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04 Semiconductor Electronics

Introduction
The word "electronics' is derived from electron+dynamics which means the study of the behaviour of an
electron under different conditions of externally applied fields.
This field of science deals with electronic devices and their utilization. An electronic device is a device in
which conduction takes place by the movement of electron - through a vacuum, a gas or a semiconductor.
Some familiar devices are : (i) Rectifier (ii) Amplifier (iii) Oscillator etc.
Application of Electronics
Communication Entertainment Defence Medical
Telephone TV Broadcast Radar X-rays
Telegraph Radio Broadcast Guided missiles Electro cardio graph (E.C.G.)
Mobile phone VCR, VCD CRO display
FAX, FM mic Electro Engio Graph (E.E.G.)
Main application of electronics is computer which is used in every field.
All electronics equipment’s required D.C. supply for operation (not A.C. supply).
Classification of Materials and Energy Band Theory
Classification of Solids
Solids

On the basis of On the basis of

Conductivity & resistivity Energy bands

On the basis of conductivity & resistivity: It have three types;

1. Conductors 2. Insulators 3. Semiconductors
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
Abundance of free e− Very few free e– Few free e−
High conductivity Low conductivity Intermediate conductivity
(σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1) (σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1) (σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1)
Low resistivity High resistivity Intermediate resistivity
( ~ 10–2 – 10–8 m) ( ~ 1011 – 1019 m) ( ~ 10–5 – 106 m)
Effect of temperature: (At very high temperature) (At room temperature)
T ↑ R ↑ ρ ↑ σ↓ T ↑ R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑ T ↑ R ↓ ρ↓ σ↑
 = +ve  =− ve  =−ve ( = temp. coefficient)
E.g. : Metals E.g.: Rubber, Wood, Plastic, E.g. : Si, Ge, GaAs, CdS, anthracene,
Diamond etc. Polypyrole, Polyaniline etc
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Energy Bands in Solids
• In isolated atoms the energy levels of electrons are discrete.
• When we draw the energy level diagram of isolated Si atom then we obtain different energy levels
corresponding to the energy of different electrons in different orbits.
e e

e + e e + e

e e

• However, if an atom belongs to a crystal, then the energy levels are modified.
• Consider a single crystal of silicon having N atoms. Each atom can be associated
with a lattice site.
• Electronic configuration of 14Si is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2.

• Therefore interaction of a silicon atom with the neighbouring atom causes change in energy levels
of electron.
• This modification is not appreciable in the case of energy levels of electrons in the inner shells
(completely filled).
• But in the outermost shells, modification is appreciable because the electrons are shared by many
neighbouring atoms.
• So, what used to be the discrete energy levels, now split-up or spread out to form energy bands.
Valence Band: This is lower energy band, which contains valence electrons.
This band is either partially or completely filled with electrons but never be empty.
The electrons in this band are not capable of taking part in conduction of current.
Conduction Band: This is the higher band containing conduction electrons.
This band is either empty or partially filled with electrons.
Electrons present in this band take part in the conduction of current.
This band is completely empty. Electron is forbid to be in this energy gap.
The minimum energy required to shift an electron from valence band to conduction band is called
band gap (Eg).
Eg = (CB)min – (VB)max
It depends on nature of solid and on the interatomic separation.
It also depends on temperature, but this dependence is very weak.
Band gap or Forbidden Energy gap (FEG) (Eg)
Eg = (CB)min – (VB)max Conduction band
Energy (eV)

(i) It is the energy gap between CB and VB. forbidden

(ii) It is also called forbidden energy gap because free electrons cannot energy gap
exist in this gap. Valence band
(iii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of substance.
(iv) Width is more, then valence electrons are strongly attached with
nucleus.
(v) Width of forbidden energy gap is represented in eV.
(vi) As temperature increases forbidden energy gap decreases (very slightly).
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Semiconductor Electronics
Classification of solids According to Energy Band Theory
According to energy band theory solids are conductor, semiconductor and insulator :

CB
CB
CB
overlapping
region ~1eV >3eV
VB

VB
VB

conductor semiconductor insulator

(Cu, Fe, Al, Na etc.) (Si, Ge, GaAs etc.) (Diamond, wood etc.)

Conductor: In some solids conduction band and valence band are overlapped so there is no band gap
between them, it means Eg = 0. Due to this a large number of electrons are available for electrical conduction
and therefore its resistivity is low ( = 10–2 – 10–8 -m) and conductivity is high [ =102 – 108 (-m)–1]
Such materials are called conductors. For example, gold, silver, copper etc.
Insulator: In some solids energy gap is large (Eg > 3 eV). So, in conduction band there are no electrons and
no electrical conduction is possible. Here energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be easily excited from
the valence band to conduction band by any external energy (electrical, thermal or optical).
Such materials are called as "insulator". Their r > 1011 W-m and s < 10–11 (W-m)–1
Semiconductor: In some solids a finite but small band gap exists (Eg < 3eV). Due to this small band gap
some electrons can be thermally excited to "conduction band". These thermally excited electrons can move
in conduction band and can conduct current. Their resistivity and conductivity both are in medium range,
 ; 10–5 – 106 -m and  ; 10–6 – 105 -m–1 .
Example of semiconducting materials
Elemental semiconductor : Si and Ge
Compound semiconductor • Inorganic : CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP etc.
• Organic : Anthracene, Doped pthalocyanines etc.
• Organic polymers : Poly pyrrole, Poly aniline, polythiophene
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors in their purest form. Free from any type of impurity All the EC
covalent bonds are complete, No free electrons. Valence bands are Eg
completely filled. Conduction bands are complete empty. It behaves as
EV
perfect insulator.
Some of the covalent bonds are broken due to thermal energy.

