SCIENCE 1 |Page |1

NORTHLINK
TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE
LEARNING MODULE
Sci 1 – Earth and Life Science

Learning Content 1: The Origin and Structures of Earth

A. UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Formation of the Universe
It is difficult to completely understand the formation of the early universe because no human has ever witnessed it.
The science of cosmology provides various hypotheses that explain the origins of the universe based on its present
properties or characteristics. It should likewise be noted that advances in scientific tools and instruments continuously
help validate theories. There are numerous theories about the formation of the universe. Here are some of them:
1. Big Bang Theory - The big bang theory remains to be the prevailing cosmological model for the early
development of the universe. It provides the best explanation of the origin of the universe and is implicitly
accepted. According to the big bang theory, the universe was once very small and very hot, and then it expanded
over time until it reached its peak (which may be perceived as a massive explosion for some) around 13.7 billion
years ago (considered the age of the universe). The big bang model also asserts that seconds after the explosion,
the surroundings were at a high temperature of about 10 billion degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 billion Celsius) with
aggregates of fundamental particles such as neutrons, electrons, and protons. As the universe cooled in later
phases, these particles either combined with each other or decayed. The universe was also said to continue to
expand over the next 15 billion years until the present.
2. Steady State Theory - This theory states that the universe is always expanding in a constant average density.
Because of this state, matter is continuously created to form cosmic or celestial bodies such as stars and galaxies.
The older bodies that were formed are no longer easily observable as a consequence of their huge distances and
rate of recession. This theory further claims that the universe has no beginning or end in time, and even though it
is expanding, its appearance remains the same over time.
3. Cosmic Inflation Theory - The most recent cosmic inflation theory was proposed by physicists Alan Guth (1947-
present) and Andrei Linde (1948-present) in the 1980s. The term inflation refers to the rapid expansion of space-
time. According to this theory, the early universe was a rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy. It did not
have any matter or radiation. After the expansion and cooling arising from this inflation, the potential energy
converted into kinetic energy of matter and radiation. Then, a big bang occurred because of the extremely hot,
dense condition of matter. The cosmic inflation theory became an accepted hypothesis because it answered many
"puzzling" observations that arose in the big bang theory.

Formation of Star Systems

Just like the origin of the universe, there are many theories on how star systems began. By far, the nebular
hypothesis, though it may not be used to explain the evolution of all-star systems, seems to be the most accepted
theory for the formation of the solar system.
1. Nebular Hypothesis - The nebular hypothesis was developed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Pierre-Simon
Laplace (1749-1827) in the 18th century. It was the model used to explain the formation and evolution of the solar
system. It presupposes that around 4.6 billion years ago, a star system was formed from a rotating gas cloud or
nebula of extremely hot gas. When the gas cooled, the nebula began to shrink, and as it became smaller, it
rotated faster, forming a disklike shape. The angular momentum from the nebula's rotation and the gravitational
force from the mass of the nebula formed the rings of gas outside. As the nebula continued to shrink, these rings
condensed into various densities of planets and their satellites. The remaining part of the nebula, which had the
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most mass, formed the sun.

2. The Planetesimal and Tidal Theories - The planetesimal and tidal theories were developed by Thomas
Chamberlin (1843- 1928) and Forest Moulton (1872-1952) during the early 20th century, and James Jeans (1877-
1946) and Harold Jeffreys (1891-1989) in 1918, respectively. In both theories, a star supposedly passed close to
the sun. The gravitational pull of the passing star raised tides found on the surface of the sun. Some of this
erupted matter was detached and plunged into elliptical orbits around the sun. Some of the smaller masses
quickly cooled to become solid bodies called planetesimals. Others grew in size because of collision with passing
objects in space, eventually forming larger clumps and gathering more and more matter. These theories are also
backed up by old meteorites found on Earth, chemically dating back 4.56 billion years the time approximated to be
the formation of the solar system.

B. EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEM

Earth's Subsystems
1. The Geosphere - The geosphere is the portion of Earth that includes the interior structure, rocks and minerals,
landforms, and all physical processes on land that shape Earth's surface. All the continents and the ocean floor
are also considered parts of the geosphere. Essentially, this is the solid ground of Earth. Scientists that study this
part of Earth are called geologists. It should be clear that the term geosphere covers all of the solid part of Earth,
from its surface up to the deeper depth of the core, as opposed to lithosphere that covers only the crust.
2. The Hydrosphere - The hydrosphere encompasses all the waters found on Earth. This includes water in various
forms whether in ice, liquid, or vapor found on the surface of Earth, below the surface of Earth, and in the
atmosphere (in gaseous form). Water covers about 70% of Earth's surface, and most of it is water that makes up
the oceans.
3. The Atmosphere - The primitive atmosphere of Earth is assumed to be similar to the composition of the solar
nebula from which Earth came from. Then, from its exposure to various interactions in space, Earth eventually lost
its primitive features. These last features were then replaced by compounds released from the crust and from the
impact of comets and other planetary objects rich in volatile materials.
4. The Biosphere - The biosphere makes up all the living components on Earth. It is the subsystem that comprises
all living things, including those which have not yet been identified. In fact, there are more life-forms unknown to
humans than those that have been identified. Life exists in all the subsystems of Earth-on land, in water, and in
air. Life on Earth is presumed to have begun around 3.9 million years ago from a single primitive living creature.
How it started and evolved is still unresolved up to this time.

Written Works 1

The teacher may facilitate this activity either as a Short Quiz or Assignment.
The teacher may change some of the items or he/she may facilitate other course activity.

MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST (20 points)

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer for each question. Write your answer on your paper.
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1. Which theory proposes a very hot, dense origin of the universe followed by continuous expansion?
a. Big Bang Theory c. Cosmic Inflation Theory
b. Steady State Theory d. Multiverse Theory
2. The Big Bang Theory suggests that the universe originated from a very hot, dense state. What evidence supports this
theory?
a. The abundance of light elements like hydrogen and c. The observation of galaxies moving away from
helium throughout the universe each other (redshift)
b. The presence of cosmic microwave background d. All of the Above
radiation
3. The Steady State Theory suggests that the universe has always existed and is constantly expanding with new matter
being created. What evidence contradicts this theory?
a. The abundance of light elements like hydrogen and c. The observation of galaxies moving away from
helium throughout the universe. each other (redshift).
b. The presence of a cosmic microwave background d. All of the Above
radiation.
4. The Nebular Hypothesis proposes that our solar system formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust. What
caused the cloud to collapse?
a. A shockwave from a nearby supernova c. The gravitational pull of its own mass
b. Collisions with other passing interstellar clouds d. The influence of a passing black hole
5. According to the Nebular Hypothesis, how did the planets form within the collapsing cloud?
a. Dust particles clumped together due to gravity and c. Lighter elements formed the inner planets while
friction. heavier elements formed the outer planets.
b. The remaining gas condensed into planets after d. All of the Above
the Sun ignited.
6. The collapsing cloud flattened into a disk due to conservation of angular momentum. What formed in the center of this
disk?
a. The planets c. The Sun
b. Asteroids and comets d. The Kuiper Belt
7. The Nebular Hypothesis explains the formation of different types of planets. What is the main reason the inner planets
are rocky and the outer planets are gaseous?
a. The distance from the Sun determined the c. The inner cloud had less dust available for planet
temperature, affecting material condensation. formation.
b. Lighter elements were pulled closer to the Sun due d. The outer cloud contained mostly heavier
to gravity. elements.
8. Earth consists of four major interacting subsystems. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
a. Geosphere c. Hydrosphere
b. Atmosphere d. Troposphere
9. The geosphere is the solid, nonliving part of Earth. Which layer is the outermost rigid layer of the geosphere?
a. Inner Core c. Mantle
b. Outer Core d. Crust

10.The geosphere is the solid, nonliving part of Earth. Which layer is the hottest and most fluid layer of the geosphere?
a. Outer Core c. Mantle
b. Inner Core d. Crust
11.The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth. Which gas is the most abundant in the Earth's atmosphere?
a. Hydrogen c. Nitrogen
b. Oxygen d. Carbon dioxide
12.The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth. The process by which some of the Sun's radiation is trapped
by the atmosphere is called:
a. Photosynthesis c. Condensation
b. Greenhouse Effect d. Weathering
13.The hydrosphere includes all the water on Earth, both liquid and frozen. The vast majority of Earth's water is found in:
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a. Oceans and seas c. Glaciers and ice caps

b. Groundwater d. Lakes and rivers
14.The biosphere encompasses all living things on Earth and their interactions with each other and the environment. Which
of the following statements about the biosphere is TRUE?
a. It is confined only to the land surface. c. It influences and is influenced by all the other Earth
b. It interacts only with the atmosphere. subsystems.
d. It exists independently of the other Earth
subsystems.
15.Biosphere refers to:
a. Only land-based living things c. The solid, nonliving part of Earth
b. All living things and their interactions d. The layer of gases surrounding Earth
16.An example of matter flow between geosphere and atmosphere is:
a. Plant growth (biosphere) c. Animal movement
b. Volcanic eruptions d. Formation of clouds
17.An example of energy flow between atmosphere and hydrosphere is:
a. Plate tectonics (geosphere) c. Weathering and erosion
b. Sunlight warming water d. Formation of minerals
18.An example of matter flow between biosphere and atmosphere is:
a. Formation of rocks (geosphere) c. Water cycle processes
b. Gas exchange (respiration/photosynthesis) d. Formation of waves
19.An example of energy flow within the hydrosphere is:
a. Formation of mountains (geosphere) c. Photosynthesis in plants
b. Sunlight driving water cycle d. Animal migration patterns
20.An example of interaction between all four subsystems EXCEPT:
a. Deforestation impacting weather c. Sunlight driving the water cycle
b. Volcanic eruptions releasing ash into the d. Formation of a new island (geosphere)
atmosphere

NORTHLINK
TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE
LEARNING MODULE
Sci 1 – Earth and Life Science

Learning Content 2: Earth Materials and Processes

A. ROCKS AND MINERALS

Earth Materials
Earth has naturally occurring materials of which many are necessary for existence. Earth materials include minerals
and rocks. These materials, along with other materials such as sol, water, air, and organic matter are essential for the
growth and survival of organisms, the structure of the land, and the development of human civilization. All these Earth
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materials give information about the history of Earth and of life. Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids. They
are considered natural because they are derived from natural geologic processes. Minerals have crystalline structures
(the atoms of which are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern) and definite composition (the elements of which have
specific proportions). There are thousands of minerals identified on Earth. A common example of a mineral is salt.
Other common rock-forming minerals are sulfur, quartz, and graphite. Rocks are natural substances consisting of
aggregate minerals clumped together with other Earth materials through natural processes. Rocks, like some
materials, are products of a natural cyclic process.

