WLU MA120 - Introduction to discrete structures

Chapter 2. Logic and Proof

(Section 1. Statements, connectives and truth tables)

Shengda Hu

Department of Mathematics

Wilfrid Laurier University

 Statements: first examples
Statements sentences in mathematics
. . . need to follow grammatic rules to be meaningful
 Statements: first examples
Statements sentences in mathematics
. . . need to follow grammatic rules to be meaningful
Definition (2.1.1)
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, an assertion or claim) which is
either true or false, but not both. The truth value of a statement is the truth (denoted by T )
or falsity (denoted by F ) of the statement.
 Statements: first examples
Statements sentences in mathematics
. . . need to follow grammatic rules to be meaningful
Definition (2.1.1)
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, an assertion or claim) which is
either true or false, but not both. The truth value of a statement is the truth (denoted by T )
or falsity (denoted by F ) of the statement.

Example (2.1.2 NOT statements)

Not declarative
Are we there yet?
Let’s take a moment.
Slow down!
 Statements: first examples
Statements sentences in mathematics
. . . need to follow grammatic rules to be meaningful
Definition (2.1.1)
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, an assertion or claim) which is
either true or false, but not both. The truth value of a statement is the truth (denoted by T )
or falsity (denoted by F ) of the statement.

Example (2.1.2 NOT statements)

Not a sentence
Not declarative
When the weather is better
Are we there yet?
2+2
Let’s take a moment.
d2
Slow down! (sin x)
dx 2
 Statements: first examples
Statements sentences in mathematics
. . . need to follow grammatic rules to be meaningful
Definition (2.1.1)
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, an assertion or claim) which is
either true or false, but not both. The truth value of a statement is the truth (denoted by T )
or falsity (denoted by F ) of the statement.

Example (2.1.2 NOT statements)

Not a sentence, but can be completed to a statement
Not declarative
When the weather is better, they are happy.
Are we there yet?
2 + 2= 5
Let’s take a moment.
d2
Slow down! (sin x)= − sin x
dx 2
Note Making a statement does not imply truth.
 Statements: more examples
Example (2.1.3)
The following sentences are statements.
1. Emily studies mathematics (T if she does)
2. It is not snowing (F if it is now)
3. Winston loves Big Brother in the end (T or F depending on how one reads 1984)
 Statements: more examples
Example (2.1.3)
The following sentences are statements.
1. Emily studies mathematics (T if she does)
2. It is not snowing (F if it is now)
3. Winston loves Big Brother in the end (T or F depending on how one reads 1984)
4. A nondegenerate △ABC is an acute triangle, an obtuse triangle or a right-angled triangle
(T )
5. 2 + 2 = 5 (F )
6. 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 6 (T )
7. If A is a nonempty set, then ∅ ⊂ A (T )
The last four sentences above are mathematical statements
 Statements: more examples
Example (2.1.3)
The following sentences are statements.
1. Emily studies mathematics (T if she does)
2. It is not snowing (F if it is now)
3. Winston loves Big Brother in the end (T or F depending on how one reads 1984)
4. A nondegenerate △ABC is an acute triangle, an obtuse triangle or a right-angled triangle
(T )
5. 2 + 2 = 5 (F )
6. 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 6 (T )
7. If A is a nonempty set, then ∅ ⊂ A (T )
The last four sentences above are mathematical statements
Note or, and and not are logical connectives and operations
 Statements: more examples
Example (2.1.3)
The following sentences are statements.
1. Emily studies mathematics (T if she does)
2. It is not snowing (F if it is now)
3. Winston loves Big Brother in the end (T or F depending on how one reads 1984)
4. A nondegenerate △ABC is an acute triangle, an obtuse triangle or a right-angled triangle
(T )
5. 2 + 2 = 5 (F )
6. 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 6 (T )
7. If A is a nonempty set, then ∅ ⊂ A (T )
The last four sentences above are mathematical statements
Note or, and and not are logical connectives and operations
In item 7. each subclause of the sentence is again a statement
 Statements: more examples
Example (2.1.3)
The following sentences are statements.
1. Emily studies mathematics (T if she does)
2. It is not snowing (F if it is now)
3. Winston loves Big Brother in the end (T or F depending on how one reads 1984)
4. A nondegenerate △ABC is an acute triangle, an obtuse triangle or a right-angled triangle
(T )
5. 2 + 2 = 5 (F )
6. 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 6 (T )
7. If A is a nonempty set, then ∅ ⊂ A (T )
The last four sentences above are mathematical statements
Note or, and and not are logical connectives and operations
In item 7. each subclause of the sentence is again a statement
compound statements
Logical connectives and operations
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Logical connectives: ∧ (conjuction), ∨ (disjunction), → (conditional) and ↔ (biconditional)

