SQL and NF - Google Docs
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Creating a Table (
CREATE TABLE
)
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype [constraints],
column2 datatype [constraints],
...
);
Example:
Employeeswith the following columns:
Suppose you want to create a table named
●
EmployeeID
: An integer that serves as the primary key.
●
FirstName
: A variable character string up to 50 characters, cannot be null.
●
LastName
: A variable character string up to 50 characters, cannot be null.
●
Email
: A variable character string up to 100 characters, must be unique.
●
HireDate
: A date field.
CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
LastName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
HireDate DATE
);
2/ Dropping a Table (
DROP TABLE
)
DROP
he
T TABLEstatementremovesatableandallofitsdatafromthedatabasepermanently.Usethis
command with cautionas it cannot be undone.
Syntax:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example:
Stafftable.
Dropping the
DROP TABLE Staff;
Additional Options:
● IF EXISTS: To prevent errors if the table does not exist, you can use the
IF
EXISTSclause
(supported in many DBMS).
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS Staff;
3/ INSERT
INSERTSyntax
1/ Basic
he
T INSERT
INTOstatement adds a new record toatable.Thesimplestforminvolvesspecifyingthe
table name and providing values for all columns in the order they appear in the table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, ...);
●
table_name
: The name of the table where the record will be inserted.
●
VALUES
: Specifies the data to insert.
●
value1, value2, ...
: The actual data corresponding to each column in the table.
Example:
Employeeswith the following columns:
Suppose you have a table named
●
EmployeeID(INT, Primary Key)
●
FirstName(VARCHAR(50), NOT NULL)
●
LastName(VARCHAR(50), NOT NULL)
●
Email(VARCHAR(100), UNIQUE)
●
HireDate(DATE)
To insert a new employee record:
INSERT INTO Employees
VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', '[email protected]', '2023-01-15');
2. Inserting Multiple Records
ou can insert multiple records in a single
Y INSERTstatement by separating each set of values with
commas.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES
(value1a, value2a, ...),
(value1b, value2b, ...),
...;
Example:
Insert two new employee records:
INSERT INTO Employees
VALUES
(2, 'Jane', 'Smith', '[email protected]', '2023-02-20'),
(3, 'Michael', 'Johnson', '[email protected]', '2023-03-10');
3. Inserting Specific Columns
ometimes,youmaynotwanttoinsertdataintoallcolumnsofatable,especiallyifsomecolumnshave
S
NULL
default values or allow . In such cases, you can specify the columns you want to insert data into.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, ...);
Example:
HireDatehasadefaultvalueofthecurrentdate,andyouwanttoinsertanewemployee
Supposethe
HireDate
without specifying the :
INSERT INTO Employees (EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Email)
VALUES (4, 'Emily', 'Davis', '[email protected]');
4. Inserting Data from Another Table (
INSERT
INTO
...
SELECT
)
SELECTstatement.Thisis
oucaninsertdataintoatablebyselectingdatafromanothertableusingthe
Y
useful for copying data or transforming data during insertion.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)
SELECT columnA, columnB, ...
FROM another_table
WHERE condition;
Example:
Assume you have another table
FormerEmployeesand you want to archive their records into
Employeesafter verifying they meet certain criteria:
INSERT INTO Employees (EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Email, HireDate)
SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, Email, HireDate
FROM FormerEmployees
WHERE TerminationDate < '2022-12-31';
DELETESyntax
Basic
DELETEstatementremovesallrecordsfromatable.However,it'scrucialtouse
Thesimplestformofthe
WHEREclause to specify which records to delete; otherwise,all records will be removed.
the
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
●
table_name
: The name of the table from which you want to delete records.
●
WHERE condition
: Specifies the criteria that determine which records to delete.