Classification of Rocks
There are three basic types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
1. Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning "fire") are crystallized from magma or molten or partially
molten volcanic materials that came from within Earth. Magma rises from the asthenosphere or at the base of the
crust through volcanoes or any cracks and fissures on Earth's surface. When it reaches the surface of Earth, the
molten volcanic material is called lava.
2. Sedimentary rocks (from the root word sediments which means "remaining particles") are rocks that have formed
from the deposition of different materials on Earth's surface. They come from preexisting rocks or pieces of dead
organisms that have been "lithified" or cemented together by natural processes. Usually, they show distinct layering
or bedding on the surface. Most sedimentary rocks are found in beaches, rivers, and oceans, where sand, mud, and
other types of sediments are present (which is why they are called sedimentary). They preserve or "record" the kind
of environment that existed when they were being formed. Scientists use sedimentary rocks to learn about the
climate and environment that had changed through Earth's history. Fossils (or remains of rocks organisms that had
lived millions of years ago) are also preserved in sedimentary.
3. Metamorphic rocks (meta means "change" and morph means "form") are rocks that derive from igneous or
sedimentary rocks that were exposed to high pressure, high temperature, or a combination of both, deep below the
surface of Earth. Because of this exposure, some of the minerals in these rocks undergo chemical and physical
changes.

Rock Cycle
Rocks are created and destroyed in the rock cycle. The rock cycle is a diagram that shows the continuous
succession of how rocks form, break down, and reform as a result of the processes that induce the formation of
igneous, Sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
B. EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Exogenous Processes
The exogenous processes occur on or near the surface of Earth. They are usually influenced or driven by gravity,
water, wind, and organisms. These could be destructive occurrences that leave significant changes on the landscape
and even in the ecosystem of an area. In extreme cases, exogenous processes can wipe out the majority of the
organisms inhabiting that area. The following are the different types of exogenous processes:
1. Weathering. It is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals together with other materials through contact with
Earth's subsystems. Weathering happens even without movement or transportation (as opposed to erosion that
involves movement). The breaking down of soil and rocks happen in situ or on the spot. Two important types of
weathering exist:
a. Physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures. This
can Occur due to changes, whether sudden or not, in temperature, pressure, etc. For example, soil cracks
because of extreme heat or drought. In some cases water, wind, or ice may abrade or scrape rocks or soil.
b. Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks break down by chemical reactions. In this process, new
or secondary minerals develop and sometimes replace the original properties of the minerals in the original
rock or soil. Oxidation (the reaction of a substance with oxygen) and hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a
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substance when combined with water) are chemical processes that contribute to chemical weathering. Another
contributor to chemical weathering is acid rain which may cause metals or stones to corrode or deteriorate and
change their properties because of the reaction to acids by some of the minerals in soil and rocks that make
them up.
2. Erosion. It is the process by which Earth's surface is worn away by wind, water, or ice. The process of erosion
moves rock debris or soil from one place to another. Erosion takes place when there is rainfall, surface runoff,
flowing rivers, seawater intrusion, flooding, freezing and thawing, hurricanes, wind, etc. These are forces of
nature, whether violent or passive, capable of exfoliating and scraping Earth's surface and exposing the layers
underlying it. Movement of land animals during migration or stampede can also cause erosion. Human activities
such as deforestation, overgrazing, and mining also cause soil erosion.
3. Mass Wasting. This refers to the movement of large masses of materials (e.g., rock debris, soil, mud) down a
slope or a steep-sided hill or mountain due to the pull of gravity. Mass wasting is very destructive in areas with
increased water flow (such as rainfall or flash floods), steep slopes, scarce or no vegetation, or vibrating or moving
ground (e.g., from earthquakes or industrial activities).
4. Sedimentation. It is the accumulation of materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil particles settling on the
ground. This usually occurs in streams and sea erosion. Over time, the sediment load becomes thick and forms a
new layer of ground. In some small inland waters, this sediment layer will eventually dry up the water and become
part of the soil. In oceans, the sediment layer can form the ocean basin. Because geologic processes are
constant, ocean basins change in size and depth. The change depends on the rate of erosion in their surrounding
continental masses or by ocean ridges.

C. ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
Endogenous Processes
The endogenous processes on Earth take place within or in the interior of Earth. The driving force is the thermal
energy of the mantle. Most of the thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements
in Earth's core.
1. Magmatism. Magma is the original material that makes up igneous rocks. Originally found beneath the surface of
Earth, magma is very hot and is constantly moved by the internal heat that reaches the mantle of Earth through
convective flow. Magmatism happens when magma is generated and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.
The process can take place either under the surface or on the surface of Earth.
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism). It is the process that usually happens after magma is formed. Magma tries to escape
from the source through openings such as volcanoes or existing cracks on the ground. Magma comes out with
extreme heat and pressure and may cause destructive explosions. As soon as magma reaches the surface of
Earth, it is now called lava.
3. Metamorphism. It is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock. The chemical components and
geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to heat and pressure that are increasing or decreasing. The
minerals in the rock may change even if the rock does not melt. It should be noted that rocks changing due to
weathering and sedimentation are not considered to have undergone metamorphism.

Types of Stress That Influenced Rock Behavior

The geologic processes that occur on Earth cause stress on rocks. Geological stress is the force (from the
pushing and pulling of plates) that acts on the rocks thereby creating different behavior or characteristics. There are
four different types of stress that influenced rock behavior:
1. Compressional. In compressional stress, rocks push or squeeze against one another. The stress produced is
directed toward the center. Hence, when these rocks meet, the orientation could either be horizontal or vertical.
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Horizontally, the crust may thicken or shorten. Vertically, the crust can thin out or break off. Compressional stress
is usually what takes place in folding, which results in mountain building.
2. Tensional. In tensional stress, rocks are pulled apart. Rocks may separate in opposite directions or move farther
away from one another. It is speculated that this type of stress is what separated all the continents in the world
during the breaking away of the supergiant continent known as Pangaea.
3. Shear: In shear stress, some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away in different directions,
eventually making the plate smaller in size. Depending on the conditions of the environment, shear stress usually
happens at different rates at the boundaries of the plate. The friction caused by this stress can cause
earthquakes.
4. Confining. In confining stress, the crust becomes compact, making it look smaller. This is different from shearing
as none of the crust's edges break away. However, if breaking away happens, it would come from the inside. This
may retain the shape of the crust but not its weight. In short, nothing may seem to have changed in the
appearance of the crust because changes have occurred inside. Confining stress can cause sinkholes where the
inside portion of the ground has already disintegrated without being apparent.

D. CRUSTAL DEFORMATION AND PROCESSES

The Continental Drift Theory
In 1596, Abraham Ortelius (1527-1598), a Flemish cartographer, observed that the shapes of the continents on
both sides of the Atlantic Ocean seem to fit together. It was as if Africa was torn away from Asia and Europe. With the
absence of valid measurements and proofs, the only speculation Ortelius could provide was that earthquakes and
floods may have made the separation possible. In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) developed the
concept and hypothesized the continental drift theory. He claimed that there used to be only one supergiant landmass
where all the continents came from. He called this massive landmass Pangaea. Over time, this continent broke apart
into two huge landmasses and these landmasses moved away from each other. The two giant continents were
Laurasia which comprised the continents in the present-day Northern Hemisphere, and Gondwanaland (also
Gondwana) which comprised the continents in the present-day Southern Hemisphere. The separation continued until
we have the continents that we can see on the map today. Wegener supported his theory with references from past
authors with similar ideas. such as Eduard Suess (1831-1914) who also recognized the existence of a supercontinent
Gondwanaland. Suess proposed the existence of the Tethys Sea, the body of water that separated the two ancient
continental landmasses Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Wegener proceeded by providing strong pieces of evidence of
his continental drift theory: (1) similarity of fossils found in different continents; (2) presence of tillites in areas whose
present climates do not suggest glacial formation; (3) presence of coal seams in polar regions; (4) continuity of rock
layers found in different continents; and (5) similarity of rock types in different continents.