Logical operation: ∼ (negation)
 Logical connectives and operations
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Logical connectives: ∧ (conjuction), ∨ (disjunction), → (conditional) and ↔ (biconditional)

Logical operation: ∼ (negation)
From simple statements, using these connectives and operations, obtain more complicated ones
Definition (2.1.5)
A statement is a primitive statement if no simpler part of it forms a statement. A compound
statement is a statement composed of simpler statements, which are the substatements, with
help of logical operations and connectives.
 Logical connectives and operations
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Logical connectives: ∧ (conjuction), ∨ (disjunction), → (conditional) and ↔ (biconditional)

Logical operation: ∼ (negation)
From simple statements, using these connectives and operations, obtain more complicated ones
Definition (2.1.5)
A statement is a primitive statement if no simpler part of it forms a statement. A compound
statement is a statement composed of simpler statements, which are the substatements, with
help of logical operations and connectives.
Recap Each (properly formed) statement must have one of the two truth values

T or F
 Logical connectives and operations
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Logical connectives: ∧ (conjuction), ∨ (disjunction), → (conditional) and ↔ (biconditional)

Logical operation: ∼ (negation)
From simple statements, using these connectives and operations, obtain more complicated ones
Definition (2.1.5)
A statement is a primitive statement if no simpler part of it forms a statement. A compound
statement is a statement composed of simpler statements, which are the substatements, with
help of logical operations and connectives.
Recap Each (properly formed) statement must have one of the two truth values

T or F

The rules for determining the truth values of compound statements

are most directly displayed using truth tables
Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
p
T
F

These are standard truth tables for independent statements

 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
p p q
T T T
F T F
F T
F F

These are standard truth tables for independent statements

 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
p p q p q r
T T T T T T
F T F T T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
These are standard truth tables for independent statements
 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
p p q p q r
T T T T T T
F T F T T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
These are standard truth tables for independent statements
 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
Definition (2.1.4)
Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be k independent statements. We define the standard truth table of these
statements to be the listing of the possible combinations of their truth values. The table consists
of two parts:
▶ p1 , p2 , . . . , pk in order above a horizontal line, as heads of columns
▶ k columns of T or F in 2k rows below the horizontal line presenting the 2k distinct
combinations of the truth values of p1 , p2 , . . . , pk in the following form:
1. In the p1 column, T appears in the top half, followed by F in the lower half;
2. In the pk column, where k ⩾ 2, for each block of rows in which the first k − 1 columns have
the same pattern, T appears in the top half, followed by F in the lower half.
 Truth table: independent statements
Notation : “Simple” statements are denoted by the lower case letters p, q, r , s, etc.
First look at truth tables of independent statements
Definition (2.1.4)
Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be k independent statements. We define the standard truth table of these
statements to be the listing of the possible combinations of their truth values. The table consists
of two parts:
▶ p1 , p2 , . . . , pk in order above a horizontal line, as heads of columns
▶ k columns of T or F in 2k rows below the horizontal line presenting the 2k distinct
combinations of the truth values of p1 , p2 , . . . , pk in the following form:
1. In the p1 column, T appears in the top half, followed by F in the lower half;
2. In the pk column, where k ⩾ 2, for each block of rows in which the first k − 1 columns have
the same pattern, T appears in the top half, followed by F in the lower half.