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(Thermally generated free electron)

EC
+4 +4 +4

Eg
Hole at site 1
(electron vacancy) EV
+4 Site 1 +4 +4

Site 2
+4 +4 +4

+4 Si or Ge

On receiving an additional energy, one of the electrons from a covalent bond breaks and is free to move in
the crystal lattice.
While coming out of the covalent bond, it leaves behind a vacancy named ‘hole’. This process is called
Electron-hole pair generation.
In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of thermally generated electrons always equals the number
of holes.
ne = free electron concentration, nh = hole concentration
ne =nh = ni
Total Current = Ih + Ie
Valence Band Current Ih , Conduction Band Current Ie
Conductivity ()
σ = e (ne μe + nh μh) = σe + σh
Where, σe = μe ne e & σh = μh nh e
Properties of Semiconductor
Negative temperature coefficient (), with increase in temperature resistance decreases.
Crystalline structure with covalent bonding [Face centred cubic (FCC)].
Conduction properties may change by adding small impurities.
Position in periodic table → IV group (Generally)
Forbidden energy gap (0.1 ev to 3 ev)
Charge carriers : electron and hole.
There are many semiconductors but few of them have practical application in electronics like
Ge32 : 2, 8, 18, 4 Si14 : 2, 8, 4

CB CB
Energy (eV)

Energy (eV)

0.7 eV 1.1 eV
VB
VB

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Effect of temperature
At absolute zero kelvin temperature at this Above absolute temperature with increase in
temperature covalent bonds are very strong temperature some covalent bonds are broken
and there are no free electrons and and few valence electrons jump to conduction
semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator. band and hence it behaves as poor conductor.

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

hole

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

at 0k at higher temperature
Valence band conduction band Valence band conduction band
fully filled fully empty partially empty partially filled

Concept of electron current and hole current

In conductors current is caused by only motion of electrons but in semiconductors current is caused by
both electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band.
Current that is caused by electron motion is called electron current and current that is caused by hole
motion is called hole current. Electron is a negative charge carrier whereas hole is a positive charge carrier.
At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulator. However, at room
temperature the electrons present in the outermost orbit absorb thermal energy. When the outermost
orbit electrons get enough energy then they will break bonding with the nucleus of atom and jumps in to
conduction band. The electrons present in conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of an atom so
they are free to move.
When the valence electron moves from valence band to the conduction band a vacancy is created in the
valence band where electron left. Such vacancy is called hole.
Conduction band

Electron flow Electron

A A B A C B A
fig(1) fig(2) fig(3) fig(4)
Hole flow Hole
Valence band
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Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor
The process of conduction in intrinsic semiconductor is shown in below fig. In the below fig, an intrinsic
semiconductor is connected to a battery.
Here, positive terminal of battery is connected to one side and negative terminal of the battery is connected
to other side. As we know like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other. In the
similar way negative charge carriers (electrons) are attracted towards the positive terminal of battery and
positive charge carriers (holes) attracted towards the negative terminal of battery.
Flow of holes
Flow of electrons
Free electron

Hole

+ –

Battery

Electrons will experience a attractive force from the positive terminal, so they move towards the positive
terminal of the battery by carrying the electric current. Similarly, holes will experience a attractive force
from the negative terminal, so they moves towards the negative terminal of the battery by carrying the
electric current. Thus, in a semiconductor electric current is carried by both electrons and holes.
In intrinsic semiconductor the number of free electrons in conduction band is equal to the number of holes
in valence band. The current caused by electrons and holes is equal in magnitude.
The total current in intrinsic semiconductor is the sum of hole and electron current.
 = hole + electron
Extrinsic Semiconductors
n-type and p-type Semiconductor
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, but at room temperature its
conductivity is very low. As such, no important electronic devices can be developed using these
semiconductors.
Hence there is a necessity of improving their conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities.
When a small amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. Such materials are known as
extrinsic semiconductors or impurity semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities. The impurity
modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic devices
such as diodes and transistors.
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants.
Such a material is also called a doped semiconductor.
Intrinsic Semiconductor + Dopants = Extrinsic Semiconductor
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Properties of Dopants
It occupies only a very few of the original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal.

1 : 104 1 : 106 1 : 108

High Doping Moderate Low doping
Doping

It should not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. Pentavalent

Sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be
Impurities / Dopants
nearly the same.
It should give away holes or electron for conduction very
Trivalent
easily.
1. n-type semiconductor
When Si or Ge is doped with a pentavalent impurity, n-type semiconductor is formed. The force of
attraction between this mobile electron and the positively charged (+5) impurity ion is weakened. So, such
electrons from impurity atoms will have energies slightly less than the energies of the electrons in the
conduction band. The energy required to detach the fifth loosely bound electron is only of the order of 0.05
eV for Si and 0.01 eV for Ge. A small amount of energy provided due to thermal agitation is sufficient to
detach this electron and it is ready to conduct current.

+4 +4 +4

Free e–
EC
+4 +5 +4
ED
 0.05 eV Eg
Donor level
EV
+4 +4 +4

+4 Si or Ge

+5 P or As or Sb

Free electron concentration is mainly decided by the donor impurity concentration. (ne = ND)
The number of holes decreases because of increase in rate of recombination.
Free electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. (ne >> nh)
Total current in semiconductor is mainly due to electron current,  = e + h  e
Overall semiconductor is still neutral.
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2. P-type semiconductor
When Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity, p-type semiconductor is formed. The vacancy of trivalent
impurity may be filled with an electron from neighbouring atom, creating a hole in that position from
where the electron jumped. The acceptor impurity produces an energy level just above the valence band.
The energy difference between the acceptor energy level and the top of the valence band is much smaller
(0.01 eV) than the band gap. Electrons from the valence band can, easily move into the acceptor level by
being thermally agitated.

+4 +4 +4

Hole EC
Acceptor level
+4 +3 +4
Eg
EA
 0.01
EV – 0.05 eV
+4 +4 +4

+4 Si or Ge

+5 B or Al or In or Ga

Hole concentration is mainly decided by the acceptor impurity concentration. (nh = NA)
The number of electrons further decreases due to increase in rate of recombination.
Holes are the majority carriers and free electrons are the minority carriers. (nh  ne)
Total current in semiconductor is mainly due to hole current,  = e + h  h
Overall semiconductor is still neutral.

