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Model Answers - MAV-2502

Geography

Q1. Explain the process of the Rock cycle. And also explain the economic significance of rocks?
(10 Marks, 150 Words)

Approach
● Start by providing a quick explanation of denudation.
● Describe the elements that influence denudation.
● Describe the many types of processes involved in denudation.
● Explain how sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks, and metamorphic rocks influence
denudation intensity.
● Provide a brief conclusion.

The rock cycle is a set of processes that build and modify the different types of rocks that make up
the Earth's crust. Sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks are the three basic types of
rocks. Physical changes in the rock cycle, such as melting, cooling, eroding, compacting, and
deforming, create each of these rocks.

Rock cycle
● The rock components of the crust are slowly but constantly being changed from one form
to another and the processes involved are summarized in the rock cycle.
● The Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new
ones. Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. The
fragments derived from igneous and metamorphic rocks form sedimentary rocks.
● Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks. The crustal rocks
(igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) may be carried down into the mantle (interior of
the earth) through the subduction process and the same melt and turn into magma, the
original source for igneous rocks. In this way, the rock cycle is a continuous process.
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(Rock Cycle)
● The rock cycle is driven by two forces:
1. Earth’s internal heat engine moves material around in the core and the mantle and
leads to slow but significant changes within the crust, and
2. the hydrological cycle, which is the movement of water, ice, and air at the surface,
and is powered by the sun.
● The rock cycle is still active on Earth because our core is hot enough to keep the mantle
moving, our atmosphere is relatively thick, and we have liquid water. On some other
planets or their satellites, such as the Moon, the rock cycle is virtually dead because the
core is no longer hot enough to drive mantle convection and there is no atmosphere or
liquid water.

Economic Significance of Rocks

Since ancient times, man has interacted with the earth's surface. With the passage of time and
technological advancements, he is developing new applications for rocks and minerals. The
following is a list of the significance of rocks:
1. Soils: Soils are made up of rock fragments. Soils are suitable for agricultural items that
offer food as well as raw materials for a variety of businesses.
2. Building Materials: Rocks are a direct or indirect source of various building materials.
Building materials such as granite, gneiss, sandstone, marble, and slates are widely used.
The Taj Mahal is constructed of white marble, whereas the Red Forts of Delhi and Agra are
constructed of red sandstone. In several places in India, slates are utilised for roofing.
3. Mineral resources: Minerals are the bedrock of modern society. All metals are found in
metallic minerals, from the most valuable gold, platinum, silver, and copper to aluminium
and iron. These metals can be found in a variety of rocks.
4. Raw Material: Many industries employ certain rocks and minerals as raw materials.
Different types of rocks and minerals are utilised in the cement industry and limestone kilns
to produce final items. Graphite is utilised as a raw material in the production of crucibles
and pencils.
5. Precious Stones and Metals: Precious stones and metals can be found in a variety of
metamorphic and igneous rocks. A metamorphic rock, a diamond is a precious stone used
in jewellery. Other precious stones, such as diamonds, rubies, and sapphires, are also
mined from various types of rocks.
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6. Fuel: Different rocks provide fuel in the form of coal, petroleum, natural gas, and
radioactive materials.
7. Fertilizer: Fertilizers can also be found in rocks. Phosphatic fertilisers are made from the
mineral phosphorite, which is abundant in several parts of the world.

The rock cycle is a natural phenomenon which helps transformation of the rocks from one type to
another and acts as a resource for humankind. Since the rock cycle process takes thousands of
years to get completed it gives us insights into the components and interior of the earth.

Q2. "The Ring of Fire is home to over 450 volcanoes and is influenced by 90% of all earthquakes."
Discuss the distribution of Volcanoes and earthquakes across the world. (10 marks 150 Words)

Approach
● Introduce the Ring of Fire's location, form, and qualities.
● With a diagram explain the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes in the circum pacific
belt and other parts of the world.
● Conclude by describing why it is in an active state and why it has the most active
volcanoes in the world.