Example:
Employees
Suppose you have a table named :
CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
LastName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
HireDate DATE
);
EmployeeID1:
To delete the record of the employee with
DELETE FROM Employees
WHERE EmployeeID = 1;
Deleting Multiple Records
You can delete multiple records that meet specific criteria by using conditions that match multiple rows.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
Delete all employees hired before January 1, 2023:
DELETE FROM Employees
WHERE HireDate < '2023-01-01';
WHEREClause
Key Points about the
1. Purpose:
○ Filtering Data: Restricts the result set to only those rows that meet the specified
conditions.
○ UsedWith:Commonlyusedin SELECT UPDATE
, DELETE
, INSERT(withconditions)
,and
statements.
Basic Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Common Operators:
● Comparison Operators:
○
=: Equal to
○
<>or
!=: Not equal to
○
>: Greater than
○
<: Less than
○
>=: Greater than or equal to
○ <=: Less than or equal to
● Logical Operators:
○
AND: Combines multiple conditions; all must be true
○
OR: Combines multiple conditions; at least one must be true
○ NOT: Negates a condition
● Pattern Matching:
○ LIKE: Searches for a specified pattern (e.g.,
%for wildcards)
● Set Membership:
○ IN: Checks if a value matches any value in a list
● Range Checking:
○
BETWEEN: Checks if a value falls within a range
xamples:
E
Selecting Specific Records:
SELECT * FROM Employees
WHERE Department = 'Sales';
Using Multiple Conditions:
SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM Employees
WHERE Department = 'Sales' AND HireDate > '2022-01-01';
● Retrieves first and last names of employees in Sales hired after January 1, 2022.
LIKE
Pattern Matching with :
SELECT * FROM Employees
WHERE Email LIKE '%@example.com';
● Retrieves all employees with email addresses ending in @example.com.
Deleting Specific Records:
DELETE FROM Employees
WHERE EmployeeID = 10;
● Deletes the employee with EmployeeID 10.
Best Practices:
● A
lways Use Precise Conditions: To avoid unintended data manipulation, ensure that your
WHEREclause accurately targets the desired records.
SELECTFirst:Beforeperforming
Testwith UPDATEor
DELETEoperations,runa
SELECTquerywiththe
WHEREconditions to verify which records will be affected.
same
SELECT * FROM Employees
WHERE Department = 'Sales' AND HireDate > '2022-01-01';
●
se Parentheses for Complex Conditions: When combining multiple logical operators, use
U
parentheses to clarify the order of evaluation.
SELECT * FROM Employees
●
WHERE
(Department
=
'Sales'
OR
Department
=
'Marketing')
AND
HireDate
>
'2022-01-01';
AGGrigate
ORDER BYClause
1.
Purpose:
Sorts the result set of a
SELECTquery based on one or more columns, either in ascending (
ASC
) or
descending (
DESC
) order.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1 [ASC|DESC], column2 [ASC|DESC], ...;
Example:
SELECT FirstName, LastName, HireDate
FROM Employees
ORDER BY HireDate DESC;
Sorts employees by their hire date in descending order (newest first).
COUNTFunction
2.
Purpose:
eturns the number of rows that match a specified condition. Useful for countingrecordsinatableor
R
grouped data.
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) AS AliasName
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT COUNT(EmployeeID) AS TotalEmployees
FROM Employees;
Counts the total number of employees.
MAXFunction
3.
Purpose:
Retrieves the maximum value from a specified column.
Syntax:
SELECT MAX(column_name) AS AliasName
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT MAX(Salary) AS HighestSalary
FROM Employees;
Finds the highest salary among employees.
MINFunction
4.
Purpose:
Retrieves the minimum value from a specified column.
Syntax:
SELECT MIN(column_name) AS AliasName
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT MIN(HireDate) AS EarliestHireDate
FROM Employees;
Finds the earliest hire date among employees.
SUMFunction
5.
Purpose:
Calculates the total sum of a numeric column.
Syntax:
SELECT SUM(column_name) AS AliasName
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalaries
FROM Employees;
Calculates the total sum of all employees' salaries.
AVGFunction
6.
Purpose:
Calculates the average value of a numeric column.
Syntax:
SELECT AVG(column_name) AS AliasName
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT AVG(Salary) AS AverageSalary
FROM Employees;
Calculates the average salary of employees.