Intrinsic N-type (Pentavalent impurity) P-type(Trivalent impurity)

Semiconductor

CB CB CB
donor acceptor
1. impurity impurity
VB VB level level
VB

free hole
2. electron negative
positive acceptor
donor ion ion

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Semiconductor Electronics
3. Current is due to Mainly due to electrons Mainly due to holes
both electrons
and holes
4. ne = nh = ni ne >> nh (ND ne) nh >> ne (NA nh)
5. I = Ie + Ih I Ie I Ih
6. Entirely neutral Entirely neutral Entirely neutral
7. Quantity of Majority – Electrons Majority – Holes
electrons and Minority – Holes Minority - Electrons
holes are equal

Mass action law

At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionised leaving holes in the valence band. Thus at
room temperature the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to impurity in the
extrinsic semiconductor.
“Rate of generation of charge carriers is equal to rate of recombination of charge carriers.”
ne nh = ni2
Note: ni depends only on the nature of semiconductor material and temperature, it does not depend on
the doping level.
Illustration 1:
Pure Si at 300 K has equal electron (ne) and hole (nh) concentrations of 1.5 × 1016 m–3. Doping by indium
nh increases to 3 × 1022 m–3. Calculate ne in the doped Si.
Solution:
For a doped semi-conductor in thermal equilibrium nenh = n2i (Law of mass action)

n2i (1.5  1016 )2

ne = = = 7.5 × 109 m–3
nh 3  1022

Doping
Doping is the mixing of impure atoms in a pure semiconductor material. Here the impure atoms refer to
the atoms that are different from the pure semiconductor. The most commonly used impure atoms are
Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Arsenic (As), Phosphorus (P) etc.
Necessity of Doping: The Conductivity of semiconductors is very poor at room temperature. To get a
significant amount of conductivity we need to increase the temperature of the semiconductor to a high
value. But it is practically impossible to use the semiconductor devices at a very high temperatures above
50°C.
Now, doping can increase the conductivity of semiconductors by a significant amount even at room
temperature. At this one can use semiconductor devices comfortably at room temperature.
So, we need the doping in semiconductor materials to increase their conductivity without increasing the
temperature which enables us to use semiconductor devices at room temperature.
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BEGINNER’S BOX-1
1. The diagram shows a piece of pure semiconductor S, in series with a variable resistor R, and a
source of constant voltage V. Would you increase or decrease the value of R to keep the reading
of ammeter (A) constant, when semiconductor S is heated ? Give reason.

V S
A
R

2. Pure Si at 300 K has equal electron ne and hole nh concentration of 1.5 × 1016/m3. Doping by
indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022/m3. Calculate ne in doped silicon.
3. Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m–3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of
pentavalent As. Calculate the number of electrons and hole. (Given that ni = 1·5 × 1016 m–3.)
4. For given semiconductor contribution of current due to electron and hole is in ratio 3/1 and the
ratio of drift velocity for electron and hole is 5/2, then calculate the ratio of electron to hole
concentration.

P-N Junction Diode & Diode Formation

When a p-type semiconductor is joined to a n-type semiconductor such that the crystal structure remains
continuous at the boundary, the resulting arrangement is called a p-n junction diode.
There are two important processes in the p-n junction.
1. Diffusion 2. Drift
1. Diffusion
It occurs for majority charge carriers due to concentration gradient. Holes diffuses from p-side to n-side of
the junction. Electrons diffuses from n-side to p-side of the junction. Direction of diffusion current is from
p-side to n-side.
2. Drift
It occurs for minority charge carriers due to electric field in the depletion region. Electron drift from p-side
to the n-side of the junction. Holes drift from n-side to the p-side of the junction.
Electrons and holes drift to their respective majority sides. Direction of drift current is from n to p, opposite
to that of diffusion current. Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion
process continues, the electric field strength increases and hence drift current. This process continues until
the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus, a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under
equilibrium there is no net current. It means |IDrift| = |IDiffusion|
Depletion Width
p – + n

Width of Depletion region ~ 0.1µm

1
It depends on temperature, doping and type of material width 
Doping
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Barrier Potential or Built−in Potential
An electric field is set up from n-side to p-side. Thus n-region have higher potential than p-region. The
difference in potential between p and n regions across the junction makes it difficult for the holes and
electrons to move across the junction. This acts as a barrier and hence called ‘potential barrier’. Depends
on temperature, doping and nature of semiconductor material. The potential barrier opposes the motion
of the majority carriers and helps the movement of minority carriers.
Hole diffusion
Electron diffusion

p n (a) Current flow

Hole drift
Charge Electron drift
density + x
(b) charge density
– Distance
Electric
field E x
(c) Electric field

Potential V x
V0 (d) Electrostatics potential
–V1 V1

Types of Biasing
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the
application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device.
p n

There are two ways of biasing (applying external voltage) a diode.

1. Forward Biasing 2. Reverse Biasing
1. Forward Biasing
p-side of semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative
terminal. The direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the barrier potential V0. The depletion layer
width decreases and the barrier height is reduced. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V).
p – + n

1
2
3
V0

Current is mainly due to diffusion of charge carriers and it is of the order of mA.
|IDiffusion| > |IDrift|
Forward bias resistance of diode is small and of the order of k
Current is almost zero up to certain value of applied voltage. This voltage is called as knee-Voltage or
threshold voltage (VTH).
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Current increase exponentially after the knee-voltage.
Forward current
(F mA) "Knee voltage"
voltmeter (V)
10
8 Silicon
6 Diode
pn 4 Forward
Milliammeter 2 Bias
(mA) 0 Region
Switch

+ – 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Forward Voltage (VF volts)
2. Reverse Biasing
p-side of semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-side to the positive terminal.
The direction of the applied voltage (V) is in support to the barrier potential V0. The depletion layer width
increases and the barrier height also increases. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 + V).
Diffusion of majority carrier stops and current is mainly due to minority carriers. It is of the order of µA.
|IDiffusion| < |IDrift|
Reverse bias resistance of diode is large and of the order of M
Current is very small & almost constant for any value of applied voltage, as it is limited by the concentration
of minority carriers. It is called reverse saturation current (I0).
When V = VBR, the diode reverse current increases sharply. Even a slight increase in the bias voltage causes
large change in the current.
–VBR Reverse voltage (–VR)
voltmeter (V) 100 80 60 40 20 0
0
Reverse 10nA
Reverse
Bias 100nA
Breakdown
p n Region 1uA
Region
Milliammeter 10uA
(µA) Switch 100uA
1mA
–+ Reverse Current (–R)
Characteristic Curve of P-N Junction Diode
P N
P N
symbol

Voltmeter (V) Voltmeter (V)

p n p n
Milliammeter Microammeter
(mA) Switch (µA) Switch

+ – – +
(a) forward bias (b) reverse bias
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In forward bias when voltage is increased from 0V in steps and corresponding value of current is measured,
the curve comes as OB of figure. We may note that current increases very sharply after a certain voltage
knee voltage. At this voltage, barrier potential is completely eliminated and diode offers a low resistance.
In reverse bias a microammeter has been used as current is very small. When reverse voltage is increased
from 0V and corresponding values of current measured the plot comes as OCD. We may note that reverse
current is almost constant hence called reverse saturation current. It implies that diode resistance is very
high. As reverse voltage reaches value VB, called breakdown voltage, current increases very sharply.
B
Forward