Plate Tectonics
In the 1940s during an initial survey for ocean floor mapping and other geological explorations, certain findings led
to the discovery of more accurate pieces of evidence that would lead to the explanation of the moving continents; the
plate tectonics theory was born. As early as 1929, Arthur Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist, suggested the idea
of thermal convection as the driving force for the movement of the continents. The concept of thermal convection, as
Holmes put it, is based on the fact that as a substance is heated, its density decreases and rises to the surface until it
is cooled and then sinks again. The repeating process of heating and cooling may produce a current that is strong
enough to make the continents move. Holmes further suggested that thermal convection works like a "conveyor belt"
where the pressure that goes up could break apart a continent. The broken pieces can be carried by the same currents
to opposite directions. In later years, the concept of thermal convection was changed to mantle convection currents to
specify that heat is actually radiating from the mantle. While the basis for the movement of continents progressed,
geologists started to use a more precise term to refer to the moving piece of crust as "plate" because it was believed
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that continents are not the only ones moving (as explained by Wegener). The boundaries of Tectonic plates were
accidentally discovered and eventually studied during magnetic surveys of the ocean floor and seismic studies for
nuclear testing. 3 main types of boundaries:
1. Convergent (collisional) boundaries are where plates meet. This happens when two tectonic plates move
toward each other brought by mantle convection (or the current convection from the heat of the mantle). Two
possible landforms can be created. One is a trench, which is formed from subduction where a denser plate sinks
(subducts) under the other (less dense) plate. Another possible landform is a mountain or a mountain range where
neither plate is subducted but instead crumples into each other and somehow pushes upward or sideward.
Convergent boundaries are where most of the destruction of crust takes place, specifically in the subduction zone.
2. Divergent boundaries are where plates move away from each other. Plates move apart because of the magma
that is being pushed upward in boundaries of the plates. When this happens, the slowly moving plates transport
newly formed crust away from the ridge as it spreads in both directions where the plates go.
3. Transform boundaries are where plates slide past each other. Neither plate gets subducted.

E. HISTORY OF EARTH
The Earth's history is recorded in the rocks of the crust. Scientists used an assumption called uniformitarianism in
order to relate what we know about present-day processes to past events - the present is the key to the past.
Uniformitarianism states that the natural laws we know today have been constant over the geologic past.

Dating Methods: Establishing the Timeline of the Life on Earth

To understand the evolution of Earth, dating methods are used to reconstruct the history of rocks, minerals, and
other materials found on Earth. Geologists use two types of dating methods:
1. Relative dating is a method used to determine the relative order of geologic events. This is done through
stratigraphy (succession of rocks) where the order of rock formations correlates to geologic time. The topmost
layer suggests the most recent. In like manner, the oldest rocks are understood to be at the bottom. This method
does not provide actual numerical dates for the rocks, but all are just estimates based on the profile of the strata
which includes chemical composition, rock type, and presence of organisms. Throughout the history of Earth,
many organisms have flourished and disappeared. However, their remains or fossils were preserved in some
sedimentary rocks. The presence of fossils helps geologists figure out the date of rocks by means of correlation.
They use index fossils to establish geologic timescales of a rock by matching the fossil with the established period
of its existence. If the fossils of trilobites were found embedded in a certain layer of rocks, there is a possibility that
the rock existed somewhere between 542 and 250 million years ago.
2. Absolute dating methods can tell which sediments were deposited first and also the approimate age of the
specimen. The most used and accepted form of absolute dating is radioactive decay dating. Most absolute dating
makes use of radiometric methods, wherein radioactive minerals are used to compute the age of rocks. Isotopes,
which are present in radioactive elements, break down at a constant rate. These rates of decay are known, so if
you are able to measure the parent and daughter isotopes in rocks, you can calculate when the rocks were
formed. Since different elements have unique decay rates, certain elements are used for dating a particular age
range. For example, the decay of isotope Ur-238 to Pb-206 may be used for rocks older than 1 million years.

Written Works 2

IDENTIFICATION (10 points)

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Direction: Identify the following statements below. Write PW if it represents physical weathering and CW if it represents
chemical weathering. Write your answer on the blank before each number.
_______ 1. Ice wedges are a big cause of potholes in roads and streets. As ice forms in the cracks of a street, the water
expands and pushes against the surrounding rock, making the cracks wider, eventually breaking apart the rock.
_______ 2. Pressure release occurs when materials on the surface are removed from erosion or another process, and the
rock underneath expands and fractures.
_______ 3. Glacier movement can cause pressure release as it moves away from a surface of rock.
_______ 4. A stone that is particularly susceptible to carbonation is limestone, which is made of mostly calcium carbonate.
Carbonation of limestone creates unique structures like the South China Karst. Karsts are all over the globe and
include unique caves, streams, sinkholes and unusual rock formations.
_______ 5. Rust forms when the iron or steel in your car reacts with the oxygen in the air to form iron oxide. The resulting
red substance can be quite brittle, so much so that you could literally poke a hole in it with your finger.
_______ 6. Water flowing in a stream into a rock can eventually create a hole in the rock.
_______ 7. Ice crystals can grow in cracks of rocks. Over time this weakens the rock, and it can break apart.
_______ 8. H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create CaSO4+2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It changes
from anhydrite to gypsum.
_______ 9. Turning feldspar into clay and making sodium minerals into saltwater solutions through hydrolysis.
_______ 10 Acid rain is water with sulfuric and nitric acids from the burning of coal and fossil fuels, along with volcano
eruptions.
Written Works 3

The teacher may facilitate this activity either as a Short Quiz or Assignment.
The teacher may change some of the items or he/she may facilitate other course activity.

MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE (10 points)

Direction: Write "TRUE" if the statement is correct. However, if the statement is incorrect, find the word/s that makes it
false. Write your answer on your paper.
1. The Earth's core is a solid, cold layer composed mainly of iron and nickel.
2. Plate tectonics is the theory that explains the movement of Earth's rigid outer shell, composed of tectonic plates.
3. Earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates along their boundaries.
4. The theory of continental drift proposes that continents were once joined together and have since drifted apart.
5. Volcanoes are formed when molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface.
6. Folding and faulting are two processes that describe how rocks are deformed by stress.
7. The Earth's atmosphere has remained constant throughout its history.
8. Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of past life forms.
9. The theory of continental drift is based on evidence from matching rock formations across continents.
10.The study of fossils helps scientists understand the history of life on Earth.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 10

NORTHLINK
TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE
LEARNING MODULE
Sci 1 – Earth and Life Science

Learning Content 3: Natural Hazards and Mitigation

A. HAZARDS CAUSED BY GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

As discussed in the previous module, the plate tectonics theory explains the dynamism of Earth. You learned that
Earth is made up of tectonic plates that move because they float on a liquid mantle that also moves due to thermal
energy that escapes from Earth's core. The ground motion itself is a hazard. However, there are other numerous
hazards associated with or resulting from ground movement. Some of these are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides.

Common Geologic Hazards

1. Earthquakes - The plate tectonics theory explains that interaction of plates occurs on their edges or boundaries.
The Philippines is geographically located near the boundaries of active tectonic plates. It is specifically near the
edge of the Philippine Plate that is constantly pushed by an active Pacific Plate. This explains the frequent
earthquakes experienced throughout the country. Areas that are at risk to earthquakes may also experience other
hazards associated with earthquakes.
2. Volcanic Eruptions - The location of the Philippines in the Pacific Ring of Fire is near the subduction zone of the
Pacific Plate. Recall that the subduction zone is the sinking region of a convergent plate boundary. Here, the Pacific
Plate, which is an oceanic subducting (sinking) plate, moves downward to the mantle as the other convergent plate,
the Philippine Plate, stays on top. Apart from this, the Philippines belong to the Pacific Ring of Fire, where volcanic
activities are frequent. Recall that being at or near the boundary of a tectonic plate poses geological hazard to an
area.
3. Landslides - Landslides occur in sloping terrain. Usually, if the soil is not compact and devoid of vegetation, gravity
can drive soil and rocks to slide. There are many natural factors that can induce a landslide such as wind and water.
Landslides can also be triggered by rainfall or earthquake.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 11

B. HAZARDS CAUSED BY HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA

The geographical location of the Philippines does not only make it prone to geological hazards but also to extreme
weather. The area that encircles Earth near the equator where trade winds meet is known as the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The convergence of trade winds results in the rising of hot air, which intensifies the
movement of winds in this area. The Philippines is in the Northern Hemisphere near the equator; hence, it is affected
by the ITCZ. Sometimes, the ITCZ enhances the passing of a typhoon, producing stronger and more devastating
winds.

Common Hydrometeorological Phenomena

1. Tropical Cyclones - Tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons for those occurring in the Northwest Pacific and
hurricanes for those developing in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific) are storm systems characterized by rapidly
spiraling storms, low-pressure center, and intensely strong winds. Typically, they begin over warm tropical waters.
They derive their energy from the evaporation of water from the warm ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses
into clouds and rain while the moist air rises and cools in the atmosphere. The rotating spiraling winds are a result
of the conservation of angular momentum which is manifested in Earth's rotation on its axis. Air flows inward toward
the axis of rotation. The direction of the cyclone depends on its location on Earth. The Northern Hemisphere, where
the Philippines is located, would have counterclockwise direction of cyclones. On the average, the Philippines
experiences almost 20 typhoons annually. PAGASA issues public storm warning signals based on speed, intensity,
size of circulation, and direction of winds.
2. Monsoons - Monsoons are seasonal winds. The Philippines experiences two monsoons every year. The amihan
and the habagat. The amihan or the northeast monsoon is characterized by cold gusty wind with little or no
precipitation. It begins in early September up to May or June. The cool wind is from Northern China and Siberia
gradually moving southward as it reaches the Philippines. Hazards associated with amihan are thunderstorm,
lightning, heavy rainfall, and flooding, all of which may lead to property damage and health risks. The habagat or the
southwest monsoon is characterized by a hot and humid atmosphere with frequent heavy rainfall. It begins in June
and ends in August or September. In some cases, habagat may bring about problems and hazards during extreme
heat and drought. Here, water shortage challenges all sectors of the society, most especially the agricultural
industries. Lack of water for irrigation can decrease crop yield. Changes in season are indicated by reversing winds.
Amihan blows to the east while habagat blows to the west.
3. Tornadoes - A tornado or locally known as ipo-ipo is a rapidly swirling condensation funnel whose narrow end
comes in contact with the ground. Usually, the Violent swirling air column carries debris and other objects that it can
pick up from the ground. Tornadoes occur anywhere in the Philippines at an average of 12 to 24 times in a year
(PAGASA, 2011).