Note The number of distinct combinations will be computed in Chapter 4.

and click this

 Truth table: compound statements
Bookkeeping for compound statements
Definition (2.1.6)
Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be the independent primitive statements that make up the statement S. We
define the truth table of the compound statement S to be the extension of the standard
truth table of p1 , p2 , . . . , pk that lists the truth values of S in a new column, headed by the
symbol S above the horizontal line, corresponding to every combination of the truth values of
p1 , p2 , . . . , pk .
 Truth table: compound statements
Bookkeeping for compound statements
Definition (2.1.6)
Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be the independent primitive statements that make up the statement S. We
define the truth table of the compound statement S to be the extension of the standard
truth table of p1 , p2 , . . . , pk that lists the truth values of S in a new column, headed by the
symbol S above the horizontal line, corresponding to every combination of the truth values of
p1 , p2 , . . . , pk .

p1 p2 ... pk S
T T ... T ⋆
T ... ... F ⋆
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
F ... ... T ⋆
F F ... F ⋆
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p and read “not p” or
“it is false (not true) that p”, is a statement that is the logical opposite of p. Namely, when p is
true, ∼ p is false; when p is false, ∼ p is true.
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p and read “not p” or
“it is false (not true) that p”, is a statement that is the logical opposite of p. Namely, when p is
true, ∼ p is false; when p is false, ∼ p is true. As a compound statement constructed from p, it
has the truth table
p ∼p
T F
F T
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p has the truth table

p ∼p
T F
F T

Example (2.1.8)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
p: It is raining now
q: The integer 7 is even
r: The real number r ⩾ 0
Their negations are thus, respectively,
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p has the truth table

p ∼p
T F
F T

Example (2.1.8)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
p: It is raining now
q: The integer 7 is even
r: The real number r ⩾ 0
Their negations are thus, respectively,
∼ p: It is not raining now
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p has the truth table

p ∼p
T F
F T

Example (2.1.8)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
p: It is raining now
q: The integer 7 is even
r: The real number r ⩾ 0
Their negations are thus, respectively,
∼ q: The integer 7 is not even, OR: The integer 7 is odd. (Definition 1.1.27)
 Statement compounding: negation
Definition (2.1.7)
Let p stand for an arbitrary statement. The negation of p, denoted by ∼ p has the truth table

p ∼p
T F
F T

Example (2.1.8)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
p: It is raining now
q: The integer 7 is even
r: The real number r ⩾ 0
Their negations are thus, respectively,
∼ r : It is not true that the real number r ⩾ 0
OR: The real number r < 0. (Theorem 1.1.16)
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The logical, binary operation conjunction of p and q,
denoted by p ∧ q and read “p and q”, is defined to have the same meaning of the conjunction
“and” that links two sentences in English grammar. Namely, the compound statement p ∧ q is
true only when both p and q are true, and it is false otherwise.
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The logical, binary operation conjunction of p and q,
denoted by p ∧ q and read “p and q”, is defined to have the same meaning of the conjunction
“and” that links two sentences in English grammar. Namely, the compound statement p ∧ q is
true only when both p and q are true, and it is false otherwise. If p and q are independent, p ∧ q
has the truth table:
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example (2.1.10)
Let p and q be given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example (2.1.10)
Let p and q be given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
Then the conjunction p ∧ q is:
p ∧ q: Jane passed both Calculus I and Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
 Statement compounding: conjunction
Definition (2.1.9)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example (2.1.10)
Let p and q be given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
Then the conjunction p ∧ (∼ q) is:
p ∧ (∼ q): Jane passed Calculus I and failed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∧ (∼ q)
1. The table for ∼ q based on the standard truth table for p and q
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∧ (∼ q)
1. The table for ∼ q based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction p ∧ (∼ q) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ q
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∧ (∼ q)
1. The table for ∼ q based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction p ∧ (∼ q) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ q
p q ∼q
T T F
T F T
F T F
F F T
Step: 1
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∧ (∼ q)
1. The table for ∼ q based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction p ∧ (∼ q) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ q
p ∼q p ∧ (∼ q)
T F F
T T T
F F F
F T F
Step: 2
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∧ (∼ q)
1. The table for ∼ q based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction p ∧ (∼ q) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ q
Putting the two steps together:

p q ∼q p ∧ (∼ q)
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F
Step: 1 2
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The binary logical operation disjunction of p and q,
denoted by p ∨ q and read “p or q”, is defined to have the same inclusive meaning of the
disjunction “or” that links two sentences in English grammar. Namely, the compound statement
p ∨ q is true when p, q or both are true, and it is false otherwise.
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The binary logical operation disjunction of p and q,
denoted by p ∨ q and read “p or q”, is defined to have the same inclusive meaning of the
disjunction “or” that links two sentences in English grammar. Namely, the compound statement
p ∨ q is true when p, q or both are true, and it is false otherwise. If p and q are independent,
p ∨ q has the truth table:
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example (2.1.12)
Let p and q be again given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example (2.1.12)
Let p and q be again given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
Then the disjunction p ∨ (∼ p) is:
p ∨ (∼ p): Jane passed Calculus I or Jane failed Calculus I last term.
 Statement compounding: disjunction
Definition (2.1.11)
Let p and q be arbitrary statements. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q has the
truth table below, if p and q are independent:

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example (2.1.12)
Let p and q be again given as follows:
▶ p: Jane passed Calculus I last term.
▶ q: Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
Then the disjunction (∼ p) ∨ q is:
(∼ p) ∨ q: Jane failed Calculus I or Jane passed Introductory Linear Algebra last term.
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∨ (∼ p)
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∨ (∼ p)
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p
2. the table for the conjunction p ∨ (∼ p) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ p
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∨ (∼ p)
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p
2. the table for the conjunction p ∨ (∼ p) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ p
p ∼p
T F
T F
F T
F T
Step: 1
 Conjunction: truth table computation
Truth table for the compound statement p ∨ (∼ p)
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p
2. the table for the conjunction p ∨ (∼ p) based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements p and ∼ p
p ∼p p ∨ (∼ p)
T F T
T F T
F T T
F T T
Step: 1 2
 Conjunction: truth table computation (cont.)
Truth table for the compound statement (∼ p) ∨ q
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p and q
 Conjunction: truth table computation (cont.)
Truth table for the compound statement (∼ p) ∨ q
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction (∼ p) ∨ q based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements ∼ p and q
 Conjunction: truth table computation (cont.)
Truth table for the compound statement (∼ p) ∨ q
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction (∼ p) ∨ q based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements ∼ p and q
p q ∼p
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T
Step: 1
 Conjunction: truth table computation (cont.)
Truth table for the compound statement (∼ p) ∨ q
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction (∼ p) ∨ q based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements ∼ p and q
∼p q (∼ p) ∨ q
F T T
F F F
T T T
T F T
Step: 2
 Conjunction: truth table computation (cont.)
Truth table for the compound statement (∼ p) ∨ q
1. The table for ∼ p based on the standard truth table for p and q
2. the table for the conjunction (∼ p) ∨ q based on the standard truth table for the
independent substatements ∼ p and q
Putting the two steps together:

p q ∼p (∼ p) ∨ q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Step: 1 2
 Statement compounding: conditional
Definition (2.1.13)
For arbitrary statements p and q, the conditional from p to q, denoted by p → q and read “if p
then q”, is defined as the logical compound statement that has T value if q is at least as true as
p, and it has F value otherwise. If p and q are independent, p → q has the truth table:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 Statement compounding: conditional
Definition (2.1.13)
For arbitrary statements p and q, the conditional from p to q, denoted by p → q and read “if p
then q”, is defined as the logical compound statement that has T value if q is at least as true as
p, and it has F value otherwise. If p and q are independent, p → q has the truth table:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Interpretation T is “truer” than F , and F is “as true as” F itself

 Statement compounding: conditional
Definition (2.1.13)
For arbitrary statements p and q, the conditional from p to q, denoted by p → q and read “if p
then q”, is defined as the logical compound statement that has T value if q is at least as true as
p, and it has F value otherwise. If p and q are independent, p → q has the truth table:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Interpretation T is “truer” than F , and F is “as true as” F itself