IF(mA)
bias
Breakdown
voltage (VB)
VR A
C O Knee VF
voltage
Reverse
saturation IR(A)
current
D

Illustration 2:
Figure shows a diode connected to an external resistance and an e.m.f. Assuming that the barrier potential
developed in diode is 0.5 V, obtain the value of current in the circuit in milliampere.
Solution:
100
E = 4.5 V, R = 100 ,
Voltage drop across p-n junction = 0.5 V
Effective voltage in the circuit V = 4.5 – 0.5 = 4.0 V 4.5V
V 4.0
Current in the circuit I = = = 0.04 A = 0.04 × 1000 mA = 40 mA
R 100

Illustration 3: 30
If current in given circuit is 0.1 A then calculate resistance of P–N junction.
Solution:
5V 10
5
Let resistance of PN junction be R then I = = 0.1  R = 10 
R + 30 + 10

I
Illustration 4: 20V 10
What is the value of current I in given circuits?
Solution: 10
20 10
I= = 1A
10 + 10

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BEGINNER’S BOX-2
1. The potential barrier existing across an unbiased p–n junction is 0.2 volt. What minimum kinetic
energy a hole should have to diffuse from the p–side to the n–side if –
(a) The junction is unbiased (b) The junction is forward biased at 0.1 volt
(c) The junction is reverse–biased at 0.1 volt.
2. A silicon P–N junction is in forward biased condition with a resistance in series. It has knee
voltage of 0.75 V and current flow in it is 10 mA. If the P–N junction is connected with 2.75 V
battery then calculate the value of the resistance.
3. In given circuit determine I, I1 and I2
I 2k
I2

10V 14k 12k

I1

4. Find the value of current I in given circuit.

1.7V

I
0.7V, 2 2
S
5. (a) Calculate the value of V0 and I if the Si diode and the Ge diode start conducting at 0·7 V and
0·3 V respectively, in the given circuit. (b) If the Ge diode connection be reversed, What will be
the new values of V0 and I ?
Ge
I
V0
Si
12V 5k

Application of Junction Diode

1. Rectifier
It is device which is used for converting alternating current into direct current. Diode can be used as
rectifier as it is uni-directional device.
(i) Half Wave Rectifier
Transformer A
Input Voltage

Input ac
Input ~ Primary Secondary RL Output

t
B Y

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Working:
+ –
S1 D + A S1 D A
~ RL ~ RL
– B B
S2 S2
– +
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle
During the first half (positive) of the input signal, S1 is at positive and S2 is at negative potential. So, the PN
junction diode D is forward biased. The current flows through the load resistance RL and output voltage is
obtained across the RL.
During the second half (negative) of the input signal, S1 is at negative potential and S2 is at positive
potential. The PN junction diode will be reversed biased. In this case, practically no current would flow
through the load resistance. So, there will be no output across the RL.
Thus, corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get a unidirectional pulsating output called rectified
output.
Voltage at A

t
Voltage across RL

Output Voltage

(ii) Full-wave Rectifier (Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier)

We need two diodes working for both the half cycles. Also, we need a centre-tap arrangement for
transformer.
Center-tap
transformer
Input Voltage

Diode 1(D1)

Input ac Centre A X
Input ~ tap
B
t
Diode 2(D2) RL Output

During the positive half of the input signal : S1 positive and S2 negative. In this case diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and hence the flow of current in the load resistance RL
is from A to B.
During the negative half of the input signal : S1 is negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is reverse-biased and D2
is forward biased. So only D2 conducts and hence the current flows through the load resistance RL again
fromTG:
A to B.
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NEET : Physics
It is clear that whether the input signal is positive or negative, the current always flows through the load
resistance in the same direction and thus output is called full wave rectified.
Waveform
at A

Output waveform
Due Due Due Due
(i)
Waveform

(across RL)
to to to to
at B

D1 D2 D1 D2

t t
(ii)

2. Light Emitting Diode (L.E.D)

A Light Emitting Diode converts electrical current into light. LEDs are heavily doped p-n junctions and
operated under forward bias. Outer material must be transparent so that photons can escape.

Working : when LED is forward biased then electrons move from N → P and holes move from P → N. At
the junction boundary these are recombined. On recombination, energy is released in the form of photons
of energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap.
When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward
current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward
current results in decrease of light intensity. LEDs are biased in such a way that the light emitting efficiency
should be maximum.
In case of Si or Ge diodes, the energy released in recombination lies in infra-red region. Therefore to form
LED, such semiconductors are to be used which have band gap from 1.8 eV to 3 eV. Hence GaAs1–xPx is used
in forming LED.
Advantages of LED:
1. Low operational voltage and less power
2. Fast action with no warm up time
3. Emitted light is nearly monochromatic
4. They have long life
3. Photodiode
A photo-diode converts light into electrical current or voltage. Photo-diode are moderately doped p-n
junctions and operated under reverse bias. Outer material must be transparent so that photons can enter.

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Semiconductor Electronics
Working: When light of energy "h'' falls on the photodiode (Here, h > energy gap) more electrons move
from valence band to conduction band, due to this current in circuit of photodiode in "Reverse bias",
increases. As light intensity is increased, the photo current goes on increasing. So, photo diode is used "to
detect light intensity". Example used in "Video camera".
(mA)

h Reverse bias
Dark current V(Volt)
I1
I2
µA I3 (µA)
P-side N-side I3 > I2 > I1
(Order of
Intensities)
(a) An illuminated photodiode, under reverse bias (b) I-V characteristics of a photodiode for different
illumination intensity I3 > I2 > I1

4. Solar Cell
It converts light energy into electrical energy. It has same working principle as that of photo-diode but
working method is different. It is operated unbiased. The surface layer of p-region is made very thin so that
the incident photons may easily penetrate to reach the junction which is the active region.

p
L
Depletion
layer

n + –

Working: When light falls on, emf generates due to the following three basic processes: generation,
separation and collection- (i) generation of e-h pairs due to light (with, h > Eg) in junction region; (ii)
separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region. Electrons are swept to n-side
and holes to p-side by the junction field; (iii) On reaching electrons at n-side and holes on at p-side. Thus
n-side becomes negative and p-side becomes positive potential and giving rise to photovoltage.
I
L
Voc (open circuit voltage)

p n
V

Depletion sc
region Short circuit current
A typical illuminated I-V characteristics of a solar cell
p-n junction solar cell
(a) (b)
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NEET : Physics
5. Zener Diode
Special purpose diode invented by C. Zener. Heavily doped p-n junction. Works like a normal diode in
forward bias. Mainly operated in reverse bias breakdown region.