C. HAZARDS CAUSED BY COASTAL PROCESSES

Coastal areas are transition places between land and sea. These areas are considered low-lying. Coastal
environment is very dynamic. It interacts with all natural systems and processes that happen on land, in the marine
environment, and in the atmosphere. Because of this, continuous changes occur within its environment. Most of the
changes are caused by natural coastal processes such as waves, tides, sea-level changes, and wind.

Common Coastal Hazards

1. Coastal Erosion - The seawater through wave actions, tidal currents, strong winds, or a combination of all of these
loosens the soil on the shore, which eventually destroys the integrity of land. Structures that are built in coastal
areas are prone to coastal erosion. Seawater that comes in contact with structures can abrade and corrode their
material composition. When structures reach a critical point of instability, they may be easily torn down by coastal
winds or wave action.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 12

2. Submersion - As global atmospheric temperatures rise, oceans and seas become warm and expand. Rising global
temperatures also speed the melting of glaciers and ice caps. These changes cause sea level to rise and seawater
to extend to the land. Structures and communities near the coast may be waterlogged for a long time. As such,
communities are forced to abandon their place. Sometimes, this situation is worsened by wind-driven storms that
significant areas of land are lost instantaneously.
3. Storm Surges - Storm surges may occur in coastal areas when typhoons make landfall. The strong winds and
cyclones push the waters toward the shore, sometimes generating huge waves capable of destroying sea walls and
structures facing the sea. Storm surges may instantly flood coastal areas. They can also be aggravated by the
occurrence of high tide. During high tide, surge height is higher and can thus wipe out more structures and objects
on the shore.

4. Saltwater Intrusion - Saltwater intrusion is the movement of minerals and salts from coastal seas to freshwater
aquifers. This occurs because of the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. The high
concentration of saltwater may induce water movement to a lower concentration where seawater moves inland,
carrying with it minerals and more salt. The problem arises when abstraction rate (water extraction) exceeds the
recharge rate of groundwater. When you pump water from the ground, underground pressure forces water to move
upward. Excessive abstraction puts a strain in the groundwater system, depleting the aquifer with water and
eventually pressuring saltwater to enter the groundwater system. In effect, not only is the groundwater receiving
more minerals and salt, users may also be affected with water rich in minerals.

Written Works 4

The teacher may facilitate this activity either as a Short Quiz or Assignment.
The teacher may change some of the items or he/she may facilitate other course activity.

PHOTO ESSAY (30 points)

Direction: Interpret each picture on the right side and relate it to our topic. Answer it in just 1 paragraph. Write your answer
on your paper.
1.

2.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 13

3.

Rubric
Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Criteria
(2.0 points) (1.5 points) (1.0 point) (0.5 point)
Photos clearly represent the Photos mostly Photos somewhat Photos are unclear or
chosen theme and capture represent the theme represent the theme poorly chosen and do
Content relevant details. Images are but may lack some but may be repetitive not effectively
diverse and well-selected. details or miss key or irrelevant. represent the theme.
elements.
Photos demonstrate strong Photos show some use Composition in photos Photos lack any
composition techniques of composition is basic or poorly deliberate composition
(framing, rule of thirds, techniques but may planned, hindering and appear poorly
Composition
leading lines) to create lack consistency or visual appeal. framed or random.
visual interest and guide the effectiveness.
viewer's eye.
Storytelling Photos effectively tell a Photos attempt to tell a Connection between Photos are unrelated
story or convey a message story but the sequence photos is weak, and do not form a
through their sequence and may be unclear or lack hindering a clear cohesive story or
interaction. A clear narrative a strong narrative flow. storyline. message.
unfolds throughout the
essay.
Photos are high-quality and Photos are mostly Photos may be blurry Photos are grainy,
well-edited. Presentation clear but may have or poorly edited. poorly lit, or poorly
Presentation format is visually appealing minor editing issues. Presentation format edited. Presentation
and enhances the story Presentation format is lacks creativity or format is confusing or
(e.g., captions, borders). adequate. organization. unappealing.
The photo essay evokes The photo essay The photo essay has The photo essay fails to
emotions, informs the creates some impact or a weak impact and create any impact or
Overall
viewer, or leaves a lasting conveys a basic may not be fully convey a clear
Impact
impression. The message is message. understood by the message.
clear and impactful. viewer.

Performance Task 1
Hazard Hunt (Research and Presentation)
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 14

Objective: Students will research and present information about a specific natural hazard, its causes, effects, and mitigation
strategies.

Group Size: 4 groups

Task:
1. Choose a Specific Hazard: Each group will select a specific natural hazard to research. Examples include
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons, floods, landslides, etc.
2. Research: Students will gather information about their chosen hazard, focusing on:
o Causes and contributing factors
o Potential effects on the environment and human populations
o Existing mitigation strategies (prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery)
3. Presentation: Each group will prepare a 10-15 minute presentation on their chosen natural hazard. The
presentation can include:
o Visual aids (e.g., diagrams, maps, images)
o Explanations of the hazard, its causes, effects, and mitigation strategies
o Interactive elements (e.g., quizzes, case studies)

Rubric
Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Criteria
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (5-6 points) (3-4 points)
Information is Information is mostly Information is generally Information is
Content comprehensive, accurate but may lack accurate but lacks depth inaccurate or
Accuracy accurate, and up-to- some details or have and may have some misleading.
date. minor errors. significant errors.
Demonstrates a clear Shows a good Shows some Lacks understanding
Understanding understanding of the understanding of the understanding of the of the chosen hazard.
of Hazard chosen hazard, its hazard but may lack hazard but may have
causes, and effects. detail on some aspects. gaps in knowledge.
Presentation Presentation is well- Presentation is mostly Presentation lacks Presentation is
Clarity organized, and organized, and organization and clarity. disorganized and
information is presented information is mostly Visual aids are not very difficult to follow.
clearly and concisely. clear. Visual aids are helpful or are missing. Visual aids are
Visual aids are effective somewhat helpful. absent or ineffective.
and complement the
presentation.
Presentation is Presentation is Presentation lacks Presentation is
engaging and somewhat engaging. engagement. Does not disengaging and
interactive. Uses Uses some strategies to effectively engage the does not hold the
Engagement
effective strategies to maintain audience audience. audience's interest.
keep the audience interest.
interested.

Performance Task 2
Mitigation Masterplan (Project Development)

Objective: Students will develop a mitigation plan for a specific natural hazard in their local community.

Group Size: 4 groups

Task:
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 15

1. Community Hazard: Building upon their chosen hazard from Task 1, each group will focus on its impact on their
local community.
2. Mitigation Plan: Students will develop a community-based mitigation plan for their chosen hazard. This plan should
include:
o Identification of vulnerable areas in the community
o Strategies for hazard prevention (if applicable)
o Strategies for preparedness (e.g., early warning systems, drills, evacuation plans)
o Strategies for response (e.g., emergency shelters, communication plans)
o Strategies for recovery (e.g., infrastructure repair, financial assistance)
3. Project Presentation: Each group will present their community-based mitigation plan to the class. The
presentation can include:
o A map of the community highlighting vulnerable areas
o Details of the proposed mitigation strategies for each phase (prevention, preparedness, response,
recovery)
o Discussion of potential challenges and solutions

Rubric
Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Criteria
(19-20 points) (17-18 points) (15-16 points) (13-14 points)
Plan clearly identifies and Plan identifies the hazard Plan somewhat identifies the Plan does not clearly
Community addresses the specific and its impact on the hazard and its impact on the identify the hazard or its
Focus hazard and its impact on community but may lack community but may have impact on the
the local community. some details. significant gaps. community.
Mitigation plan includes a Mitigation plan includes Mitigation plan includes Mitigation plan has
comprehensive set of most phases but may lack some phases but lacks detail vague, incoherent, and
Mitigation
strategies for all phases detail or or comprehensiveness in irrelevant and lacks
Strategies
(prevention, preparedness, comprehensiveness in most areas. salient details in all
response, recovery). some areas. areas.