The Ring of Fire is also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt. It is a corridor that runs along the
Pacific Ocean and is marked by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The Ring of Fire is
where the majority of Earth's volcanoes and earthquakes occur. It is made up of 450 volcanoes,
and 90% of earthquakes are registered here. It is home to three of the world's most active
volcanoes, including Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mt. St. Helens in the United States, and Mt. Pinatubo in the
Philippines. It is horseshoe-shaped and nearly 40,000 kilometres long. It is completely submerged
in the Pacific Ocean.

Distribution of Volcanoes across the world

Most known volcanic activity and earthquakes occur along converging plate margins and
mid-oceanic ridges. The major regions of volcanic distributions are as follows.
● Pacific Ring of Fire — Circum-Pacific region, popularly termed the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’,
has the greatest concentration of active volcanoes. The volcanic belt and earthquake belt
closely overlap along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. It is estimated to include two-thirds of the
world’s volcanoes.
● Mid Atlantic Region — The Mid Atlantic Region coast has comparatively fewer active
volcanoes but many dormant or extinct volcanoes, for example. St. Helena, Cape Verde
Islands and the Canary Islands. But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Azores are active.
● The Great Rift valley of Africa — In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East
African Rift Valley. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya are extinct volcanoes. The only active
volcano in West Africa is Mt. Cameroon.
● Mediterranean Region — Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated
with the Alpine folds. For example, Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Stromboli (known as the Light
House of the Mediterranean Sea).
● Other Regions — Elsewhere in the interiors of continents of Asia, North America and
Europe active volcanoes are rare. There are no volcanoes in Australia.
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(Distribution of Volcanoes across the world)

Distribution of Earthquakes across the world

● The distribution of earthquakes around the planet is quite similar to that of volcanoes.
● Circum-Pacific areas have the highest seismicity, with epicentres and most frequent
occurrences along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire.'
● The Circum-Pacific belt is said to account for up to 70% of all earthquakes.
● The Mediterranean-Himalayan region, which includes Asia Minor, the Himalayas, and
areas of north-western China, accounts for another 20% of earthquakes.
● The rest can be found in plate interiors and spreading ridge centres.
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(Earthquake distribution across the world in the last 3 decades)

This zone is so busy because it contains the tectonic plates that are moving the fastest. The
Pacific Plate, for example, moves at a rate of 6 cm/year, whereas the Cocos and Nazca plates
move at a rate of more than 10 cm/yr. These swiftly moving plates collide and seduce other plates
in the Pacific Ring of Fire, resulting in numerous volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. As a result,
this region is home to the greatest number of volcanoes and earthquakes, as well as some of the
most significant geophysical phenomena, such as tsunamis.

Q3. ‘Cyclone is an inevitable phenomenon’. In the context of this statement, discuss the formation
and structure of the cyclone along with its impact on India. (10 marks 150 words)

Approach:
● Write an introduction regarding the tropical cyclone. It can be an explanation, facts or stats.
● List the conditions for the formation of a cyclone.
● Explain the characteristics/structure of a cyclone. Keywords to remember are “Eye”, “Eye
Wall” and “Spiral Bands”
● Discuss the impact of cyclones on India

Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to
the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges.

Formation of Tropical Cyclone

Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for
the formation and intensification of tropical storms are

● Large sea surfaces with temperatures higher than 27° C.

● Presence of the Coriolis force.
● Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
● A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level cyclonic circulation.
● Upper divergence above the sea level system.
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Structure of tropical cyclone

● A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind around the
centre called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and
250 km. The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eyewall,
where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to a greater height reaching the tropopause.
● The eye is surrounded by the “eyewall”, the roughly circular ring of deep convection,
which is the area of highest surface winds in the tropical cyclone. The Eye Wall region also
sees the maximum sustained winds i.e. fastest winds in a cyclone occur along the eyewall
region. The eye is composed of air that is slowly sinking and the eyewall has a net upward
flow as a result of many moderate – occasionally strong – updrafts and downdrafts.
● Convection in tropical cyclones is organized into long, narrow rain bands which are
oriented in the same direction as the horizontal wind. Because these bands seem to spiral
into the centre of a tropical cyclone, they are called “spiral bands”.
● Along with these bands, low-level convergence is a maximum, and therefore, upper-level
divergence is most pronounced above. A direct circulation develops in which warm, moist
air converges at the surface, ascends through these bands, diverges aloft, and descends
on both sides of the bands.