DISTINCTKeyword
7.
Purpose:
Eliminates duplicate values in the result set, returning only unique records.
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Department
FROM Employees;
Retrieves a list of unique departments from the Employees table.
8. MySQL Aliases
Purpose:
Provides temporary names to columns or tables within a query for better readability or convenience.
Syntax:
olumn Alias:
C
SELECT column_name AS AliasName
FROM table_name;
Table Alias:
SELECT t.column1, t.column2
FROM table_name AS t;
Example:
SELECT FirstName AS Name, Salary AS EmployeeSalary
FROM Employees;
FirstNameto
Renames Nameand
Salaryto
EmployeeSalaryin the result set.
BETWEENOperator
9.
Purpose:
Filters the result set to include values within a specified range (inclusive).
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Example:
SELECT FirstName, LastName, HireDate
FROM Employees
WHERE HireDate BETWEEN '2022-01-01' AND '2023-12-31';
Selects employees hired between January 1, 2022, and December 31, 2023.
ANDOperator
10.
Purpose:
WHEREclause.Allconditionsseparatedby
ombinesmultipleconditionsina
C ANDmustbetrueforarow
to be included in the result set.
Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND ...;
Example:
SELECT FirstName, LastName, Department
FROM Employees
WHERE Department = 'Sales' AND Salary > 50000;
Putting It All Together: Practical Example
cenario: Retrievethenumberofuniquedepartments,thehighestandaveragesalaryperdepartment,
S
sorted by the total number of employees in each department.
SELECT
Department AS Dept,
COUNT(EmployeeID) AS NumEmployees,
MAX(Salary) AS HighestSalary,
AVG(Salary) AS AvgSalary
FROM Employees
WHERE Salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 120000
GROUP BY Department
ORDER BY NumEmployees DESC;
Explanation:
●
DISTINCT Alternative: If you wanted to count unique departments,
COUNT(DISTINCT
Department)could be used.
Departmentis aliased as
● Aliases: Dept
, and aggregate results are given meaningful aliases.
●
BETWEEN
:Filters salaries between 30,000 and 120,000.
●
AND
:Not used directly here but can be added for additional conditions.
●
GROUP BY
:Groups results by department.
●
ORDER BY
:Sorts the results by the number of employees in descending order.
Summary
● O RDER BYClause:Sortsqueryresultsbasedonspecifiedcolumnsinascendingordescending
order.
● AggregateFunctions( C
OUNT MAX
, MIN
, SUM
, AVG
, ):Performcalculationsonasetofvaluesto
return a single value.
● DISTINCTKeyword:Ensures that only unique values are returned in the result set.
● MySQL Aliases:Temporary names for columns or tables to enhance readability.
● BETWEENOperator:Filters records within a specific range.
●
ANDOperator:Combines multiple conditions that must all be true for records to be selected.
y mastering these SQL components, you can perform more precise and efficient data retrieval and
B
analysis in your databases.
Feel free to ask if you need further clarification or additional examples!
What is Normalization?
ormalization is theprocessoforganizingtheattributesandtablesofarelationaldatabasetominimize
N
data redundancy and improve data integrity. It involves decomposing tables into smaller, more
manageable pieces without losing information, ensuring that the database remains efficient and scalable.
Benefits of Normalization
. E
1 liminates Redundancy:Reduces duplicate data, saving storage space.
2. Prevents Anomalies: Avoids insertion, deletion, and update anomalies that can lead to
inconsistent data.
3. Enhances Data Integrity:Ensures that data dependencies make sense and are logical.
4. Improves Query Performance:Streamlined tables can lead to faster query processing.
5. Facilitates Maintenance:Easier to update and maintain the database structure.
Normal Forms Overview
ormalization is achieved through a series of rules known as Normal Forms. Each normal form
N
addresses specific types of issues:
1. F irstNormalForm(1NF):Ensuresthatthetablehasaprimarykeyandthatallcolumnscontain
atomic (indivisible) values.