Alternatively “Garbage in, garbage out”, even though the process could be completely valid
 Statement compounding: conditional
Definition (2.1.13)
For arbitrary statements p and q, the conditional from p to q, denoted by p → q and read “if p
then q”, is defined as the logical compound statement that has T value if q is at least as true as
p, and it has F value otherwise. If p and q are independent, p → q has the truth table:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Interpretation T is “truer” than F , and F is “as true as” F itself

Alternatively “Garbage in, garbage out”, even though the process could be completely valid
No more than Comparing truthfulness: “It rains today” → “The Earth goes around the Sun”
 Conditional: translation
Example (2.1.14)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
 Conditional: translation
Example (2.1.14)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
A passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
A student of Calculus I who has obtained at least 60% total marks will pass the course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
p→r
 Conditional: translation
Example (2.1.14)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
A passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
A student of Calculus I who has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper and obtained
at least 60% total marks will pass the course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
(p ∧ q) → r
 Conditional: translation
Example (2.1.14)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
A passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
A student of Calculus I who has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper and obtained
at least 60% total marks will pass the course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
(p ∧ q) → r

Caution The truth value of the right side of → GIVES NO indication of the truth value of its
left side, even if the compound statement has T as the truth value
 Conditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.14 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p → r
p r p→r
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 Conditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.14 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p → r For (p ∧ q) → r
p r p→r p q r p∧q
T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T T F T F
F F T T F F F
F T T F
F T F F
F F T F
F F F F
Step: 1
 Conditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.14 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p → r For (p ∧ q) → r
p r p→r p q r p∧q (p ∧ q) → r
T T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T F
F T T T F T F T
F F T T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T
Step: 1 2
 Conditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.14 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p → r For (p ∧ q) → r
p r p→r p q r p∧q (p ∧ q) → r
T T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T F
F T T T F T F T
F F T T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T
Step: 1 2
Caution The truth value of the right side of → GIVES NO indication of the truth value of its
left side, even if the compound statement has T as the truth value
 Statement compounding: biconditional
Definition (2.1.15)
For arbitrary statements p and q, the biconditional of p and q, denoted by p ↔ q and read “p
if and only if q” (or “the necessary and sufficient condition for q is p”), is defined as the logical
compound statement that has T value if q has the same truth value as p, and it has F value
otherwise. If p and q are independent, p ↔ q has the truth table:

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Bionditional: translation
Example (2.1.16)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
 Bionditional: translation
Example (2.1.16)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
Another passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
The necessary and sufficient condition for a student to pass Calculus I is that the student
has obtained at least 60% total marks in the course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
p↔r
 Bionditional: translation
Example (2.1.16)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
Another passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
The necessary and sufficient condition for a student to pass Calculus I is that the student
has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper and obtained at least 60% total marks in the
course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
(p ∧ q) ↔ r
 Bionditional: translation
Example (2.1.16)
Let p, q and r be given as follows:
▶ p: A student of Calculus I has obtained at least 60% total marks
▶ q: A student of Calculus I has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper
▶ r : The student passes Calculus I
Another passing condition for Calculus I can be stated as follows
The necessary and sufficient condition for a student to pass Calculus I is that the student
has scored at least 50 marks on the final paper and obtained at least 60% total marks in the
course
which is translated into the following compound statement:
(p ∧ q) ↔ r

Recall “necessary and sufficient condition” means “if and only if” means “biconditional”.
 Biconditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.16 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p ↔ r
p r p↔r
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Biconditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.16 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p ↔ r For (p ∧ q) ↔ r
p r p↔r p q r p∧q
T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T F T F T F
F F T T F F F
F T T F
F T F F
F F T F
F F F F
Step: 1
 Biconditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.16 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p ↔ r For (p ∧ q) ↔ r
p r p↔r p q r p∧q (p ∧ q) ↔ r
T T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T F
F T F T F T F F
F F T T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F F T
F F T F F
F F F F T
Step: 1 2
 Biconditional: truth table computation
Example (2.1.16 (cont.))
We can write down their respective truth table as follows
For p ↔ r For (p ∧ q) ↔ r
p r p↔r p q r p∧q (p ∧ q) ↔ r
T T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T F
F T F T F T F F
F F T T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F F T
F F T F F
F F F F T
Step: 1 2
Note The truth value of the last column really is about the process ↔
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
p q r (p ∧ q) ∨ r p ∧ (q ∨ r )
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F T F F F
F F T T F
F F F F F
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Too many brackets can also be confusing
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Too many brackets can also be confusing
the negation “∼” applies only to the statement to its immediate right
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Too many brackets can also be confusing
the negation “∼” applies only to the statement to its immediate right
∼p∧q v.s. ∼ (p ∧ q)
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Too many brackets can also be confusing
the negation “∼” applies only to the statement to its immediate right
∼p∧q v.s. ∼ (p ∧ q)
p q ∼p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q)
T T F F
T F F T
F T T T
F F F T
Using truth table
word and or not if ... then if and only if
symbol ∧ ∨ ∼ → ↔