Breakdown
Voltage
–Vz
VR(V)

Reverse
I-V characteristic: Zener saturation
breakdown current

R(mA)

It can handle large variation in current without change in Zener voltage, and hence it will be used in
regulation.
– +

Increase in reverse bias voltage, increases the E in depletion region.

The electric field may become large enough causing electron-hole pairs to be created.
This creates a huge reverse bias current.
Voltage at which this phenomenon happens is called Breakdown voltage and breakdown voltage is a
function of doping concentration in p-region and n-region.

In reverse biasing, breakdown can occur in two ways:

1. Avalanche Breakdown 2. Zener Breakdown
1. Avalanche Breakdown
It occurs in p-n junction having low doping. Breakdown voltage is very high. Depletion layer width is also
more. Charge carriers crossing the depletion region gain enough kinetic energy and make collision with
other atoms, and hence it starts the avalanche effect. Damage to the diode is permanent.
2. Zener Breakdown
Occurs in heavily doped p-n junction. Breakdown voltage is very small. Depletion layer is very thin.
Breaking of covalent bonds is mainly due to electric field. Hence damage is not permanent.
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Semiconductor Electronics
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
Regulation is possible because in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the
current through the Zener diode changes.
RS
+
Unregulated + +
VS
DC input Regulated
VZ RL
– DC Output VL = VZ
–
–

If the input voltage increases, the current through RS and Zener diode also increases. Similarly, if the input
voltage decreases, the current through RS and Zener diode also decreases. Thus any increase/decrease in the
input voltage results in increase/decrease of the voltage drop across RS without any change in voltage across
the load. This is how Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.
RS
+
+ S +
Z VZ L RL VL
– –
–

VZ
Load voltage is constant and load current is also constant .
RL
VS − VZ
Input current is, IS = ; Zener Current IZ = IS − IL and PZ = VZ IZ
RS

BEGINNER’S BOX-3
1. A p-n junction diode (D) shown in the figure can act as a rectifier. An alternating current source
(V) is connected in the circuit. The current (I) in the resistor (R) can be shown by :- [AIEEE - 2009]

D
v~ R

I I I I
(1) t (2) t (3) (4)
t t
2. A zener diode of voltage VZ (=6 V) is used to maintain a constant voltage across a load resistance
RL(=1000 ) by using a series resistance RS (=100 ). If the e.m.f. of source is E (= 9 V), calculate
the value of current through series resistance, Zener diode and load resistance. What is the
power being dissipated in Zener diode?
3. A Zener diode is specified having a breakdown voltage of 9.1 V with a maximum power
dissipation of 364 mW. What is the maximum current that the diode can handle?
4. A semiconductor (GaAs) has an energy gap of 1.43 eV. What is the maximum wavelength
emitted when a hole and an electron recombine in such semiconductor?
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NEET : Physics
Transistor
A transistor is a three terminal electronic device made up of semiconductor material. It is a lot more
complex than diode, but with complexity the number of applications increases.
Transistors have many uses, such as: Amplification, Switch, Voltage regulation, Modulation of signals.
Before transistors were invented, circuits used vacuum tubes. Fragile, large in size, heavy, generate large
quantities of heat, require a large amount of power. The first transistors were created at Bell Telephone
Laboratories in 1947. William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain created the transistors. The
word “transistor” is a combination of the terms “transconductance” and “variable resistor”. Today an
advanced microprocessor can have as many as 1.7 billion transistors. Transistor and diodes are the main
building blocks of all electronic circuits.
Transistor are of two types
(a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor
(a) NPN transistor: If a thin layer of P-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two thick layers of
N-type semiconductor, then it is known as NPN transistor.

B
Collector

n p n Base
E C

Emitter

(b) PNP transistor : If a thin layer of N-type of semiconductor is sandwiched between two thick layer
of P-type semiconductor, then it is known as PNP transistor.

B
Collector

n p n Base
E C

Emitter

Each transistor has three terminals

Emitter: It is moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of majority carriers for the
current flow through the transistor.
Base: It is very thin & lightly doped as we want very less recombination of charge carriers.
Collector: It is moderately doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter. Larger size helps in proper
heat dissipation.

  Emitter Base Collector

Sizes Moderate Thin Large

Doping Level Heavy Light Moderate

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Semiconductor Electronics
Transistor has two p-n junctions:
(a) Base-Emitter (b) Base-Collector
Based on the biasing of these junctions, its region of operation and application will be different
Base-Emitter Base-Collector Region Application

Forward Reverse Active Amplification

Forward Forward Saturation Switch “ON”

Reverse Reverse Cut-Off Switch “OFF”

Reverse Forward Inverse-Active --NA--

Working of Transistor
1. Working of NPN Transistor
The emitter base junction is forward biased and base collector junction is reversed biased to study
the behaviour of transistor. It is called active state of transistor. N-P-N transistor in circuit and
symbolic representation is shown in figure.
p-Base
n-Emitter region n-Collector
IE E C IC

n p n Ri B RL
IB
IE
– + – +
IC
Ri 𝐕𝐄𝐁 𝐕𝐂𝐁 VEE VCC
R
L
IB

VEE VCC
Common Base NPN Transistor
In active state of n-p-n transistor majority electrons in emitter are sent towards base.
The barrier of emitter base junction is reduced because of forward bias therefore electrons enter
into the base. About 5% of these electrons recombine with holes in base region results very small
current (IB) in base.
The remaining electron (95%) enters into the collector region because these are attracted towards
the positive terminal of battery results collector current (IC)
The base current is the difference between IE and IC and proportional to the number of electron
hole recombination in the base.
IE = IB +IC, We also see IE = IC; because IB is very small.
2. Working of PNP Transistor
When emitter-base junction is forward biased, holes (majority carriers) in the emitter are repelled
towards the base and diffuse through the emitter base junction. The barrier potential of emitter-
base junction decreases and hole enters into the n-region (i.e. base). A small number of holes (5%)
combine with electrons of base-region resulting small current (IB). The remaining holes (95%)
enter into the collector region because these are attracted towards negative terminal of the battery
connected with the collector-base junction. These holes constitute the collector current (IC).
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NEET : Physics
n-Base
p-Emitter region p-Collector
IE E C IC

p n p Ri B RL
IB
IE
IC + – + –
Ri 𝐕𝐄𝐁 𝐕𝐂𝐁 VEE VCC
R
L
IB

VEE VCC
Common Base PNP Transistor
As one hole reaches the collector, it is neutralized by the battery. As soon as one electron and a hole
is neutralized in collector, a covalent bond is broken in emitter region and an electron hole pair is
produced. The released electron enters the positive terminal of battery and holes moves towards
the collector. So, IE = IB + IC
Configuration of Transistor
The transistor is connected in either of the three ways in circuit.
(i) Common base configuration
Emitter-E Collector-C
n n
Output
Input