NORTHLINK
TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE
LEARNING MODULE
Sci 1 – Earth and Life Science

Learning Content 4: Introduction to Life Science

A. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE CONCEPT OF LIFE

 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 16

The similar characteristics of cells allow scientists and biologists to think that cells are descended from a common
ancestral cell or known as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Cells arose from nonliving materials. Over
hundreds of years, the cells from nonliving matter produced subsequent growth, forming cell populations. The cell
population began to interact with other microbial communities. The interaction of the cell population to microbial
communities led to the evolution of selected cell populations. As the cell population adapted to its community, it
developed and improved, allowing diversification of the early cell. The early cell eventually became highly complex and
diverse as what is seen and known today. Scientists found evidence that cells appeared on Earth around 3.9 billion
years ago. These early cells are exclusively microbial. Historical evidence shows that microorganisms are said to be
the earliest life-forms on Earth.
Over periods of time, the microbial cell developed into a more complex organism. The atmosphere during the first 3
billion years was rich in nitrogen and carbon dioxide. It was anoxic (deficient in oxygen) with limited gases present.
Only microorganisms that were capable of surviving in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) survived, including
methanogens (methane-producing organisms). Organisms that were light-dependent survived as they get energy from
sunlight (phototrophic organisms). The first group of phototrophs such as purple bacteria was simple, while others are
anoxygenic (non-oxygen evolving phototrophs). Oxygenic and oxygen-evolving phototrophs like cyanobacteria evolved
from anoxygenic phototrophs which slowly oxygenated the atmosphere. The production of sufficient oxygen in the
atmosphere as time progressed allowed multicellular life-forms to develop and evolve in increasing complexities into
the plants and animals that we know today. Traces and evidence of the past help scientists discover the evolutionary
history of organisms. Scientists also reconstruct evolutionary transition using biomarkers and unique and specific
molecules present in a particular group of organisms. At the same time, the use of biomarkers allows scientists to
predict the existence of specific organisms in a particular time.

B. ORIGIN OF THE FIRST LIFE FORM

Paleontologists are scientists who collect, identify, and study pieces of evidence about earlier life-forms and try to
determine how these have evolved into the organisms of today. These pieces of evidence are among the fossils of
organisms that existed about billions of years ago. A fossil is a remnant or trace of a plant, an animal, or other
organism that may have been replaced by rock material or left imprinted on a sedimentary rock deposited in riverbeds
or on the ocean floor. Some fossils are very small and can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. These are called
microfossils. The fossils that are considered the oldest on Earth are the stromatolites. These are layers of sheetlike
sedimentary rocks that were created by layers upon layers of cyanobacteria, single-celled photosynthetic microbes.
Bacteria are considered to be the first life-forms that existed on Earth over two billion years ago. These pieces of
evidence have also led scientists to conclude that the first life-forms began in deep hot springs located in hydrothermal
vents, or cracks on Earth's surface (ocean floor). Very hot water from Earth's interior escapes through these cracks,
which are found in areas where volcanoes are highly active. Scientists maintain that the energy present in
environments like this can support various chemical reactions essential for the evolution of organisms. They have
traced that the ancestors of all organisms came from aquatic microorganisms that survived even very high
temperatures such as those in hydrothermal vents. However, scientists continue to study the possibilities that
organisms may have come from other origins.
All forms of life share common characteristics. These characteristics of life include the following: (1) the use of
chemical energy to help organisms perform activities and carry out chemical reactions (energy processing); (2) the
ability of individuals to adapt to their environment (evolutionary adaptation); (3) the consistent growth and development
controlled by the inherited gene; (4) the systematic and highly ordered structure of organisms; (5) the ability of
organisms to control their internal environment (regulation); (6) the ability of organisms to respond to environmental
stimuli; and (7) the ability of every organism to reproduce its own kind. All existing organisms trace their beginnings to
simple life-forms. Three major fields in biology cover the unifying themes of life. These include genetics, evolution, and
biochemistry. Genetics is the branch of biology that studies heredity and variation. Genetics shows how the
characteristics of the parents are transmitted to their offspring through the reproductive process. Genetics is a unifying
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 17

theme in biology because it allows humans to understand the complexities of the existence of life. The genetic variation
of organisms is also the reason for the natural diversity between and across species
The biological or genetic information and characteristics of an organism are contained in its molecular makeup or
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The DNA contains biological information that is passed on from one generation to the
next and ensures the existence of species. Each DNA sequence contains instructions to make a gene. Genes make up
about 1 percent of the DNA sequence. The rest of the DNA sequence is involved in regulating when and how much of
a protein is produced. The gene contains the biological information of individuals and can be passed on by parents to
their offspring during reproduction. Although there is diversity of life, organisms can be grouped into three domains: (1)
Bacteria (most diverse and widespread prokaryotes); (2) Archaea (prokaryotes, or organisms with no distinct nucleus
and other organelles, that often live in extreme environment); and (3) Eukarya (eukaryotic cells, or cells with true nuclei
and other organelles, that include single-celled protists and multicellular fungi, plants, and animals).
The diversity of life can also be explained through evolution. Fossil remains show the history of life and the saga of
a changing Earth through the evolution of organisms. Charles Darwin published the book On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection in 1859. Darwin articulated in the book that all species are descendants of ancestral
species (modification by descent) and that the mechanism for this process is evolution (natural selection). Darwin also
inferred the following: (1) Individuals with traits suited to the environment are more likely to survive than less suited
individuals; (2) Survival for existence depends on the hereditary constitution of survivors, and that this is a part of the
process of natural selection; and (3) The process of natural selection from one generation to another will lead to a
continuing gradual change which may result in evolutionary adaptations or production of new species. Cells are
composed of chemical substances. The biochemical composition of organisms is essential in interacting with other
organisms and their environment. The chemical properties of organic (carbon-containing) molecules provide energy to
drive cellular processes and serve as building blocks for the synthesis of larger molecules.
All organisms are made up of elements or a combination of elements called compounds. Organisms are made up of
matter that occupies space and has mass (weight). About 25 elements are essential to organisms. Four of these
elements make up about 96% of the weight of most organisms. These elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. The biochemical composition of an organism is important in its ability to adapt to its environment. For
example, life first evolved in water, and all organisms require water. When water is removed in the body, it is harder for
an organism to survive. Also, when water is removed from the environment, organisms will have difficulty surviving and
reproducing. Further, the majority of chemical reactions in an organism happen in the cells that are made of almost
95% water. Domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya require the need to reproduce (genetics), adapt (evolution), and
metabolize (biochemistry). All organisms need to reproduce to preserve their future generations. These younger
generations should possess the needed biochemical components that will help them adapt to their environment. The
diversity and abundance of these domains are controlled by resources (food) and condition of their habitat
(temperature, pH, and oxygen). The habitat of each organism differs based on its characteristics. Some habitats may
be harmful to one organism but beneficial to another organism. The physical and chemical components of the
environment combine to make the environment suitable to the survival of different types of organisms.

C. CLASSIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE

What do you think will happen when leftover food is thrown into a garbage can that is left uncovered? After a couple
of days, organisms such as maggots, or the larvae of flies, can be seen crawling over the unprotected food. Where did
they come from? When did they start to grow?
1. The Theory of Spontaneous Generation - Aristotle believed in spontaneous generation. Spontaneous generation
states that vital forces or organic matter can create organisms from inanimate objects. Aristotle claimed that some
classes of organisms generate spontaneously. The appearance of maggots in meat that was left in the open area
was thought to be an example of spontaneous generation. The existence of microscopic organisms was linked to
the discovery of the microscope. Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an English scientist who wrote the book Micrographia
(1665), illustrated small organisms such as the fruiting structure of molds. His illustrations and descriptions of small
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 18

organisms became the first description of microorganisms. However, the first person to see bacteria was a Dutch
scientist named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632- 1723). In 1684, Leeuwenhoek further developed a simple
microscope to investigate the natural substances present in microbes. He discovered bacteria while studying a
pepper-water infusion and called these small organisms “wee animalcules." Although many scholars and scientists
confirmed the observation of Leeuwenhoek, little development happened because of the limited experimental tools
available at that time.
2. Redi's Experiment - Among the scientists who challenged the theory of spontaneous generation was Francesco
Redi (1626-1697), an Italian scientist. In 1668, Redi designed a scientific experiment to demonstrate that maggots
do not just appear spontaneously but are produced from the eggs of flies. For his experiment, Redi used two groups
of jars. Three jars were used in each group. For the first group, Redi placed an unknown object in jar 1, a dead fish
in jar 2, and a chunk of red meat in jar 3. He covered each jar with fine cheesecloth so that only air can get into
them. For the second group, Redi placed the same objects in the three jars. However, he did not cover these jars
with cheesecloth. A couple of days later, Redi noticed maggots on the objects in all the uncovered jars while there
were none on the objects in the covered jars, although there were maggots on the cheesecloth on the covered jars.
Through this experiment, Redi was able to prove that organisms do not just come to life spontaneously.
3. Needham's Test - In 1750, John Turberville Needham (1713-1781), an English biologist attempted to test the
relevance of Redi's experiment and to prove that spontaneous generation can occur under the right conditions. At
that time, it was believed that heat could kill even the tiniest of organisms. Based on this, Needham conducted an
experiment wherein he put some chicken broth in an open container, let it cool, and then covered the container and
kept it at room temperature. Needham claimed that, when the broth was boiled, all the organisms in it had died from
the heat. Days later, when Needham examined the broth, he noticed that a thick solution had formed on the broth
and concluded that this was made up of microorganisms that had been generated spontaneously.
4. Spallanzani's Experiments - Lazzaro Spallanzani(1729-1799) was an Italian scholar who sought to verify
Needham's test in 1767. Spallanzani believed that Needham had not heated the broth enough to kill the organisms
in it. He then repeated Needham's experiment by boiling equal amounts of chicken broth in two containers, with one
container sealed and the other left open. After a few days, Spallanzani observed that the container that had been
left open was teeming with microorganisms while the sealed container remained free of microbial growth.
5. Pasteur's Test - Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) opposed the concept of spontaneous generation. He believed that
microorganisms present in putrefying materials are present in the air or might have been present on the surface
where decaying materials are present. Putrefaction or rotting of organic material is a result of the activities of
microorganisms present either in air or in the container. If the food were treated to kill the microorganisms and
become sterile, then the food will be protected from rotting or putrefaction. The process of heating (called
sterilization) was used by Pasteur to eliminate contaminants. Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation by
conducting an experiment where he used the process of pasteurization. Pasteur filled a swan-necked flask with a
nutrient solution that he boiled and sterilized. After heating, the flask was cooled and the air was allowed to reenter,
but the bend in the neck prevented particulate matter such as microorganisms from entering and mixing with the
nutrient solution that caused rotting. Teeming microorganisms were observed when particulate matter was allowed
to enter. His experiment showed that in the flask that was sterilized and sealed, organisms did not develop. Later
on, Pasteur broke the flask and the flask slowly became filled with microorganisms. The work of Pasteur proved that
the hypothesis of spontaneous generation is not correct. The controversy about spontaneous generation was put to
an end because of Pasteur ‘s experiment. Pasteur's experiment gave rise to the study of microbiology. Later on, the
sterilization process was developed and carried out as a basic procedure on both basic and applied microbiology
research.