2. Second Normal Form (2NF): Achieves 1NF and ensures that all non-key attributes are fully
functionally dependent on the primary key.
3. Third Normal Form (3NF): Achieves 2NF and ensures that all non-keyattributesarenotonly
fully dependent on the primary key but also transitivelyindependent(i.e.,nodependencyon
other non-key attributes).
4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): A stricter version of 3NF where every determinant is a
candidate key.
Let's delve into each normal form with definitions and examples.
First Normal Form (1NF)
Definition
A table is inFirst Normal Form (1NF)if:
1. A tomicity:Eachcolumncontainsonlyatomic(indivisible)values;therearenorepeatinggroups
or arrays.
2. Uniqueness:Each row is unique, typically enforced by a primary key.
Example
Unnormalized Table:
OrderID CustomerName Products
1 John Doe Laptop, Mouse
2 Jane Smith Smartphone
3 Bob Johnson Tablet, Keyboard, Charger
Issues:
Productscolumn contains multiple values, violating atomicity.
● The
Converting to 1NF
o convertto1NF,ensurethateachfieldcontainsonlyonevalue.Thisofteninvolvescreatingseparate
T
rows for each product in an order.
1NF Compliant Table:
OrderID CustomerName Product
1 John Doe Laptop
1 John Doe Mouse
2 Jane Smith Smartphone
3 Bob Johnson Tablet
3 Bob Johnson Keyboard
3 Bob Johnson Charger
Explanation:
Productscolumn has been split into individual
● The Productentries, ensuring atomicity.
● OrderIDcombined with
Productcan serve as a composite primary key to ensure row
uniqueness.
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Definition
A table is inSecond Normal Form (2NF)if:
. It is in 1NF.
1
2. FullFunctionalDependency:Allnon-keyattributesarefullyfunctionallydependentontheentire
primary key (i.e., no partial dependency on a part of the composite primary key).
Key Concepts
F
● unctional Dependency:A relationship where one attribute uniquely determines another.
● Partial Dependency:A non-key attribute depends only on part of a composite primary key.
Example
1NF Compliant Table:
OrderID Product CustomerName CustomerAddress
1 Laptop John Doe 123 Elm Street
1 Mouse John Doe 123 Elm Street
2 Smartphone Jane Smith 456 Oak Avenue
3 Tablet Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
3 Keyboard Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
3 Charger Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
Issues:
● The composite primary key is (
OrderID Product
, ).
C
● ustomerNameand CustomerAddressdepend only on
OrderID Product
, not on .
● This creates partial dependencies.
Converting to 2NF
To eliminate partial dependencies, decompose the table into two:
. O
1 rders Table:Contains information about orders.
2. OrderDetails Table:Contains information about products in each order.
Orders Table:
OrderID CustomerName CustomerAddress
1 John Doe 123 Elm Street
2 Jane Smith 456 Oak Avenue
3 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
OrderDetails Table:
OrderID Product
1 Laptop
1 Mouse
2 Smartphone
3 Tablet
3 Keyboard
3 Charger
Explanation:
● Orders Table:
OrderIDis the primary key.
CustomerNameand
CustomerAddressdepend
OrderID
fully on .
● O rderDetails Table: The composite primary key is (
O
rderID
,
Product
). No partial
dependencies exist as all attributes depend on the entire primary key.
Third Normal Form (3NF)
Definition
A table is inThird Normal Form (3NF)if:
. It is in 2NF.
1
2. No Transitive Dependencies:No non-key attribute depends on another non-key attribute.
Key Concepts
● T ransitiveDependency:Anon-keyattributedependsonanothernon-keyattribute,whichinturn
depends on the primary key.