Base-B
Common Base (CB) configuration
(ii) Common emitter configuration
Collector-C
n
Base-B
Output

p
Input

n Emitter-E

Common Emitter (CE) configuration

(iii) Common collector configuration
Emitter-E
n
Base-B
Output

p
Input

n Collector-C

Common collector (CC) configuration

In these three, common emitter is widely used and common collector is rarely used.
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Semiconductor Electronics
Common emitter configuration
Input signal is provided between the emitter and the base. Output signal appears across the collector and
the emitter.
IC (mA)
IB
– +
B C R2
E
R1 VCE
VBE VCC
VBB IE

The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and base is known as a common
emitter configuration. The variation of base current (IB) with Base-Emitter voltage (VBE), keeping Collector
Emitter voltage (VCE) constant.
IC
The current gain ( DC) in CE mode of a transistor is given by, DC =
IB
 IC 
The current gain (AC) in CE mode of a transistor is given by, AC =  
 IB V CE =constant

 is in the range of about 50 to 300.

Transistor characteristics
Common emitter transistor characteristics
VCE = 10.0 V
• Input characteristics: The variation of base current (IB) 100
(input) with base emitter voltage (VEB) at constant 80
IB (μA)

collector emitter voltage (VCE) is called input characteristic. 60

(I) Keep the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) constant (say
40
VCE = 10 V)
20
(II) Now change emitter base voltage VBE in steps of 0.1 volt
and note the corresponding values of base current (IB). 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(III) Plot the graph between VBE and IB. VBE (volt)

• Output characteristics: The variation of collector current IB = 40A

IC (output) with collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at constant 10
IB = 30A
base current (IB) is called output characteristic. 8
IC (mA)

(I) Keep the base current (IB) constant (say IB = 10 A) 6 IB = 20A
(II) Now change the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) and IB = 10A
4
note the corresponding values of collector current (IC). IB = 0
2
(III) Plot the graph between VCE and IC.
(IV) A set of such curves can also be plotted at different 0 1 2 3 4 5
fixed values of base current (say 20 A, 30 A etc.) VCE (volt)
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NEET : Physics
Relation Between α, β and γ
𝛂 ,𝛃 𝛃, 𝛄 𝛂, 𝛄
IE = IB + IC ; divide by IC IE = IB + IC ; divide by IB IE = IB + IC
∵γ = 1 + β
IE IB IE I
= +1 = 1+ C
IC IC IB IB 
 = 1+
1–
1 1 1
= +1 γ=1+β =
  1–
  α .γ = β
= , =
1– 1+

Illustration 5:
In a transistor, the value of  is 50. Calculate the value of .
Solution:
  50
=  50 =  50 – 50  =    = = 0.98
1− 1− 51

Illustration 6:
Calculate the emitter current for which IB = 20 A,  = 100.
Solution:
IC =  × IB = 100 × 20 × 10–6 = 2000 A
IE = IB + IC = 20 + 2000 = 2020 A = 2.02 × 10–3 A = 2.02 mA
Illustration 7:
The base current is 100 A and collector current is 3 mA.
(a) Calculate the values of , IE and 
(b) A change of 20 A in the base current produces a change of 0.5 mA in the collector current. Calculate
a.c..
Solution:
IC 3 10−3  30 30 I 3  31
(a) = = − 6
= 30   = = = = 0.97 and IE = C = = 3.1mA
IB 100  10 1 +  1 + 30 31  30
(b) IB = 20 A = 0.02 mA  IC = 0.5 mA
IC 0.5
 ac = = = 25
IB 0.02
Illustration 8:
In a transistor connected in common emitter mode R0 = 4 k, Ri = 1 k, IC = 1 mA and IB = 20 µA. Find the
voltage gain.
Solution:
 R   I  R   1  10−3   4 
Voltage gain, A V =   0  =  C  0  =  
−6   
= 200

 R i   IB  R i   20  10   1 
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Semiconductor Electronics
Illustration 9:
RC
For given CE biasing circuit, if voltage across collector–emitter is 12 V
RB C 20V
and current gain is 100 and base current is 0.04 mA then determine the
value of collector resistance RC.
B
Solution:
E
 VCE = VCC – IC × RC
VCC − VCE VCC − VCE 20 − 12
 RC = = = = 2k
IC  IB 100  0.04  10−3
Illustration 10:
Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series (cascaded). The first amplifier has a voltage gain
of 10 and the second has a voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0·01 volt, calculate the output signal.
Solution:
 A = A1 × A2 = 10 × 20 = 200  Output signal = A × input signal = 200 × 0·01 = 2 V
Comparision between Common Base, Common Collector, Common Emitter
Comparision Common Base Common Emitter (CE) Common Collector (CC)
factors (CB)
E C E
IC C
IE IE B IE
B
IB
Circuit Diagram IB IB
IE
IC
E
B C

Input Resistance Low (100) High (750) Very High ≅ 750 k

Output resistance Very High High Low
(AI or ) (AI or ) (AI or )
Current Gain I I I
 = C 1  = C 1  = E 1
IE IB IB
Vo ICR L Vo ICR L Vo IER L
AV = = AV = = AV = =
Vi IER i Vi IBR i Vi IBR i
Voltage Gain
RL RL RL
Av =  Av =  Av = 
Ri Ri Ri
Po Po Po
Ap = Ap = Ap =
Pi Pi Pi
Power Gain
RL RL RL
A p = 2 A p = 2 A p = 2
Ri Ri Ri
Phase difference
(between output Same phase Opposite phase Same phase
and input)
For High Frequency For Audible frequency For Impedance Matching
Application
amplifier amplifier
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NEET : Physics
Applications of Transistor
1. Transistor as switch
When a transistor is used in the cut off (off state) or saturation state (on state) only, it acts as a switch. To
study this behaviour, we understand base biased CE transistor circuit.
IC
RB C
B RC
IB E Vo
Vi VBB VCC
IE