Operations on statements: using one or two statements to produce another statement

Rules of operation
Commutativity? Associativity? Distributivity? . . .
Order of operation use of brackets
(p ∧ q) ∨ r v.s. p ∧ (q ∨ r )
Too many brackets can also be confusing
the negation “∼” applies only to the statement to its immediate right
∼p∧q v.s. ∼ (p ∧ q)
∧, ∨, → and ↔ apply only to the statements immediately to their left and right
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements
2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement
3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B The boxed part seems to be primitive
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B The boxed part seems to be primitive
x̸∈A ∩ B ∼ x ∈ A∩B
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B The boxed part seems to be primitive
x̸∈A ∩ B ∼ x ∈ A∩B
x ∈ A∩B x ∈A∧x ∈B
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B The boxed part seems to be primitive
x̸∈A ∩ B ∼ x ∈ A∩B
x ∈ A∩B x ∈A∧x ∈B The boxed parts seem to be primitive
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

1. Write the underlying logical statement for R by identifying its primitive statements

Analysis Look at the structure from outside in

If . . . then x ∈A
/ ∩ B → x ∈B
/
x̸∈B ∼x ∈B The boxed part seems to be primitive
x̸∈A ∩ B ∼ x ∈ A∩B
x ∈ A∩B x ∈A∧x ∈B The boxed parts seem to be primitive
1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements
The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement

3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true

1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements

The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
2. Just have to do it
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement

3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true

1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements

The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
2. Just have to do it p q ∼ (p ∧ q) → ∼q
T T F T T F
T F T F T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T T
Step: 2 1 3 2
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement

3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true

1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements

The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
2.
p q ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
T T T
T F T
F T F
F F T
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement

3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true

1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements

The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
2.
p q ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q 3. It is in fact easier to say that
T T T the statement R is false
T F T exactly when x ∈ B but x ̸∈ A
F T F i.e. x ∈ B − A
F F T
 Using truth table (math logic)
Example (2.1.17)
Mathematical statement R:
If x ∈A∩B,
/ then x ∈B
/

2. Examine the truth table of the underlying compound logical statement

3. Determine the condition(s) under which the statement R is true

1. p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B are the primitive statements