Example
2NF Compliant Tables:
1. Orders Table:
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate
1 C001 2023-01-15
2 C002 2023-02-20
3 C003 2023-03-10
2. Customers Table:
CustomerID CustomerName CustomerAddress
C001 John Doe 123 Elm Street
C002 Jane Smith 456 Oak Avenue
C003 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
3. OrderDetails Table:
OrderID Product
1 Laptop
1 Mouse
2 Smartphone
3 Tablet
3 Keyboard
3 Charger
Issues (Before 3NF):
Assume an initial 2NF table that includes:
OrderID CustomerID CustomerName CustomerAddress OrderDate Product
1 C001 John Doe 123 Elm Street 2023-01-15 Laptop
1 C001 John Doe 123 Elm Street 2023-01-15 Mouse
2 C002 Jane Smith 456 Oak Avenue 2023-02-20 Smartphone
3 C003 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road 2023-03-10 Tablet
3 C003 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road 2023-03-10 Keyboard
3 C003 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road 2023-03-10 Charger
CustomerNameand
Here, CustomerAddressdependon
CustomerID OrderIDorthe
,notdirectlyon
composite key (
OrderID Product
, ), creating transitivedependencies.
Converting to 3NF
To eliminate transitive dependencies, further decompose the tables:
Customerstablewhere customer details depend solely on
1. Create a separate CustomerID
.
Orderstableto reference
2. Modify the CustomerIDinstead of including customer details.
3NF Compliant Tables:
1. Orders Table:
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate
1 C001 2023-01-15
2 C002 2023-02-20
3 C003 2023-03-10
2. Customers Table:
CustomerID CustomerName CustomerAddress
C001 John Doe 123 Elm Street
C002 Jane Smith 456 Oak Avenue
C003 Bob Johnson 789 Pine Road
3. OrderDetails Table:
OrderID Product
1 Laptop
1 Mouse
2 Smartphone
3 Tablet
3 Keyboard
3 Charger
Explanation:
● Orders Table: Now only contains
OrderID
,
CustomerID
, and
OrderDate
. There's no
Customerstable.
transitive dependency because customer details are moved to the
C
● ustomers Table:All customer-related information depends solely on CustomerID .
● OrderDetails Table: Remains unchanged, focusing on the relationship between orders and
products.
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
Definition
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)is a stricter version of the Third Normal Form. A table is inBCNFif:
. It is in 3NF.
1
2. Every determinant is a candidate key.
Key Concepts
D
● eterminant:An attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely determines another attribute.
● Candidate Key:A minimal set of attributes necessary to uniquely identify a row.
BCNF Addresses Situations Where:
venifatableisin3NF,itmightstillhaveanomaliesiftherearedependencieswherenon-candidatekeys
E
determine other attributes. BCNF ensures that all functional dependencies are based on candidate keys.
Example
Consider a University Database:
Table: InstructorCourses
InstructorID CourseID Room
I001 C101 R1
I001 C102 R2
I002 C101 R1
I003 C103 R3
Assumptions:
1. Functional Dependencies:
○
InstructorID,
CourseID →
Room (Composite primary key:
InstructorID
,
CourseID
)
○ CourseID→
Room(Each course is assigned to a specific room)
2. Candidate Keys:
○ (
I
nstructorID CourseID
, )
○ (
C
ourseID Room
, CourseIDuniquely determines
) is not a candidate key as Room
.
Issues:
● T CourseID→
hedependency RoomviolatesBCNFbecause
CourseIDisnotacandidatekey
for the table.
Converting to BCNF
To achieve BCNF, decompose the table to ensure that every determinant is a candidate key.
Decomposed Tables:
1. CourseRooms Table:
CourseID Room
C101 R1
C102 R2
C103 R3
2. InstructorCourses Table:
InstructorID CourseID
I001 C101
I001 C102
I002 C101
I003 C103
Explanation:
● C ourseRooms Table: Now
CourseIDis a candidate key, and
CourseID→
Roomsatisfies
BCNF.
● InstructorCourses Table: The composite primary key (
InstructorID,
CourseID
) ensures
that all dependencies are based on candidate keys.
Result:
Both tables are now in BCNF, eliminating the anomaly caused by the original table.
Normalization Process: An Example
Let's walk through a complete normalization process from an unnormalized table to BCNF.