Written Works 5
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 19

IDENTIFICATION (10 points)

Direction: Identify the following statements below by using the jumbled letters to answer.

1. It is a remnant or trace of a plant, an animal or other organism that may have been replaced by rock material or left
imprinted on a sedimentary rock deposited in riverbeds or on the ocean floor.
Hint: (silosf)
2. It contains biological information that is passed on from one generation to the next and ensures the existence of
species.
Hint: (and)
3. They are prokaryotes, or organisms with no distinct nucleus and other organelles, that often live in extreme
environments.
Hint: (rcaaeha)
4. They are microorganisms that were capable of surviving in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) survived.
Hint: (sgenhaontem)
5. It states that vital forces or organic matter can create organisms from inanimate objects.
Hint: (ssooopttaannnneeeugri)
6. A scientific experiment to demonstrate that maggots do not just appear spontaneously but are produced from the eggs
of flies.
Hint: (tenmsedrieripxe’)
7. The process of heating to eliminate contaminants.
Hint: (iietszrainolt)
8. A book which illustrated small organisms such as the fruiting structure of molds.
Hint: (ogicramahip)
9. They are single-celled organisms.
Hint: (etoyrakorp)
10. The fossils that are considered the oldest on Earth.
Hint: (setilmarotsto)

Learning Content 5: Bioenergetics

A. CELL
The Cell Theory
The discovery of the microscope helped early scientists to understand the structure and functions of cells. In 1665,
Robert Hooke first viewed the cells of the cork plant using the microscope he built. Hooke observed that, when seen
under the microscope, the thin slice from the cork plant had tiny and empty compartments similar to those of a
honeycomb. He identified the empty compartments as the dead cells of the plant. He named them cellullae, which
meant "small rooms" but later used the shorter word cell. Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881) was a German
botanist and professor of botany, the branch of biology that deals with the study of plants. In 1838, his studies on the
structure of plants led him to conclude that different parts of plants are made up of cells and that cells are the basic
units of organisms. Thus, Schleiden was the first scientist to develop the first statement in what would later be known
as the cell theory, an informal belief in biology made up of the following statements:
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
2. A cell is the basic unit of an organism.
3. A cell arises from preexisting cells.

The following year, German physiologist Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) expanded on the cell theory as he
showed how animal tissues are also made up of individual cells. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902), a German
doctor and one of the prominent physicians of the nineteenth century, stated that a new cell forms from a previously
existing cell. Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow unified the concept of cell structure that Hooke had initiated.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 20

Cells
Like a successful company, a cell is an organization made up of a complex system that carries out the cell's
functions and enables it to adapt to its environment. A cell is the basic structural unit of each living thing on Earth.
Although it has a simple structure, it can perform many complex roles to maintain life.
A cell is made up of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, salts, and water. These materials are essential to
the different biochemical pathways that form the molecular structures of the cell. Cells can exchange materials and
energy with their environment. Although cells can get energy and exchange materials in many ways, they have to
convert the materials to form a product, and to use and convert the energy. Cells store energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).

Parts of the Cell

1. Cell membrane, also called Plasma membrane. The cell membrane functions as:
a. The boundary between the cell and its external environment.
b. As a structure that controls the movement of Substances in and out of the cell. It is a semipermeable
membrane which allows the entry of some substances like water, Oxygen, and ions and prevents the entry
of others. Toxic or useless by-products of metabolism can exit through it. The cell membrane is described
as a fluid-mosaic model composed of two layers of fats with proteins and carbohydrates scattered all over.
The liquid layer is called phospholipids. The cell membrane allows the cell to change its shape when
needed. The cell wall is an additional boundary aside from the cell membrane, surrounding the cells of
plants, fungi, bacteria and other protozoans. It is made up of cellulose which provides support and
protection from injury. Cellulose is a good source of fiber in our diet.
2. Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm is found inside the cell membrane surrounding the nucleus. It is where most life
processes occur. It is made up of a fluid like substance where organelles are located. It is composed of water, salts,
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals. Some organelles found in the cytoplasm and how they function:
a. Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. It converts food molecules into energy. The energy produced
is important for the vital activities of the cell, such as growth and reproduction.
b. Ribosomes are involved in the production of proteins, a process called protein synthesis.
c. Endoplasmic reticulum are folded membranes that divide the cell into compartments. They serve as
channels through which the materials are transported in the cell.
d. Golgi Complex serves as the packaging factories of the cell.
e. Lysosomes are spherical sacs that contain powerful digestive enzymes. They destroy bacteria and other
microorganisms that invade the cell.
f. Plastids are energy converters. They harvest solar energy and produce food in the process of
photosynthesis.
g. Vacuoles for the storage of food, enzymes, and other materials needed by cells. Plant cells contain cell
sap.
h. Vesicles carry substances in and out of the cell like food particles.
i. Microtubules provide support and movement to the cell.
3. Nucleus - The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell It contains the deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) which
contains the hereditary materials of the organism transmitted from one generation to another. During cell division,
the chromatids form structures called chromosomes. The nucleus also contains ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
proteins. Within the nucleus is the nucleolus which is the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA.

B. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light and Dark Reactions
The process of photosynthesis is divided into two parts: light-dependent reactions and light-independent reąctions.
In the thylakoids, light-dependent reactions occur where the sun's light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll. Light
energy is converted into stored chemicál energy in the form of NADPH and ATP. The ATP provides the energy, and
the NADPH supplies the electrons for the light-independent reactions, which convert CO, to sugar. Light-independent
reactions or the Calvin cycle, which occur in the stroma, do not need light to function. The products of light-
dependent reactions are used for this stage to function. The chemical energy that was produced during the light-
dependent reactions drives the production of sugar molecules from CO,. The ADP and NADP" produced by light-
independent reactions shuttle back to the light reactions, which regenerate ATP and NADPH. To summarize the two
photosynthetic processes:
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 21

1. Sunlight and water are used to produce ATP, NADPH, and 0, in the light-dependent reactions.
2. ATP, NADPH, and CO, are used to produce sugar.

The actual conversion of light energy into chemical energy takes place in the grana of a chloroplast. Inside a
chloroplast are stacks of disk-shaped thylakoids which trap the sun's light energy. Within the thylakoids are chlorophyll
pigments which absorb the sun's light energy. The chlorophyll is called a photosystem or pigment system.
Photosystems are light-harvesting structures in photosynthetic organisms which serve as a reaction complex. Each
photosystem has a pair of chlorophyll located at the center. As light reaction happens, two photosystems cooperate to
carry out this reaction. These are photosystems I and II. Photosystem 1, also called PS700, absorbs light best with a
wavelength of 700 nanometers (nm). Photosystem l1, known as PS680, absorbs red light with a wavelength of 680 nm.

C. CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cells Make ATP: Cellular Respiration
To function well, you need the energy that food can give you. Cells harvest the energy that is stored in the food you
eat through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process by which the chemical energy of food molecules is
released and partially captured for the production of ATP. There are two types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic.
Cellular respiration is a cumulative function of three metabolic stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.

Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate

Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol (outside the mitochondria) and is the first stage in cellular respiration. This stage
breaks glucose, a six-carbon sugar, which is split into three- carbon sugars. These three-carbon sugars are then
oxidized, and their remaining atoms are rearranged to form two molecules of a three-carbon sugar known as pyruvate.
Pyruvate, which is the product of glycolysis, is the ionized form of a three-carbon acid, pyruvic acid. Glycolysis occurs
in the cytoplasm of the cell. In glycolysis, two molecules of pyruvic acid and two high- energy electron-carrying
molecules of NADH are produced. At the same time, reduction of two NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) occurs,
turning NAD" into two molecules of NADH.

Citric Acid Cycle and Pyruvate Oxidation

After pyruvate is oxidized, it is transported in the mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria). The citric acid cycle takes
place in the mitochondrion. As pyruvate enters, it experiences grooming, wherein carbon dioxide is given off as a
carbonyl group is removed. The three-carbon molecule that enters is turned into a two-carbon compound. Acetyl CoA,
a coenzyme, joins the two-carbon molecule compound as it enters the cycle. The citric acid cycle is also known as the
Krebs cycle after Hans Krebs (1900-1981), a German-born British scientist. During the process, the two-carbon
molecule, together with acetyl CoA, joins a four-carbon compound, resulting in the formation of citrate. Two molecules
of CO, which are released as citrate, are degraded into a four-carbon compound. In this stage, pyruvate yields 2 ATP,
6 NADH, and 2 FADH, (flavin adenine dinucleotide), after two turns of the cycle in one glucose molecule. This stage
also supplies oxidative phosphorylation with enough electrons.

Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process wherein ATP is formed due to the transfer of electrons from NADH or
FADH, to O, by a chain of electron carriers. The electrons come from the first two stages, usually from NADH, and are
passed from one election acceptor to another in an electron transport chain. This stage uses electron transport and
chemiosmosis, which require a specific supply of oxygen. At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons are
combined with hydrogen ions and molecular oxygen to form water. The energy released at each step of the chain is
stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP. This form of ATP production is called oxidative
phosphorylation.

Anaerobic Respiration
One type of energy production is fermentation. Fermentation is an example of anaerobic respiration which produces
ATP without the presence of oxygen, as opposed to aerobic respiration which requires oxygen. In this process,
fermentation produces two-ATP molecules in every glucose molecule. It is then reduced into NAD to NADH.
Remarkably, fermentation provides another pathway which helps the cell to recycle NADH to NAD". Bacteria and
muscle cells are able to oxidize NADH to NAD" and reduced Pyruvic acid into lactate through lactic acid fermentation.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 22

Lactic acid fermentation is an important process in making cheese and yogurt. Soy sauce and sauerkraut are products
of microbial fermentation. Alcohol fermentation is used in wine making and baking. Anaerobic respiration can be either
obligate or facultative. Yeast and most bacteria can make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation or fermentation and
are called facultative anaerobes. Organisms that live in stagnant ponds and soils are known as obligate anaerobes.
Obligate anaerobes die when oxygen is present and thus live in deep soil or in ponds where there is no oxygen.

Performance Task 3
Bioenergetics Olympics (Peer Demonstration)

Objective: Students will demonstrate their understanding of bioenergetics concepts through a series of engaging and
interactive learning stations.

Group Size: 4 groups

Task:
1. Station Development: Each group will develop and manage a learning station focused on a specific concept in
bioenergetics. Examples of topics include:
o Photosynthesis (light-dependent & independent reactions)
o Cellular Respiration (aerobic & anaerobic)
o ATP - The Energy Currency of Cells
o Redox Reactions in Energy Transfer
o Bioenergetics and Ecosystems (energy flow & trophic levels)
2. Station Design: Each station should be visually appealing and engaging. It can include:
o Interactive activities (e.g., models, simulations, games)
o Explanatory materials (e.g., diagrams, charts, brief text explanations)
o Assessment component (e.g., short quizzes, problem-solving tasks)
3. Group Rotation: All groups will rotate through each station acting as "learners" while one member of the group
stays to manage their assigned station and guide the visiting students.

Rubric
Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Criteria
(9-10 points) (7-8 points) (5-6 points) (3-4 points)
Station clearly explains the Station mostly explains Station provides some Station does not
assigned bioenergetics the assigned concept but explanation of the concept adequately explain the
Station
concept. Information is may lack some details or but may lack depth or assigned concept or
Content
accurate, detailed, and well- have minor errors. have significant errors. contains major errors.
organized.
Station activities are Station activities are Station activities are basic Station activities are
creative, engaging, and somewhat engaging and and do not fully engage uninspiring and do not
Station
effectively promote promote understanding students in learning the effectively promote
Engagement
understanding of the but could be improved. concept. understanding.
concept.
Station Assessment component Assessment component Assessment component Station lacks an
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 23
effectively tests students' somewhat tests students' does not adequately test assessment component.
Assessment knowledge of the presented knowledge but may be too students' understanding
concept. simple or complex. of the concept.
All members actively Most members participate Some members Group lacks
participate in station in station management. participate minimally. collaboration and some
Group
management and Roles are somewhat Roles are not defined. members do not
Collaboration
explanation. Roles are well- defined. contribute effectively.
defined and collaborative.
Group effectively guides Group guides visiting Group struggles to guide Group fails to properly
Group
visiting students and ensures students somewhat visiting students. Rotation guide visiting students or
Rotation &
smooth rotation through the effectively. Rotation may is inefficient. facilitate rotation.
Facilitation
stations. be slightly hindered.

Learning Content 6: Perpetuation to Life

A. PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Sexual reproduction in plants takes place when the gametes, or the male and female sex cells of a plant, unite to
form a single cell called zygote. These sex cells contain the characteristics of the parent plants. Angiosperms, or
plants that bear flowers, reproduce sexually. Their flowers have male parts, female parts, or both that serve as the
main reproductive organs of the plants; these parts produce the gametes that are needed for sexual reproduction,
Flowers also have parts that are referred to as sterile because they do not directly take part in reproduction but greatly
aid the reproduction process. These parts include the petals, receptacle, and sepals. The petals are the flower's
brightly colored parts that play an important role in helping the plant to reproduce. They attract bees, birds, butterflies,
and other animals to the flower; the pollen grains that attach to these pollinators are transported to different places as
they move. The receptacle is the part of the plant to which the flower is attached, and the sepals are the leaflike parts
that enclose and protect the flower before it blooms. The male reproductive part of a flower is the stamen, which is
made up of the anther and filament. The filament is the stalk that supports the anther where pollen is produced. The
pollen are tiny grains containing the sperm that is necessary for sexual reproduction. The female reproductive part is
the carpel or pistil. which is made up of the stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is the sticky part that catches the
pollen grains coming from the stamen. The style is the long tubelike part that connects the stigma to the ovary, which
contains the ovule or unfertilized egg. When the ovule is fertilized, it can develop into a fruit.

Pollination and Fertilization

Reproduction in flowering plants starts with pollination, or the transfer of the pollen from the anther to the stigma of
the same plant. This type of transfer is called self-pollination. Pollen from the anther of one plant may also be
transferred to the stigma of another plant, and this is called cross pollination. Animals, humans, water, and wind can
serve as agents of cross pollination as they aid in the transfer of pollen grains from plant to plant. Fertilization, or the
process by which the sperm and egg cells unite, takes place after pollination. It begins when a pollen grain has
attached to the stigma and germinates. A pollen tube grows through the tissues of the flower until it reaches an ovule
inside the ovary. The pollen then travels down the pollen tube and produces two sperm nuclei. One sperm nucleus will
move to the ovule and fertilize it. This union produces the zygote, which will later develop into a seed. The other sperm
nucleus, produced from the pollen grain, will fuse with other nuclei in the ovule. This union forms the nucleus for the
endosperm, which will later cover the seed and provide nutrition to it. The entire process in which two cells are fertilized
is known as double fertilization.

Asexual Reproduction
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 24

Some plants do not bear flowers, yet they are able to produce offspring through asexual reproduction, or
reproduction that uses the cells of only one parent. It does not require the union of cells from two parents, and it results
in the formation of offspring with characteristics that are exactly like those of its parent.

Parts Used for Propagation

One type of asexual reproduction is vegetative propagation, wherein a new plant can grow from a part taken
from the parent plant. When the plant part grows, it will bear the parent plant's characteristics. Almost all plant parts
can be used for vegetative propagation, but roots, leaves, and stems are used more often than other parts. Some
plants have thick and swollen roots called tubers. These roots grow deep under the ground and contain the nutrients
that the plants need for growth. These tubers have small nodes, called eyes, from which leaves sprout and grow into
new plants. Potatoes and camote are examples of plants that can grow from tubers. Among the different kinds of stems
that can be used for vegetative propagation are bulbs, rhizomes, and runners. Bulbs have very short stems with
leaves. Unlike most stems though, they have a round shape and grow under the ground. At the center of each bulb is a
plant structure called the apical bud. Surrounding this are parts called lateral buds. As the bulb grows, the apical bud
starts to grow leaves while the lateral buds develop shoots. This continues until a new bulb has grown and its leaves
start to push out of the parent bulb. Onions and garlic are the most familiar bulbs. A rhizome is a stem that grows
horizontally under the ground. As it grows, it develops new stems that grow in a vertical direction and produce new
plants. Ginger and grasses are examples of plants with rhizomes. Like a rhizome, a runner or stolon also grows in a
horizontal direction. However, a runner grows above the ground. As it develops, it forms nodes at certain points. These
nodes later form their own roots. Strawberries are the most familiar plants with this kind of stem.

Reproduction in Animals and Other Organisms

Sexual Reproduction
Male and female animals have different reproductive parts. Male and female reproductive parts produce sperm and
egg cells respectively that fuse to form a zygote. Sexual reproduction occurs when a sperm cell unites with an egg cell
to form a zygote, which develops into an animal whose genetic information is a combination of the parents genes.
There are two types of sexual reproduction: syngamy and conjugation. Syngamy or fertilization is the sexual
reproduction by the union of gametes - sperm and ovum (or egg). Single-celled protists such as paramecia have a
reproductive process known as conjugation that is similar to sexual reproduction. Reproduction through conjugation
involves two organisms of the same species with similar appearance but have different biochemical compositions.
They fuse together and exchange micronuclear materials and then separate to continue the fission (or the splitting
process). Organisms that reproduce through conjugation include bacteria and protozoans (animal-like protists).
Multicellular animals have a primary sex organ called gonad. The male gonads are the testes (singular: testis) and the
female gonads are the ovaries. The sperm is motile and is formed in the testes. The ovum is spherical and nonmotile
and is formed in the ovary. Majority of the animals have accessory sex organs such as ducts, glands, and other
associated sex organs that form the reproductive system. Organisms such as flatworms and earthworms that have
both male and female systems are called monoecious or hermaphrodites. Some organisms exhibit separate sexes
(either male or female). They are known as dioecious. Dioecious organisms include invertebrates such as nematodes
and arthropods, and almost all vertebrates.

Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, only one parent is needed. The single parent produces offspring that is genetically identical
to it. The offspring develops without meiosis or fertilization. Although asexual reproduction usually occurs in plants, it
also occurs in aquatic sessile (steady/not moving) organisms such as cnidarians, sponges, and tunicates. Asexual
reproduction also occurs in polychaetes and planarians. Asexual reproduction can happen through: (1) Binary fission -
This is the simplest process of asexual reproduction wherein the body of an organism divides into new bodies. The
organism duplicates its DNA and then undergoes binary fission, wherein both new bodies receive a copy of the DNA of
the original organism; (2) Budding - In budding, outgrowths or buds develop on the parent organism. The buds may
break off and develop into a new organism or remain attached to the parent organism. This type of reproduction
happens in animals without reproductive organs or those with both male and female reproductive organs such as
flatworms, hydras, yeasts, sponges, jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals; (3) Fragmentation - In this type of asexual
reproduetion, an organism's body is divided into two or more parts, wherein each fragment develops into an organism
like its parent. Fragmentation happens in sea stars, annelids, and fungi; and (4) Regeneration - This is a specialized
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 25

form of asexual reproduction wherein detached parts of some organisms can grow back (Such as sea stars and
salamanders).

B. PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Reproduction and the Genetic Makeup
Reproduction is the process that supports the perpetuation of a species. Through it, the characteristics of a parent
plant or an animal are passed on to its offspring. Recall how each organism is made up of billions of cells. The nucleus
of each cell contains chromosomes, or long noodle-like strands made up of a material called DNA. Each chromosome
is made up of thousands of genes or small packets of DNA. Each DNA, in turn, is made up of a nucleotide, or a pattern
that is made up of three parts: five-carbon sugar, base with nitrogen, and phosphate. A gene contains information
about the traits that an organism has inherited from its parents. For example, if you have curly hair, one or both of your
parents may have curly hair, and you could pass this trait to your offspring. Other than physical traits, genes also carry
other information about the organism such as the diseases it may acquire. For instance, an organism's genetic makeup
can reveal the illnesses that the organism can have in its lifetime. A child with a parent who has eczema (a skin
disease), for instance, may have inherited the genes that will predispose him or her toward developing the same skin
condition.

Perpetuation through Genetic Engineering

In the seventies, scientists began developing a process through which they could manipulate or change the genetic
makeup of a plant or an animal even outside of reproduction This process is called genetic engineering. Today, it is
carried out to improve species, create new species, or increase the number of a species. In genetic engineering, a
piece or pieces of DNA are taken from an organism and then inserted or introduced into the DNA of another organism.
The aim is to get a desired trait or characteristic of the source organism. The resulting organism is then referred to as a
genetically modified organism (GMO).

C. BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING AND RISKS OF GMOs

The advantages of genetic engineering are most evident in the field of agriculture and animal cultivation. Genetic
engineering has been applied to modify the characteristics of plant species so that they can have bigger yields and
provide more food. For example, a rice species called golden rice has been developed by adding the genes for the
synthesis of beta-carotene to the genetic material of the original rice species, Beta-carotene is a form of vitamin A that
is found in dark green and dark yellow vegetables such as carrots. The golden color of the genetically modified rice
species is due to beta-carotene. Other food crops that have undergone genetic modification include beets, corn,
cotton, papaya, soy, squash, and zucchini. Products derived from these GMOs include oils, starches, and syrups.
Some genetically engineered plants have also developed greater resistance to disease. Scientists who engineered
modification in these plants claim that there is no more need to apply or spray pesticides on them. This is because the
genes of certain bacteria have been introduced into the plants' genetic makeup. Thus, the insects and pests that
plague the plants end up dead from consuming the bacteria in the plants. Genetic modification has also resulted in new
animal breeds that are supposedly better than their original species. An example is salmon that has gone through
genetic engineering. Because this fish produces growth hormones only at certain times of the year, scientists have
altered its genetic makeup so it can double its growth in a shorter period of time.

Risks of Using GMOs

Although GMOs have various applications in agricultural production and scientific research, some people
disapprove of genetic modification. Most of the concerns related to GMOs are their potential to negatively affect one's
health and the environment. The risks involved in using GMOs vary according to the type of the GMO and its intended
application. Some primary concerns regarding the use of GMOs are the following: (1) Food allergy - No allergic
reaction to GMOs has been reported. But if the protein from a genetically modified food or GMF comes from a source
that is known to cause allergy in humans, there is concern that a similar situation may elicit a response from the body's
immune system. The possibility that GMO can cause allergic reactions has caused a biotechnology company to
discontinue its developments; (2) Decreased nutritional value - Theoretically, GMOs have lower nutritional value by
making nutrients unavailable or indigestible. According to a study, a strain of genetically modified soybean produced
lower levels of phytoestrogen compounds, which is believed to protect against heart disease and cancer, than
unmodified soybeans; (3) Additives - Additives are substances that are normally consumed as food themselves but
are added for food for a purpose such as preservation. Some GMO-derived food products contain additives which may
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 26

have harmful effects to the body. Based on studies, some GMF cause birth defects, shorter life spans, and lowered
nutrition in humans; (4) Long-term effects - GMO technology is still in its early stage, and only a few research studies
have been conducted on this technology's long-term effects on health. Some scientists think that the greater danger is
not on the effects of GMOs that have been studied but in those that are not yet known. The International Journal of
Biological Sciences has published a study in 2009 which reported hepatorenal toxicity (a type of progressive kidney
failure where the kidney stops functioning and toxins begin to build up in the body) and other effects which were mostly
associated with the kidney, liver, heart, adrenal glands, spleen, and haematopoietic system (organs and tissues
involved in the production of blood (primarily the bone marrow, spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes) of rats fed with three
types of commercialized genetically modified (GM) corn. The researchers concluded that the signs of toxicity in the
rats' kidneys and livers and effects in their heart, adrenal glands, spleen, and blood cells were possibly due to the
pesticides specific to each GM corn.

Performance Task 4
Earth's Symphony (Creative Performance)

Objective: Students will showcase their comprehensive understanding of Earth Science and Life Science concepts through
a creative performance that integrates various Earth and Life Science topics.

Group Size: 6 groups

Task:
1. Theme Selection: Choose a theme that encompasses Earth's symphony - the interconnectedness of geological
processes, living organisms, and the delicate balance of the planet. Some options include:
o "The Earth's Song: A Journey Through Time"
o "Harmony and Discord: Natural Processes and Hazards"
o "The Cycle of Life: From Earth's Materials to Living Systems"
2. Performance Format: Select a format that best showcases your chosen theme. The group can select on the
following:
o Play: Develop a short play with characters representing different Earth Science and Life Science concepts.
o Musical Performance: Compose a song or a series of songs highlighting the interconnectedness of Earth
systems.
o Dance Performance: Create a dance performance that depicts Earth's processes and the dynamic dance
between life and environment.
o Multimedia Presentation: Develop a multimedia presentation that integrates images, videos, music, and
narration to tell the story of Earth's symphony.
3. Integration of Topics: Ensure your performance integrates key concepts from all covered Earth and Life Science
units. Here are some examples:
o Origin and Structures of Earth: Showcase the formation of Earth's layers, plate tectonics, and how these
processes influence life.
o Earth Materials and Processes: Depict the role of minerals, rocks, weathering, erosion, and deposition in
shaping the Earth's surface.
o Natural Hazards and Mitigation: Highlight different natural hazards, their link to Earth's processes, and
explore mitigation strategies.
o Introduction to Life Science: Introduce the characteristics of life, cell structure and function, and the
diversity of life on Earth.
o Bioenergetics: Demonstrate how energy flows through ecosystems and how life utilizes energy for growth
and reproduction.
o Perpetuation of Life: Illustrate different mechanisms of life's continuation, like DNA replication, cell
division, and inheritance.
4. Performance Delivery: Students will present their performance to the class. The presentation should be engaging
and well-rehearsed.
 S C I E N C E 1 | P a g e | 27

Rubric
Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Improvement
Criteria
(19-20 points) (17-18 points) (15-16 points) (13-14 points)
Performance seamlessly Most Earth and Life Some Earth and Life Performance does not
integrates key concepts Science units are Science units are demonstrate clear
from all Earth and Life integrated with some integrated but integration of key Earth
Theme
Science units. Themes of gaps or superficial connections are weak and Life Science
Integration
interconnectedness and connections. or lacking. concepts.
Earth's symphony are
clearly evident.
Performance format and Performance format Performance format Performance format and
presentation are highly and presentation and presentation lack presentation lack
Creativity &
creative and original. show creativity and significant creativity. creativity and originality.
Originality
Content is fresh and originality but could Content may be Content is unoriginal.
engaging. be improved. somewhat generic.
Scientific information Scientific information Scientific information Scientific information
presented in the presented is mostly presented has some presented is inaccurate
Scientific performance is accurate and accurate but may inaccuracies or and misleading.
Accuracy up-to-date. Scientific terms contain some minor significant gaps in
are used correctly and errors or lack some understanding.
concepts are well-explained. details.
Performance Performance is well- Performance is Performance lacks Performance is poorly
Delivery rehearsed, engaging, and mostly well- some polish or rehearsed, lacks
effectively communicates rehearsed and engagement. Some engagement, and does
the chosen theme. All group engaging. Most group members may not not effectively
members contribute members contribute. contribute effectively. communicate the
actively. chosen theme.
Participation may be
uneven.
Performance leaves a Performance leaves Performance leaves a Performance has little
strong and lasting a good impression on weak impression on the impact on the audience
impression on the audience. the audience. audience. and fails to effectively
Overall Successfully promotes a Promotes Understanding of communicate its
Impact deeper understanding of understanding of concepts may be message.
Earth's symphony and the Earth and Life limited.
interconnectedness of Earth Science concepts.
and Life Science concepts.