Applying Kirchhoff's voltage rule to the input and output sides of this circuit we get,
Vi = IB RB + VBE (Vi = dc input voltage)
and VO = VCC – IC RC (VO = dc output voltage) Cut off region
Now we can analyse how VO changes as Vi increase from zero V Active
o
onwards. In case of Silicon transistor, if Vi is less than 0.6 V, region
IB will be zero, hence IC will zero and transistor will be said
Saturation
to be in cut-off state, and VO = VCC. When Vi become greater region
than 0.6 V, some IB flows, so some IC flows (transistor is in
active state now) and output VO decreases as the term IC RC
Av
increase. With increase in Vi the IC increase almost linearly
and so VO decreases linearly till its value becomes less than 0 Vi
about 1.0 volt.
Beyond this, the change becomes non-linear and transistor goes into saturation state. With further increase
in Vi the output voltage is found to decrease further forwards zero (however, it may never become zero).
If we draw the VO versus Vi curve called transfer characteristic (see figure), we see that between cut off
state and active state and also between active state and saturation state there are regions of non-linearity
showing that the transition from cut-off state to active state and from active state to saturation state are
not sharply defined.
2. Transistor as amplifier
The process of increasing the amplitude of input signal without distorting its wave shape and without
changing its frequency is known as amplification.
A device which increases the amplitude of the input signal is called amplifier.
IC

RB C
B RC
IB VCE
E + Vo
Vi VCC
IE –
Input Signal + – Amplified output
VBB Signal

Common Emitter Amplifier NPN Transistor

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Semiconductor Electronics
To operate the transistor as an amplifier it is necessary to fix its operating point somewhere in the middle of
its active region. If we fix the value of VBB corresponding to a point in the middle of the linear part of the
transfer curve then the dc base current IB would be constant and corresponding collector current IC will also
be constant. The dc voltage, VCE = VCC – IC RC would also remain constant. The operating values of VCE and IB
determine the operating point of the amplifier.
If a small sinusoidal voltage with amplitude ui is superposed in series with the VBB supply, then the base
current will have sinusoidal variations superimposed on the value of I B. As a consequence the collector
current also will have sinusoidal variations superimposed on the value of I C producing in turn
corresponding change in the value of Vo.
Mathematical Analysis : From KVL equation of base biased CE transistor circuit,
Vi = IBRB + VBE
 Vi = (IB)RB + VBE ( VBE = 0)  Vi = (IB) RB
Similarly, Vo = VCC – ICRC
 Vo = VCC – (IC)RC ( VCC = 0)  Vo = –(IC)RC
So voltage gain of CE amplifier,
Vo –( IC )R C R
Av = = = − C
Vin ( IB )R B RB
The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite in phase with the input voltage.
Power gain (Ap) = current gain × voltage gain = ac × AV (always, AP > 1)
Note: However, it should be realised that transistor is not a power generating device. The energy for the
higher ac power at the output is supplied by the battery VCC.

3. Transistor as oscillator
Oscillator is device which delivers ac output wave form of desired frequency without any external input
wave form.
The electric oscillations are produced by L – C circuit (i.e. tank circuit containing inductor and capacitor).
These oscillations are damped one i.e. their amplitude decrease with the passage of time due to the small
resistance of the inductor. In other words, the energy of the L – C oscillations decreases. If this loss of
energy is compensated from outside, then undamped oscillations (of constant amplitude) can be obtained.
This can be done by using feed back arrangement and a transistor amplifier in the circuit.
1
Oscillating frequency of oscillator is given by f =
2 LC
T1
1
2 Mutual inductance
(coupling through
3 magnetic field)

C T2
L T2 output
n-p-n 4d
– +
S1 (switch)
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NEET : Physics

BEGINNER’S BOX-4
1. For a common emitter amplifier, current gain = 50. If the emitter current is 6.6 mA, calculate the
collector and base current. Also calculate current gain, when emitter is working as common base
amplifier.
2. Transistor with  = 75 is connected to common-base configuration. What will be the maximum
collector current for an emitter current of 5 mA ?
3. In npn transistor circuit, the collector current is 10 mA. If 95% of the electrons emitted reach
the collector, what is the base current ?
4. In an NPN transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6 s and 2% electrons recombine with
holes in base, then current gain  and  are :
5. For a CE amplifier, current gain is 69. If the emitter current is 7 mA then calculate the base
current and collector current. [AIPMT (Mains) 2008]
6. An n-p-n transistor in a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage
amplifier with a collector connected to load resistance RL and to the base RB RL
C
through a resistance RB. The collector-emitter voltage VCE = 4 V, the base-
emitter voltage VBE = 0.6 V, Current through collector is 4 mA and the current B E
amplification factor  = 100. Calculate the values of RL and RB. 8V
7. A common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain of 50, an input impedance of 200  and an output
impedance of 400. Calculate the power gain of the amplifier.
100
8. A silicon transistor amplifier ckt. is given here. If  = 100 then
determine 8.6 k C
10V
(a) Base current IB B
(b) Collector current IC E
(c) VCE
5V
Take the voltage drop between base and emitter as 0.7 V.

Boolean Algebra
Analog v/s Digital Electronics
Analog Signal Digital Signal
A continuous signal value which at any instant lies A discontinuous(discrete) signal value which
within the range of a maximum and a minimum appears in steps in pre-determined levels rather
value. than having the continuous change.
V V
V = V0 sin t
(V0)
1 1 1 1 1
0 (5 V)
t
–(V0) (0 V) t
0 0 0 0

Digital Circuit
An electrical or electronic circuit which operates only in two states (binary mode) namely ON/1 and OFF/0
is called a Digital Circuit. To understand the Digital circuits, we need to understand the Boolean algebra.
Boolean Algebra was invented by George Boole.
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Semiconductor Electronics
Boolean algebra have binary variables that take only 2 discrete values (0 and 1).
Boolean Algebra
OR AND NOT
0+0=0 0.0=0 0′= =1
0+1=1 0.1=0
1 0 1′= =0
1+0=1 1.0=0
High Low 1+1=1 1.1=1
On Off FORMULAE
True False A+0=A A.0=0 A+A′=1
Present Absent A+1=1 A.1=A A.A′=0
Positive Negative A+A=A A.A=A A′′=A
5 Volt 0 Volt