Impact of Cyclones on India

India is exposed to nearly 10% of the world’s tropical cyclones, thanks to a long coastline of 8,041
kilometres. On average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which a couple of them
could be destructive. Other impacts of cyclones are

● Impact on infrastructure: In coastal locations, the cyclone causes massive death and
property destruction.
● Impact on Economy: Fishermen will lose their livelihoods, and the tourism industry will
suffer.
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● Impact on Biodiversity: Marine birds and animals are harmed. Chilika Lake, India's
largest coastal lagoon and a migratory bird haven, is also in a high-risk zone.
● Impact on social life: People living along the coast's social well-being is affected. Schools
and hospitals are closed, and damage to coconut plantations that takes years to recover
throws farmers' livelihoods into disarray every time a cyclone strikes.

Tropical cyclones are not going 'anywhere' as a result of climate change; rather, they are expected
to become more common and more intense. People must stand forward to produce local solutions
using their own practices, regardless of government funding or administrative assistance. In this
regard, it's critical to figure out how to keep cyclones from becoming uncontrollable national
disasters.

Q4. What is the inversion of temperature? Discuss the various mechanisms of occurrence of
this phenomenon along with its climatic and economic significance. (10 marks 150 words)

Approach:
● Explain the concept of temperature inversion.
● Then discuss various mechanisms of occurrence of this phenomenon.
● Finally, discuss its climatic and economic impacts on the locality of its occurrence.

Normally, temperature decreases with an increase in altitude, which is called the normal lapse
rate. However, sometimes the temperature increases with altitude. This phenomenon is called the
inversion of temperature.

Various mechanisms:
● Inversion of temperature is generally witnessed during the winter season. A long winter
night with clear skies and still air is an ideal situation for temperature inversion. The heat of
the day is radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than
the air above. Over polar areas, a temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.
● The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage. Cold air in the
hills and mountains, produced during the night, flows under the influence of gravity and
moves down the slope to pile up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air
above.
● A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts
it aloft; the front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below.

Climatic significance:
● Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere due to
which smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread
horizontally causing dense fogs in the morning during winters.
● Inversion of temperature causes frost when the condensation of warm air due to its
cooling by cold air below occurs at temperatures below freezing points.
● Inversion of temperature causes atmosphere stability which stops upward and
downward movement of air, a condition unfavourable for rainfall. Hilltops are warmer
during freezing winter.
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Economic significance:
● Frost caused due to inversion damages crops in foothills, whereas trees and vegetation at
top of hills and mountains are not damaged. The valley floors in the hills of Brazil are
avoided for coffee cultivation because of frequent frosts.
● Due to this phenomenon, air pollutants fine air pollutants do not disperse in the valley
bottom forcing houses and farms in intermountain valleys to relocate along upper
slopes.
● Fogs lower visibility affecting traffic movements. Though generally, fogs are
unfavourable for many agricultural crops such as grams, peas, mustard plants, wheat etc.
but sometimes they are also favourable for some crops such as coffee plants in Yemen
hills of Arabia where fogs protect coffee plants from direct strong sun’s rays.

Temperature inversion is a natural phenomenon which occurs in winters resulting in various

positive and negative consequences. Though it creates beautiful landscapes, due to the frost
formation it is not desirable for many crops.

Q5. Define glacial retreat and analyze the primary factors driving this phenomenon. (10 marks
150 words)

Approach to the Question

Introduction:
● Define glacial retreat.
● Briefly mention its significance in the context of climate change.
Body:
1. Definition and Explanation:
2. Primary Factors Driving Glacial Retreat:
Conclusion:
● Summarize the key points.
● Highlight the urgency of addressing the factors driving glacial retreat.

Answer

Glacial retreat refers to the process of glaciers shrinking in size due to the melting of ice at a rate
faster than the accumulation of new snow and ice. This phenomenon is a significant indicator of
global climate change and has profound implications for both natural ecosystems and human
societies.