The underlying logical statement for R is ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q
2. 3. It is in fact easier to say that
p q ∼ (p ∧ q) →∼ q the statement R is false
T T T exactly when x ∈ B but x ̸∈ A
T F T i.e. x ∈ B − A
F T F Or we can also say
F F T R is true if and only if x ̸∈ B − A
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
1. Construct the truth table of the compound statement S
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼: not ((x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈A)
/ ∨ (x ∈B))
/
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼: not ((x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈A)
/ ∨ (x ∈B))
/
∧: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈
/ A)∨(x ∈
/ B))
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼: not ((x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈A)
/ ∨ (x ∈B))
/
∧: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈
/ A)∨(x ∈/ B))
∨: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B))↔((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼: not ((x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈A)
/ ∨ (x ∈B))
/
∧: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) ↔ ((x ∈/ A)∨(x ∈ / B))
∨: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B))↔((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈ / B))
↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
not : x ∈A
/ ∩ B if and only if ((x ∈A)
/ or (x ∈B))
/
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
not : x ∈A
/ ∩ B if and only if ((x ∈A)
/ or (x ∈B))
/
∈:
/ x∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x∈ Ac or x∈ B c
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
not : x ∈A
/ ∩ B if and only if ((x ∈A)
/ or (x ∈B))
/
∈:
/ x∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x∈ Ac or x∈ B c
x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c : x ∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x ∈ Ac ∪ B c
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
not : x ∈A
/ ∩ B if and only if ((x ∈A)
/ or (x ∈B))
/
∈:
/ x∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x∈ Ac or x∈ B c
x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c : x ∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x ∈ Ac ∪ B c
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Analysis
p : x ∈ A: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ q) ↔ (∼ (x ∈ A) ∨ ∼ q)
q : x ∈ B: ∼ ((x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)) ↔ (∼(x ∈ A) ∨ ∼(x ∈ B))
∼, ∧, ∨, ↔: not ((x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B)) if and only if ((x ∈
/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
Wrap up:
(x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B): not (x ∈ A ∩ B) if and only if ((x ∈/ A) or (x ∈
/ B))
not : x ∈A
/ ∩ B if and only if ((x ∈A)
/ or (x ∈B))
/
∈:
/ x∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x∈ Ac or x∈ B c
x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c : x ∈ (A ∩ B)c if and only if x ∈ Ac ∪ B c
Conclusion: by Definition 1.2.3, the mathematical statement is
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c (Proposition 1.2.17, part 9.)
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
2. For p : x ∈ A and q : x ∈ B
interpret the mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement

2. Write up For the given p and q

∼ (p ∧ q) is interpreted as x ∈ (A ∩ B)c
∼ p∨ ∼ q is interpreted as x ∈ Ac ∪ B c
The mathematical statement that has S as its underlying logical statement is

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
1. Construct the truth table of the compound statement S

1. The truth table for the statement S can be constructed in 3 steps:

p q ∼ (p ∧ q) ↔ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q)
T T F T T F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F T F T T
Step: 2 1 3 1
 Using truth table (logic math)
Example (2.1.18)
A and B are subsets of U (the universal set)
Logical statement S: ∼ (p∧q)↔(∼p ∨∼q)
1. Construct the truth table of the compound statement S

1. The truth table for the statement S can be constructed in 3 steps:

p q ∼ (p ∧ q) ↔ (∼ p ∨ ∼ q)
T T F T T F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F T F T T
Step: 2 1 3 1

Note No matter what truth values p and q have, S is always true!

 Tautology and contradiction
Definition (2.1.19)
A compound statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its component
statements, is said to be logically true and is called a tautology. The truth table of a tautology
must consist of all T ’s.
A statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its component statements, is
said to be logically false and is called a contradiction. The truth table of a logically false
statement consists of all F ’s.
 Tautology and contradiction
Definition (2.1.19)
A compound statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its component
statements, is said to be logically true and is called a tautology. The truth table of a tautology
must consist of all T ’s.
A statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its component statements, is
said to be logically false and is called a contradiction. The truth table of a logically false
statement consists of all F ’s.
Observation The negation of a tautology is a contradiction, and vice versa.
 Tautology and contradiction
Definition (2.1.19)
A compound statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its component
statements, is said to be logically true and is called a tautology. The truth table of a tautology
must consist of all T ’s.
A statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its component statements, is
said to be logically false and is called a contradiction. The truth table of a logically false
statement consists of all F ’s.
Observation The negation of a tautology is a contradiction, and vice versa.
Caution Tautologies and contradictions are two extremes. A statement could be neither
 Tautology and contradiction
Definition (2.1.19)
A compound statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its component
statements, is said to be logically true and is called a tautology. The truth table of a tautology
must consist of all T ’s.
A statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its component statements, is
said to be logically false and is called a contradiction. The truth table of a logically false
statement consists of all F ’s.
Observation The negation of a tautology is a contradiction, and vice versa.
Caution Tautologies and contradictions are two extremes. A statement could be neither

Comment
Rules that are always true must be tautologies
Tautologies can serve as useful rules in proof
“All mathematics can be thought of as trying to prove 0 = 0”