Scenario
Business Context:
small bookstore maintains information about book sales, including details about sales transactions,
A
books, authors, and publishers.
Unnormalized Table:
ransactionI
T ookTitl
B uthorNam
A ublisherNam P
P ublisherAddre uantit
Q aleDat
S
D e e e ss y e
T001 QL
S John Smith TechBooks 100 Tech Ave 3 023-01
2
Basics -15
T002 dvance
A Jane Doe TechBooks 100 Tech Ave 2 023-01
2
d SQL -16
T003 ooking
C ary
M HomePress 200 Home St 5 023-01
2
101 Johnson -17
T004 ardenin
G ary
M HomePress 200 Home St 1 023-01
2
g Tips Johnson -18
T005 QL
S John Smith TechBooks 100 Tech Ave 4 023-01
2
Basics -19
Issues:
R
● PublisherNameand
edundancy: PublisherAddressare repeated for each book.
● Non-Atomicity:All data appears atomic, so 1NF is satisfied.
● Functional Dependencies:
○
TransactionID → BookTitle
, AuthorName
, PublisherName
,
PublisherAddress
Quantity
, SaleDate
,
○
BookTitle→
AuthorName PublisherName
, PublisherAddress
,
○
PublisherName→
PublisherAddress
Step 1: Ensure 1NF
hetablealreadysatisfies1NFasallcolumnscontainatomicvaluesandeachrowisunique(assuming
T
TransactionIDis unique).
Step 2: Convert to 2NF
Identify partial dependencies. The primary key is
TransactionID
. However, all non-key attributes
epend fully on
d TransactionID,sotechnically,it'salreadyin2NF.However,giventhedependencies,
further normalization can help reduce redundancy.
lternatively, if considering a composite key (e.g.,
A BookTitle ,
SaleDate ), then dependencies
might create partial dependencies. To avoid confusion, we'll proceed to decompose based on
functional dependencies.
Step 3: Convert to 3NF
Eliminate transitive dependencies.
Identify Transitive Dependencies:
●
BookTitle→
AuthorName PublisherName
, PublisherAddress
,
●
PublisherName→
PublisherAddress
Decompose into 3NF Compliant Tables:
1. Transactions Table:
TransactionID BookTitle Quantity SaleDate
T001 SQL Basics 3 2023-01-15
T002 Advanced SQL 2 2023-01-16
T003 Cooking 101 5 2023-01-17
T004 Gardening Tips 1 2023-01-18
T005 SQL Basics 4 2023-01-19
2. Books Table:
BookTitle AuthorName PublisherName
SQL Basics John Smith TechBooks
Advanced SQL Jane Doe TechBooks
Cooking 101 Mary Johnson HomePress
Gardening Tips Mary Johnson HomePress
3. Publishers Table:
PublisherName PublisherAddress
TechBooks 100 Tech Ave
HomePress 200 Home St
Explanation:
BookTitle
● Transactions Table:Focuses solely on transactions, linking to .
B
● ooks Table:Contains book-specific information, linking each book to its author and publisher.
PublisherAddressis
● PublishersTable:Containspublisher-specificinformation,ensuringthat
PublisherNamealone.
determined by
Step 4: Convert to BCNF
Ensure that every determinant is a candidate key.
Check Each Table:
1. Transactions Table:
TransactionID
○ Primary Key:
Functional Dependencies:
○ TransactionID→ BookTitle Quantity
, SaleDate
,
○ All determinants are candidate keys.
.
2 Status:BCNF compliant.
3. Books Table:
○ Primary Key: BookTitle
○ Functional Dependencies:
■ BookTitle→
AuthorName PublisherName
,
○ No determinants other than candidate keys.
.
4 Status:BCNF compliant.
5. Publishers Table:
○ Primary Key: PublisherName
○ Functional Dependencies:
■
PublisherName→PublisherAddress
○ No determinants other than candidate keys.
6. Status:BCNF compliant.
Result:
All tables are now inBCNF, eliminating any remaininganomalies and ensuring optimal structure.
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