Body:

1. Definition and Explanation:

○ Glacial Retreat:
■ Glacial retreat occurs when the terminus, or end, of a glacier moves back
toward its origin due to higher rates of ice melt than ice formation.
■ Historical Context: Glaciers have naturally advanced and retreated over
geological timescales, but the current accelerated retreat is primarily driven
by anthropogenic factors.
■ Significance: Glaciers are crucial freshwater reserves, and their retreat
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impacts sea levels, water supply, and global climate patterns.

2. Primary Factors Driving Glacial Retreat:
○ Climate Change:
■ Rising Temperatures:
■ Global warming, driven by increased greenhouse gas emissions, is
the primary factor behind glacial retreat.
■ Data: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reports a global temperature increase of approximately 1.1°C since
pre-industrial times, significantly affecting glacial stability.
■ Changes in Precipitation Patterns:
■ Altered precipitation patterns due to climate change can result in
reduced snowfall, affecting glacier mass balance.
■ Example: In the Andes, reduced snowfall has led to significant
glacial shrinkage.
○ Human Activities:
■ Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
■ The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial activities
increase atmospheric CO2 levels, contributing to global warming.
■ Data: CO2 levels have risen from approximately 280 ppm in
pre-industrial times to over 410 ppm today.
■ Deforestation and Land Use Changes:
■ Changes in land use, such as deforestation, reduce the Earth's
capacity to absorb CO2, exacerbating the greenhouse effect.
■ Example: Deforestation in the Amazon contributes to regional
climate changes, impacting nearby glacial regions in the Andes.
○ Natural Factors:
■ Volcanic Activity:
■ Volcanic eruptions can cause short-term climatic cooling by
releasing aerosols that reflect sunlight, temporarily slowing glacial
retreat.
■ Example: The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo caused global
temperatures to drop by about 0.5°C for a year.
■ Oceanic and Atmospheric Circulations:
■ Changes in oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns, such as El
Niño, can affect glacial dynamics.
■ Example: El Niño events often lead to warmer and wetter conditions
in certain regions, accelerating glacial melt.

Conclusion: Glacial retreat, driven by climate change, human activities, and natural factors,
poses significant challenges to environmental and societal stability. Addressing the root causes,
primarily greenhouse gas emissions, is crucial for mitigating this phenomenon. By adopting
sustainable practices and enhancing climate resilience, we can work towards preserving our vital
glacial resources and ensuring a stable future.

Q6. Discuss the major coffee varieties cultivated in India and analyze the key issues faced by the
coffee industry, including production, processing, and marketing. (10 marks 150 words)

Approach to the Question

Introduction:
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● Brief introduction to the coffee industry in India.

● Mention the significance of coffee cultivation in India's agricultural economy.

Body:

1. Major Coffee Varieties Cultivated in India:

○ Arabica
○ Robusta
○ Other Varieties
2. Key Issues Faced by the Coffee Industry:
○ Production Issues
○ Processing Issues
○ Marketing Issues

Conclusion:

● Offer potential solutions and an optimistic outlook for the future of coffee cultivation in
India.

Answer

Introduction: The coffee industry in India plays a vital role in the country's agricultural economy,
providing livelihoods to millions of farmers, particularly in the southern states of Karnataka, Kerala,
and Tamil Nadu. India is known for its diverse coffee varieties, which are appreciated both
domestically and internationally.

Body:

1. Major Coffee Varieties Cultivated in India:

○ Arabica:
■ Arabica coffee, known for its mild flavor and aromatic qualities, is primarily
grown in higher altitudes of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
■ Data: Arabica accounts for about 30% of India's coffee production.
■ Example: The Bababudangiri region in Karnataka is famous for its
high-quality Arabica coffee.
○ Robusta:
■ Robusta coffee, characterized by its strong flavor and higher caffeine
content, is grown in the lower altitudes of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil
Nadu.
■ Data: Robusta constitutes around 70% of India's coffee production.
■ Example: The Wayanad district in Kerala is well-known for its robusta
plantations.
○ Other Varieties:
■ India also cultivates specialty coffee varieties such as Monsooned Malabar,
Mysore Nuggets, and Baba Budan Giri, known for their unique processing
methods and distinct flavors.
■ Example: Monsooned Malabar is a specialty coffee that undergoes a
unique aging process during the monsoon season, giving it a distinctive
taste.
2. Key Issues Faced by the Coffee Industry:
○ Production Issues:
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■ Climate Change:
■ Unpredictable weather patterns, increased temperatures, and
irregular rainfall adversely affect coffee yields.
■ Data: Studies indicate a decline in coffee yield by 18% to 25% in
major coffee-growing regions due to climate change.
■ Pests and Diseases:
■ Coffee plants are susceptible to pests like the coffee borer beetle
and diseases such as leaf rust, which can devastate crops.
■ Example: The Coffee White Stem Borer has caused significant
damage to Arabica plantations.
■ Small Landholdings:
■ The majority of coffee plantations in India are small holdings, limiting
economies of scale and investment in advanced agricultural
practices.
■ Data: Over 70% of coffee farmers in India operate on less than 2
hectares of land.
■ Labour Shortages:
■ Seasonal labor shortages during peak harvesting periods impact the
timely harvesting and processing of coffee beans.
■ Example: Labor migration to urban areas for better opportunities
exacerbates the problem in rural coffee-growing regions.
○ Processing Issues:
■ Quality Control:
■ Ensuring consistent quality of coffee beans is a challenge due to
variations in processing methods and lack of standardization.
■ Example: Inconsistent drying and storage practices can lead to
quality degradation.
■ Lack of Modern Infrastructure:
■ Outdated processing facilities and lack of access to modern
technology hinder the production of high-quality coffee.
■ Data: Many smallholders still rely on traditional sun-drying methods,
which are less efficient than modern mechanical drying techniques.
■ High Cost of Processing:
■ The cost of upgrading processing facilities and adopting modern
technologies is often prohibitive for small farmers.
■ Example: High initial investment and maintenance costs deter many
farmers from modernizing their processing methods.
○ Marketing Issues:
■ Market Access and Pricing:
■ Coffee farmers often face challenges in accessing markets and
receiving fair prices for their produce due to intermediaries and
fluctuating market prices.
■ Example: Many farmers sell their produce at low prices to
middlemen, reducing their profit margins.
■ Competition from International Markets:
■ Indian coffee competes with coffee from countries like Brazil,
Vietnam, and Colombia, which have larger production capacities
and more competitive pricing.
■ Data: India's share in the global coffee market is around 4%,
highlighting the competitive nature of the industry.
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■ Branding and Certification:

■ Lack of strong branding and certification, such as Fair Trade or
organic certification, limits the marketability and premium pricing of
Indian coffee.
■ Example: Certified organic coffee can fetch higher prices, but
obtaining and maintaining certification is challenging for small
farmers.
■ Export Challenges:
■ Exporting coffee involves navigating complex regulatory
requirements and logistical challenges, impacting the
competitiveness of Indian coffee in international markets.
■ Data: In 2020, India exported around 3.4 lakh metric tonnes of
coffee, but export growth is hampered by these challenges.

Conclusion: The coffee industry in India faces several challenges, from production issues like
climate change and pest infestations to processing and marketing hurdles. Addressing these
issues is crucial for the sustainability and growth of the sector. By investing in modern agricultural
practices, improving infrastructure, and enhancing market access, India can strengthen its position
in the global coffee market and ensure a better livelihood for its coffee farmers.

Q7. What is the Milankovitch cycle? Briefly explain its components with suitable diagrams.
Discuss its impacts on earth. (15 Marks 250 Words)

Approach:
● Briefly Introduce the Milankovitch cycle
● Explain eccentricity, axial tilt and precession with diagrams.
● Also, mention its impact on the earth.
● Conclude Appropriately