Boolean Algebra Laws

Commutative law : A+B=B+A
A . B = B.A
Associative law : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
Distributive law : A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
De-Morgan’s Theorem: A B = A + B
A + B = A B
Illustration 11:
By using Boolean Algebra prove that, AB + AB + AB = A + B
Solution:
LHS = AB + AB + AB = AB + AB + AB + AB = A(B + B) + B(A + A) = A.1 + B.1 = A + B = RHS

Logic Gates Logic

A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on certain logical Input Gate
Output
relationship between the input and the output voltages of the circuit.
The logic gates are built using the Semiconductor diodes and transistors.
These are the basic building blocks of a digital circuit.
Basic logic gates
1. OR Gate A
Representation : Y=A+B
B
Boolean expression : Y = A + B
Truth table : 1 1
A B Y A 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1
B 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Note : Output is ON if any of the inputs are ON. Y 0
Electric analogous circuit : Waveforms
A
B
Input ~ Output (y)

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2. AND Gate A
Y=A·B
Representation : B

Boolean expression : Y = A . B
Truth table : 0 0
A B Y A 0 0

0 0 0 1 1
B 0 0
0 1 0
1
1 0 0 Y 0 0 0
1 1 1 Waveforms

Note : Output is ON if and only if all the inputs are ON.

Electric analogous circuit :

A B
Input ~ Output (y)

3. NOT Gate (Inverter) ഥ

A Y=A
Representation :
Single Single
Boolean expression : Y = A input output
Truth table :
A Y 1
0 1 A 0
1 0 1

Y 0
Note : The output of a NOT gate attains the state ON if and only if the
input does not attain the state ON. Waveforms
Electric analogous circuit :

Input ~ A Output (y)

Universal gates
1. NAND Gate
Representation :

A Y' = A · B A
Y' = തതതതതത
A·B Y = തതതതതത
A·B
B B
AND NOT
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Boolean expression : Y = A  B
1 1
Truth table :
A 0 0
A B Y' = A · B Y = A B 1 1
0 0 0 1 B 0 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Y
0
1 0 0 1
Waveforms
1 1 1 0

Note : The output is low only when both the input are high.
Electric analogous circuit :

A
Input ~ Output (y)
B

2. NOR Gate
Representation :
A Y' = A + B A
Y' = തതതതതതത
A+B Y = തതതതതതത
A+B
B B
OR NOT

Boolean expression : Y = A + B
Truth table : 1 1
A 0 0
A B Y' = A + B Y = A+B 1 1
0 0 0 1 B 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
Y
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 Waveforms

Note : The gate give high output only when both the inputs are low.
Electric analogous circuit :

A B
Input ~ Output (y)

Realization of gates by universal gates

The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND gates
(or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved entirely from NAND or NOR
gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives us different gates.
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The NOT gate from a NAND gate :- When all the inputs of a NAND gate are connected together, as shown
in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate.
Truth table of a single
input NAND gate

ഥ A B=(A) Y
A A
0 0 1
1 1 0

The AND gate from a NAND gates :- If a NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a single input NAND
gate), the resulting circuit is an AND gate as shown in figure and truth table given show how an AND gate
has been obtained from NAND gates.
Truth table
A B Y' Y
0 0 1 0
A
Y 0 1 1 0
B Y' 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

The OR gate from NAND gates :- If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NAND gate,
the resulting circuit is an OR gate.
Truth table
A B Y' Y
A ഥ 0 0 1 0
A
0 1 1 1
Y 1 0 0 1
ഥ
B 1 1 0 1
B

The NOT gate from NOR gates :- When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected together as shown in
the figure, we obtain a NOT gate

A Y

The AND gate from NOR gates :- If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NOR gate, the
resulting circuit is an AND gate.

A
ഥ
A
Y
ഥ
B
B

The OR gate from NOR gate :- If a NOR gate is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), the resulting
circuit is an OR gate.
A
Y
B
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Illustration 12:
Write down output Y in terms of inputs A and B.
A

Y
B

B
Solution:
Y = A + B + B = A.B + B = A.B + B = ( A + 1) B = B
Illustration 13:
In the figures below, Circuit symbol of a logic gate and two input waveforms 'A' and 'B' are shown.
A

A
Y
B
B

(a) Name the logic gate & Write its Boolean expression
(b) Write its truth table
(c) Give the output wave form
Solution:
(a) NAND gate ;
(b) Truth table Input A Input B Output Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 0 1
(c) Output waveform
Y

Illustration 14:
Given electrical circuit is equivalent to which logic gate, also draw its symbol and truth table.

B Y

A
Solution:
OR gate
A B Y
0 0 0
A
0 1 1
Y=A+B
1 0 1
B
1 1 1
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Illustration 15:
Write the truth table for the logical function D = (A AND B) OR B
Solution:
A B X = A AND B D = X OR B
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
Illustration 16:
Identify the logic gates P and Q in given circuit. Also write down relation in A, B and X.
A
P
B Q X

Solution:
( )
P is NOR gate & Q is AND gate, X = A + B  B = ( A  B)  B = A (B  B) = A  0 = 0
Special purpose gates
1. XOR Gate A
Representation : Y=AB
Boolean expression : Y = A  B + A  B or Y = A ⨁ B B

2. XNOR Gate
A
Representation : Y = A ⨀ B
Boolean expression : Y = A  B + A  B or Y = A ⨀ B B

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BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

BEGINNER'S BOX-1

1. Value of R should be increased because with the increase in temperature of semiconductor as

circuit resistance decreases and current tends to increase.

2. ne = 5 × 109m–3 3. ne = 5 × 1022 m–3, nh = 4·5 × 109 m–3 4. ne/nh = 6/5

BEGINNER'S BOX-2

1. (a) 0.2 eV (b) 0.1 eV (c) 0.3 eV 2. 200 

3. I1 = 0 and I = I2 = 5mA 4. 0.25A

5. (a) V0 = 11.7 V, I = 2.34 mA (b) V0 = 11.3 V, I = 2.26 mA

BEGINNER'S BOX-3

1. (1) 2. IS = 30 mA, IL = 6 mA, IZ = 24 mA, PZ = 0.144 W

3. 40 mA. 4. 8671.33 Å

BEGINNER'S BOX-4

1. IC = 6.47 mA, IB = 0.13 mA,  = 0.98 2. 4.93 mA

3. 0.53 mA 4.  = 0.98 ;  = 49

5. IB = 0.1 mA ; IC = 6.9 mA 6. 1 k ;185 k

7. 1250 8. (i) 0.5 mA, (ii) 50 mA, (iii) 5 V

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