EXPERIMENT NO.

1
OHM’S LAW
AIM:
To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.

APPARATUS:
Resistance wires , a voltmeter (0-3V) , an ammeter(0-3A) of appropriate
range, a battery (eliminator), rheostat, meter scale, one-way key, a screw
gauge, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY:
According to Ohm’s law, the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends , provided its physical
conditions like temperature, dimensions , pressure etc. of the conductor
remain the same.
If I is the current flowing through a conductor and V ,the potential difference
across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law,
I αV
Or, V αI
Or, V=IR
Where R is the constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor.
𝑽
Or, R = 𝑰
R depends upon the nature of material , temperature and dimension of the
conducting wire.
To establish the current- voltage relationship, a graph between potential
difference (V) and current (I) is plotted . The graph is a straight line
𝑽
establishing that 𝑰 = constant.
This constant ratio gives the unknown value of resistance.

Specefic resistance (ρ) of the material of the wire is given by

𝑹𝑨
ρ=
𝒍
where, ‘A’is the area of cross section of the given wire and ‘l ‘its length.
If D is the diameter of the wire then,
A = ПD2/l
PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
 (II) Note down the value of V and I from voltmeter and ammeter for a
given position of rheostat.
(III) Sfift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter readings
and voltmeter readings show next set of full scale readings and not
in fractions.
(IV) Take atleast 6 sets of independent readings.
(V) Remove the wire and find its length using a meter scale and its
diameter using a screw gauge
(VI) The same procedure is repeated for the given set of 2-3 wires.

OBSERVATIONS :
1. Range of given ammeter =..........................................................
Range of given voltmeter = .........................................................
2. Least count of given ammeter = .......................................................
Least count of given voltmeter = .......................................................
3. LENGTH:
Length of the given resistance
wire :......................cm.= ................................ m
4. DIAMETER :
DIAMETER of the resistance wire :......................cm.=…………….. m
5. RADIUS of the resistance wire: :......................cm.=. ........................ m

Resistance R
(1) Wire 1:
From Calculation:
from V-I graph

Resistivity or Specefic resistance (ρ)

𝑹𝑨
ρ=
𝒍

A = 𝛱𝑟
 (1) Wire 1:

RESULT:

The V-I graph plotted for all the three resistance wires were found to
be a straight line.

Resistance Wire 1 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =
Resistance Wire 2 :
Resistance of the given wire ( from V-I graph) =
Resistivity of the given wire =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
Voltmeter and ammeter should be of appropriate range.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Thick connecting wires may not be available.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULAR COLUMN -1
To find the relationship between V and I

Voltmeter Ammeter 𝑽
R=
SL. 𝑰
Resistance wire reading (V) reading (I)
No. Ω
volt ampere
1
resistance wire -1

2
3
4
5
6
1
resistance wire -2

2
3
4
5
6
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Meter bridge-1
AIM:
To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge.
APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wire/ standard resistance , a
Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey
, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance
X in the right gap of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,
If l is the length of meterbridge wire from zero end unto balance point, then
𝑿
=
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝝈 where 𝜎 is the resistance per unit
𝑹 𝒍𝝈
length of the meter bridge wire.
𝑿 (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
Or,
𝑹 = 𝒍
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝑹
Or, 𝑿=
𝒍

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug
the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right
end of the bridge wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite
deflection, the connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the
galvanometer shows opposite deflection. It gives the null point B.
(VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the
resistance box.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R =

=. ............................................... Ω
RESULT

Resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre Bridge.

=. ...............................................
............... Ω

PRECAUTIONS:

The connections should be neat , clean and tight.

All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

The instrument screws may be loose.

Plugs may not be clean

TABULAR COLUMN

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE

RESISTANCE unknown
FROM LENGTH AB LENGTH BC resistance
Sl. No. RESISTANCE = l =(100-l) X = ((100-
BOX (R) l)R)/l

Ω CM cm Ω

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Meter bridge-II
AIM:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
APPARATUS:
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), resistance wires/ standard resistances , a
Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, resistance box, a jockey
, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
A meter bridge is a modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
If R is the known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance
X in the right gap of meter bridge
Under balancing condition,
If l is the length of meterbridge(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)𝑹
wire from zero end unto balance point,

Or, 𝑿= 𝒍
When two resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is given
by Rs = R1 + R2