A Milankovitch cycle is a cyclical movement in

which the Earth's orbit around the Sun is
repeated. Eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession
are the three of them. These three cycles,
according to the Milankovitch Theory, interact to
influence the quantity of solar heat to impinge on
the Earth's surface and, as a result, climate
patterns.
● Precession and tilting are the reasons
why, at certain times of the year, places
near and at the poles have very long
nights and very long days. Between late
May and late July, the Sun never
completely sinks beneath the horizon in
Norway.
● Detractors of the Global Warming idea
use the Milankovitch Cycles as one of
their arguments. According to them, the
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current warming of the Earth is merely one in a sequence of cyclical phenomena that take
thousands of years to complete, and so cannot be stopped.
Eccentricity
● The path of the Earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse, not a perfect circle. The
gravitational fields of nearby planets (particularly the giant ones – Jupiter and Saturn)
cause its elliptical form to vary from less elliptical (nearly a perfect circle) to more elliptical
and back. The eccentricity of a shape refers to how far it deviates from a circle.
● The bigger the divergence from a circle, the larger the eccentricity. As a result, the Earth's
orbit undergoes a cyclical change in eccentricity from less eccentric to more eccentric and
again. This type of variation takes around 100,000 years to complete one cycle.
Axial Tilt
● The earth rotates on its axis, which is why we have night and day. This axis, however, is
not vertical. Rather, it tilts back and forth at an angle of 22.1 to 24.5 degrees. These angles
are calculated by comparing the axis' angle to an imaginary line normal (perpendicular) to
the Earth's orbital plane. The axial tilt cycle takes around 41,000 years to complete.
● Greater tilts suggest that the hemispheres closest to the Sun, i.e., during summer, will get
more heat than hemispheres with a smaller tilt. In other words, during a maximum tilt,
regions in the extreme upper and lower hemispheres will have the warmest summers and
coldest winters.
Precession
● In addition to the tilt, the axis wobbles like a top. The duration of a complete wobbling cycle
is approximately 26,000 years. Tidal forces from the Sun and Moon generate this motion.

The impact of Milankovitch cycles on earth's climate was calculated using mathematical
models:
● Milankovitch used the cycles to construct a complete mathematical model for calculating
solar radiation differences and associated surface temperatures at various Earth latitudes.
● Ice Ages occur every 41,000 years, according to his calculations. They did occur at
41,000-year intervals between one and three million years ago, according to a subsequent
study.
● The Ice Age period stretched to 100,000 years around 800,000 years ago, following
Earth's eccentricity cycle.
● While other theories have been presented to explain the change, experts have yet to come
up with a definitive answer.
Detractors of the Global Warming idea use the Milankovitch Cycles as one of their arguments.
According to them, the current warming of the Earth is merely one in a sequence of cyclical
phenomena that take thousands of years to complete and so cannot be avoided.

Q8. Describe the idea of seafloor spreading. What geographical features are linked with
seafloor spreading in the Mid Atlantic ridge? (15 marks 250 words)

Approach
● Explain the notion of seafloor spreading in the introduction.
● Discuss the following in the main body: At divergent plate borders, seafloor spreading is an
endo-genetic process.
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● Explain the mechanisms involved in seafloor spreading using appropriate diagrams.

● Explain the geographic elements connected with sea bottom spreading in the second half
of your answer.
● Conclude Appropriately

Seafloor spreading is a phenomenon that occurs along mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust
is generated through volcanic activity and subsequently travels away from the ridge. Harry Hess
postulated that the seafloor moves (and carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central
axis.

Mechanism:
● According to this theory, the extreme heat generated by radioactive chemicals in the
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth's surface) seeks a way to escape and causes
convection currents to emerge in the mantle.
● Oceanic ridges emerge on the seafloor when rising limbs of these currents meet, while
trenches form where failing limbs meet.
● Seafloor spreading is a phenomenon that occurs along mid-ocean ridges where new
oceanic crust is generated through volcanic activity and subsequently travels away from
the ridge.
● In plate tectonics theory, seafloor spreading helps to explain continental drift. Tensional
stress generates fractures in the lithosphere when oceanic plates diverge.
● Basalt magma erupts through the fissures and cools on the ocean floor, forming new
seafloor.
● Older rocks will be found further away from the spreading zone, whereas younger rocks
will be found closer to it.

Characteristics of Sea Floor Spreading in Mid Atlantic Ridge

● The continents surrounding the Atlantic Ocean, for example, are thought to be moving
away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a rate of 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 inches) every year, doubling
the ocean basin's breadth.
● Volcanic eruptions are widespread everywhere throughout the mid-oceanic ridges, bringing
massive volumes of lava to the surface.
● The rocks on either side of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges are strikingly similar.
● Normal polarity rocks are the youngest and closest to the mid-oceanic ridges.
● As one gets away from the summit, the age of the rocks increases.
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● Deep-seated earthquakes occur in deep trenches, whereas shallow quake foci occur in
mid-oceanic ridge locations.

