ) m, cm
focal length(f) cm
angle of incidence(i) degree( ⁰ )
angle of reflection(r) degree( ⁰ )
angle of refraction(r) degree( ⁰ )
critical angle(C) degree( ⁰ )
refractive index(n) unitless
potential difference/voltage(V) V, mV
current(I) A, mA
e.m.f.(E) V
resistance(R) 𝛀𝛀
charge(Q) C
radioactivity Bq
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𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐦𝐦) 𝐝𝐝

𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐯𝐯 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐮𝐮

𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 ) = 𝐚𝐚 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰(𝐍𝐍) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐍𝐍/𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) 𝐰𝐰 = 𝐦𝐦 𝐠𝐠

𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) 𝐦𝐦
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤/𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝛒𝛒 =
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) 𝐕𝐕

𝐅𝐅 = 𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 where F = the stretching force(N)

𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 ) 𝐅𝐅⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐚�⃗

𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) �⃗ = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯�⃗

𝐩𝐩

𝐅𝐅⃗ 𝐭𝐭 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 = 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢

𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) × 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐦𝐦) 𝐋𝐋 = 𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅

𝟐𝟐 × 𝛑𝛑 × 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫
𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩

𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 = × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏%
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐉𝐉) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐍𝐍) × 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐦𝐦) 𝐖𝐖 = 𝐅𝐅 × 𝐝𝐝

𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐍𝐍/𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡(𝐦𝐦)

𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆 = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) = × 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 × 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 = 𝐦𝐦𝐯𝐯 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆𝐆 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩

𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐉𝐉) 𝐖𝐖
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐏𝐏 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄

𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐏𝐏 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐞(𝐍𝐍) 𝐅𝐅
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏) = 𝐩𝐩 =
𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐 ) 𝐀𝐀

𝐅𝐅𝟏𝟏 𝐅𝐅𝟐𝟐
=
𝐀𝐀 𝟏𝟏 𝐀𝐀 𝟐𝟐

pressure(Pa) = density of liquid(kg/m3) × gravitational field strength(N/kg) × depth (m) 𝐩𝐩 = 𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒

 AKK 109
Edexcel IGCSE Physics Best Guide

𝐩𝐩𝟏𝟏 𝐩𝐩𝟐𝟐 𝐩𝐩𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 𝐩𝐩𝟐𝟐 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐

𝐩𝐩𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 = 𝐩𝐩𝟐𝟐 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 = =
𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐 𝐓𝐓𝟏𝟏 𝐓𝐓𝟐𝟐

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐉𝐉/(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 ⁰ 𝐂𝐂)) = 𝐜𝐜 =
𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤) × 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫(⁰ 𝐂𝐂) 𝐦𝐦(𝛉𝛉𝟐𝟐 − 𝛉𝛉𝟏𝟏 )

𝐄𝐄 = 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝛉𝛉𝟐𝟐 − 𝛉𝛉𝟏𝟏 )

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇) × 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰(𝐦𝐦) 𝐯𝐯 = 𝐟𝐟 𝛌𝛌

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟(𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇) = 𝐟𝐟 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐞 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐬𝐬) 𝐓𝐓

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚(𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐜𝐜

𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 = 𝐧𝐧 =
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦(𝐦𝐦/𝐬𝐬) 𝐯𝐯

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝐢𝐢)
𝐧𝐧 = ( i is in air and r is in medium )
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 (𝐫𝐫)

𝟏𝟏
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝐂𝐂) =
𝐧𝐧

𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐂𝐂) 𝐐𝐐
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀) = 𝐈𝐈 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞(𝐕𝐕) = 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐕𝐕) = 𝐕𝐕 =
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐂𝐂) 𝐐𝐐

𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝(𝐕𝐕) 𝐕𝐕
𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫(𝛀𝛀) = 𝐑𝐑 =
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀) 𝐈𝐈

𝐕𝐕 = 𝐈𝐈𝐑𝐑

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐉𝐉) 𝐄𝐄
𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐏𝐏 =
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝐬𝐬) 𝐭𝐭

𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩(𝐖𝐖) = 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯(𝐕𝐕) × 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝐀𝐀)

𝐕𝐕 𝟐𝟐 𝐭𝐭
𝐄𝐄 = 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 = 𝐈𝐈𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 =
𝐑𝐑

𝐑𝐑 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 + 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐

𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 = 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 + 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= + +
𝐑𝐑 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝐑 𝟑𝟑

𝐍𝐍𝐩𝐩 𝐕𝐕𝐩𝐩 𝐈𝐈𝐬𝐬

= =
𝐍𝐍𝐬𝐬 𝐕𝐕𝐬𝐬 𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