PROCEDURE:
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram with first R1
(II) Connect the resistance tightly.
(III) Take out some resistance, say 1Ω from the resistance box and plug
the key.
(IV) Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right
end of the bridge wire.
(V) Now, note the galvanometer deflection. If it shows opposite
deflection, the connections are correct.
(VI) Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till the
galvanometer shows opposite deflection. It gives the null point B.
(VII) Now, measure AB =l.
(VIII) The experiment is repeated with different values of R in the
resistance box.
(IX) Repeat the experiment with R2 in the right gap
(X) Then, connect R1 and R2 in series and repeat
the experiment.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of Resistance R1 = ............................................. Ω
Mean value of Resistance R2 =. ............................................... Ω
Mean value of R1 and R2 in series experimentally,

value of R1 and R2 in series theoretically

Rs = R1 + R2
=
=..................................................... Ω

RESULT
Law of combination of resistors in series, is verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
All plugs in the resistance box should be clean, neat and tight.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Plugs may not be clean.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN

RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE
FROM LENGTH LENGTH unknown resistance
Sl. No. RESISTANCE AB = l BC =(100-l) X = ((100-l)R)/l
BOX (R)

Ω cm cm Ω

2
R1 alone

3 R1=

2
R2 alone

3 R2=

1
R1 and R2 in series

3 Rs=

5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Galvanometer half deflection
AIM:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and
to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS:
A Galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery two resistance boxes, two one-way
keys a rheostat , an ammeter of a given range and connection wires.
THEORY :
The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method
is given by
𝑅𝑆
G = 𝑅−𝑆 Where R is the resistance connected
in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
The figure of merit of the given galvanometer is given by
𝐸
K= (𝑅+𝐺 )𝜃
Where E is the emf of the cell
and θ , the deflection produced with resistance R.
The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer
Ig = nK where n is the total no. of
divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.
PROCEDURE :
a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection
(I) Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as in the circuit
diagram.
(II) Take out the high resistance ( say, 10,000Ω) from the resistance
box and insert key K1 only.
(III) Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum and within
the scale. Let the deflection be θ.
(IV) Insert K2 also and without changing the value of R , adjust the
value of shunt resistance S such that the deflection in the
𝜽
galvanometer reduces to half the value already obtained.( i.e, ).
𝟐
(V) Note the value of S.
(VI) A set of observations are taken in the same way by changing the
value of R and adjusting S.
b) Figure of merit
(I) Make connections as shown in diagram.
(II) Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ when the
circuit is closed.
(III) Repeat the steps to obtain valus for R for different values of
deflection.
 CALCULATIONS
Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G =
Mean value of figure of merit , K =

RESULT:
Resistance of the given galvanometer , G =
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, K =

PRECAUTIONS:
The connections should be clean, neat and tight.
The plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
The screws of the instruments may be loose.
The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 TABULAR COLUMN:

deflection in Shunt half galvanometer figure of

Resistance
galvanometer resistance deflection resistance merit
S.No. (R)
(θ ) (S) (θ/2) G=RS/(R-S) K=E/(R+G )θ
Ω div Ω div Ω A/div.

6
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror
and to find the focal length.
APPARATUS:
Light box, concave mirror, mirror holder, screen & meter scale.
THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given
mirror, then
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
By Mirror formula, 𝒇
= 𝒖
+
𝒗
 𝒖𝒗
Or, f = 𝒖+𝒗

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the concave mirror in the mirror holder and place a screen
in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the mirror by focusing a very distant
tree on the screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror
gives the rough focal length (distant object method).
(III) Now, Keep the light box in front of the mirror in a suitable
position.
(IV) For a known value of u, v is found out.
(V) A set of observations are done.
CALCULATIONS:
Mean value of focal length of the given concave mirror= cm= m
RESULT:
Focal length of the given concave mirror = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be avoided.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Mirror may not be clean.

RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

image
Object focal length (f)
distance
S.No. distance (u) f= uv / (u+v)
(v)
cm cm cm

5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and
v
APPARATUS:
An optic bench with three uprights ( central upright fixed and two outer
uprights with lateral movement) , two needles , convex lens, lens’ holder,
screen & meter scale.
THEORY:
If u is the object distance, v the image distance and f focal length of the given
lens, then
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
By lens formula, 𝒇
= 𝒗
−
𝒖