In plate tectonics theory, seafloor spreading helps to explain continental drift. Magma was
hypothesised as the origin of new crust and crust subduction at ocean-continent borders by
seafloor spreading. Scholars elaborated on this to propose plates and their movement as a result
of this magma. These tectonic plates, not the continents, have been moving from the beginning of
time.

Q9. What exactly do you understand about extra-tropical cyclones? Explain how these cyclones
benefit specific places. Discuss how they have been affected by climate change. (15 Marks,
250 words)

Approach
● Explain the concept of extratropical cyclones.
● Describe how it benefits the mid-latitude region.
● Discuss how climate change is affecting extratropical cyclones
● Make a brief conclusion.

Extratropical cyclones are critical to the mid-latitude region in terms of weather and agriculture.
Rains caused by extratropical cyclones provide significant relief to a region.

Wave cyclones and mid-latitude cyclones are other names for extratropical cyclones. They are a
type of storm system that forms in the middle or high latitudes, in frontal zones with considerable
horizontal temperature fluctuations. Extratropical cyclones are distinct from the more violent
cyclones or hurricanes of the tropics, which occur in generally homogeneous temperature zones.
They are masses of cold and warm fronts that produce rain, high winds, tornadoes, and even
hailstorms.

The cyclonic circulation produces a well-developed extratropical cyclone with a warm and cold
front. Warm air or warm sector pockets are jammed between the forward and rear cold air or cold
sector. Warm air glides over cold air, and a series of clouds form across the sky ahead of the
warm front, causing precipitation. The cold front approaches the warm air from behind, pushing it
upward. Cumulus clouds form along the cold front as a result. The cold front advances quicker
than the warm front, eventually overtaking it. The warm air has been totally pushed up, the front
has been occluded, and the cyclone has dissipated.

These extratropical cyclones are a boon to the mid-altitude region because they:
● This rainfall in the mid-latitude region provides needed moisture to the region's agricultural
and plantations.
● These cyclones also migrate from west to east. Furthermore, because of their large
diameter, these cyclones encompass a large area. As a result of this, the passage of a
cyclone generates sudden changes in meteorological conditions.
● these cyclones also provide respite to areas hit by cold waves by bringing rainfall and
snowfall. These cyclones cause rain in areas such as Iran and northern India.
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● These extra cyclones are extremely beneficial to Rabi crops and plantations such as
orchards and apple orchards.

The effect of recent climate change on extratropical cyclones:

● The pattern of these cyclones has evolved over time as a result of climate change. These
cyclones are becoming more common. Weather that changes dramatically in a short
amount of time is extremely common.
● Climate change and pollution have also resulted in a different pattern of cloud formation
and rainfall.

In some areas, extratropical cyclones are beneficial to the climate. Climate change is impeding the
growth and development of these regions by interfering with natural benefits such as monsoon
rainfall, among other things. As a result, actions must be done to mitigate climate change while
also reaping the benefits that nature provides.

Q10. Explain the factors influencing the spatial and temporal distribution of temperature on the
Earth's surface. Discuss how these factors create variations in climate patterns. (15 Marks,
250 words)

Approach to the Question

Introduction:

● Define the spatial and temporal distribution of temperature.

● Briefly mention the importance of understanding these factors for climate studies.

Body:

1. Factors Influencing the Spatial Distribution of Temperature:

○ Latitude
○ Altitude
○ Ocean Currents
○ Distribution of Land and Water
○ Vegetation and Land Cover
○ Human Activities
2. Factors Influencing the Temporal Distribution of Temperature:
○ Seasonal Changes
○ Diurnal Variations
○ Long-term Climatic Changes
○ Short-term Weather Events
3. Variations in Climate Patterns:
○ Influence of Spatial Factors on Climate
■ Tropical, Temperate, and Polar Climates
■ Coastal vs. Inland Climates
○ Influence of Temporal Factors on Climate
■ Seasonal Climates
■ Long-term Climate Change
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Conclusion:

● Summarize the key factors influencing temperature distribution.

● Highlight the interconnectedness of these factors and their impact on global climate
patterns.
● Offer a perspective on the importance of addressing climate change to manage
temperature variations.

Answer

Introduction: The spatial and temporal distribution of temperature on Earth's surface is governed
by a variety of natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding these factors is crucial for
comprehending global climate patterns, weather forecasting, and addressing climate change
impacts.

Body:

1. Factors Influencing the Spatial Distribution of Temperature:

○ Latitude:
■ Temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles due to
the angle of solar radiation.
■ Example: Equatorial regions like the Amazon Basin are consistently warm,
while polar regions like Antarctica remain cold.
○ Altitude:
■ Higher altitudes experience lower temperatures due to decreased
atmospheric pressure and density.
■ Data: On average, temperature decreases by about 6.5°C per 1000 meters
of elevation.
■ Example: Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa has snow at its summit despite being
near the equator.
○ Ocean Currents:
■ Warm and cold ocean currents influence coastal temperatures by
transferring heat.
■ Example: The Gulf Stream warms the eastern coast of North America and
northwestern Europe, while the cold California Current cools the western
coast of North America.
○ Distribution of Land and Water:
■ Land heats and cools faster than water, leading to greater temperature
variations on continents compared to oceans.
■ Example: Continental interiors like Siberia experience extreme
temperatures, whereas coastal areas like the British Isles have milder
climates.
○ Vegetation and Land Cover:
■ Forests, deserts, and urban areas have different thermal properties,
affecting local temperatures.
■ Example: Urban heat islands in cities like New York and Tokyo result from
concrete and asphalt absorbing more heat.
○ Human Activities:
■ Industrial activities, deforestation, and urbanization contribute to regional
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temperature variations.
■ Example: Increased greenhouse gas emissions from industrial regions
contribute to global warming.

2. Factors Influencing the Temporal Distribution of Temperature:

○ Seasonal Changes:
■ Earth's axial tilt and orbit around the sun cause seasonal temperature
variations.
■ Example: Northern Hemisphere experiences winter in December-February
and summer in June-August.
○ Diurnal Variations:
■ Temperature fluctuates between day and night due to Earth's rotation.
■ Example: Desert regions like the Sahara have high daytime temperatures
and low nighttime temperatures.
○ Long-term Climatic Changes:
■ Natural cycles (e.g., Milankovitch cycles) and anthropogenic factors (e.g.,
greenhouse gas emissions) influence long-term temperature trends.
■ Data: The last century has seen an average global temperature increase of
about 1.1°C.
■ Example: Ice age cycles and current global warming trends.
○ Short-term Weather Events:
■ Events like El Niño, La Niña, and volcanic eruptions can cause temporary
temperature changes.
■ Example: The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo led to a temporary global
cooling of about 0.5°C.
3. Variations in Climate Patterns:
○ Influence of Spatial Factors on Climate:
■ Tropical, Temperate, and Polar Climates:
■ These climate zones are primarily defined by latitude.
■ Example: The tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon, temperate
climate in Europe, and polar climate in Antarctica.
■ Coastal vs. Inland Climates:
■ Coastal areas typically have milder climates due to the moderating
effect of oceans.
■ Example: Coastal California has a Mediterranean climate, whereas
inland Nevada has a desert climate.
○ Influence of Temporal Factors on Climate:
■ Seasonal Climates:
■ Regions experience distinct seasons with varying temperatures.
■ Example: India experiences a monsoon season from June to
September, characterized by high temperatures and heavy rainfall.
■ Long-term Climate Change:
■ Human-induced climate change leads to long-term shifts in
temperature and climate patterns.
■ Data: The IPCC projects an increase in global temperatures by
1.5°C to 2°C by the end of the century if current trends continue.

Conclusion: The spatial and temporal distribution of temperature on Earth's surface is influenced
by a complex interplay of factors including latitude, altitude, ocean currents, land-water
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distribution, vegetation, human activities, seasonal changes, and short-term weather events.
These factors collectively shape the diverse climate patterns observed globally. Understanding
and addressing these influences, particularly in the context of climate change, is essential for
managing temperature variations and ensuring environmental sustainability.