𝒖𝒗
Or, f = 𝒖−𝒗

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen in
front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very distant
tree on the screen. The distance between the screen and the mirror
gives the rough focal length (distant object method).
(III) The object needle is mounted in the outer laterally movable upright
near the zero end.
(IV) The given convex lens is mounted on the fixed upright at the centre
in a suitable position.
(V) The height of the object needle is adjusted to make its tip is in level
with the optic centre of the lens.
(VI) The image needle is mounted on the upright near the other end of
the optic bench.
(VII) The object needle is kept at a given value of u
(VIII) Now , from the other end, height of image needle is adjusted such
that its tip coincides with the tip of image of object needle.
(IX) The upright(image needle) is now moved to and fro until parallax
is completely eliminated.
(X) This gives the position of v corresponding to selected value of u.
(XI) The experiment is repeated for different values of u.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm = m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from calculations ) = cm
= m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = cm
= m

RESULT:
u-v graph is a rectangular hyperbola.
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = m

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance
at least 30 cm away from the needle..

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Uprights may not be vertical.
RAY DIAGRAM:
TABULAR COLUMN:

image
Object focal length (f)
distance
S.No. distance (u) f= uv / (u-v)
(v)
cm cm cm

5
 EXPERIMENT 7
CONCAVE LENS
AIM
To find the focal length of a concave lens
APPARATUS
Concave lens, convex lens, lens stand, source of light screen, scale.
THEORY:
When two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are kept in contact the resultant focal length
becomes
= +
Here if a concave lens of focal length f2 is kept in contact with a convex lens of focal
length f1 then
Focal length of concave lens is = −

PROCEDURE:
(I) Mount the convex lens in the lens holder and place a screen
in front of it.
(II) Find the rough focal length of the lens by focusing a very
distant tree on the screen. The distance between the screen
and the mirror gives the rough focal length (distant object
method).
(III) The object needle is mounted in the outer laterally movable
upright near the zero end.
(IV) The given convex lens is mounted on the fixed upright at the
centre in a suitable position.
(V) The height of the object needle is adjusted to make its tip is
in level with the optic centre of the lens.
(VI) The image needle is mounted on the upright near the other
end of the optic bench.
(VII) The object needle is kept at a given value of u
(VIII) Now , from the other end, height of image needle is adjusted
such that its tip coincides with the tip of image of object
needle.
(IX) The upright(image needle) is now moved to and fro until
parallax is completely eliminated.
(X) This gives the position of v corresponding to selected value of u.
(XI) The experiment is repeated for different values of u.
(XII) The same procedure have to repeat for finding out the focal length of the
combination of lenses.
CALCULATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm = m
Focal length of the given convex lens (from cm
calculations ) = = m
Rough focal length of the combination of lenses = cm = m

= − =

Focal length of the combination of lenses (from cm

calculations ) = = m
RESULT:
Focal length of the given convex lens (from u-v graph ) = M

PRECAUTIONS:
Readings should be taken carefully.
Parallax error should be removed from tip to tip by keeping
eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle..

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Parallax error removal may not be perfect.
Uprights may not be vertical.

RAY DIAGRAM
TABULAR COLUMN:

For convex lens

image
Object focal length (f)
S.No. distance
distance f1= uv / (u-v)
(v)
(u)
cm cm cm

For combination of lens

image
Object focal length (f)
S.No. distance
distance (u)
(v) f= uv / (u-v)
cm cm cm

5
 Exp. No. 8

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM :
To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n
junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
A pn Jn. Diode, a 3V battery, a 50 V battery, high
resistance rheostat, 0-3V voltmeter, 0-50V voltmeter,
0-100µA ammeter, one way key, connecting wire
and sand paper.
THEORY:
FORWARD BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to
positive terminal and n- section connected to
negative terminal of the battery, then it is forward
biased.
REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS:
When the p-section of the diode is connected to
negative terminal of the high voltage and n-section
connected to negative terminal of the battery, then it
is reverse biased.
PROCEDURE:
(I) Connect the apparatus as per the circuit diagram.
(II) Least count and zero error of ammeter and voltmeter are
noted.
(III) The moving contact of the potential divider is
so adjusted that the ammeter and voltmeter
show zero deflection.
(IV) Now the forward bias voltage is varied in slow
steps. For each value of voltmeter reading
corresponding readings in ammeter is noted.
(V) Similarly, voltmeter and ammeter readings
 when reverse biased is also taken.

RESULT:
The V-I characteristics of pn jn. Diode is drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:
All connections should be
clean , neat and tight. Biasing
beyond breakdown should not
be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Connections may be loose.
Junction diode
used may be
faulty.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABUAR COLUMN.
Forward biasing

forward forward
voltage current
(v) (mA)