Chapter 3 : Microwave Active Components

1) Explain two cavity Klystron in detail with Applegate diagram

Construction:
• Two cavity klystron is basically a Velocity modulated tube.
• In two cavity klystron two resonant cavities are used. Input cavity is
called Buncher cavity and output cavity is called Catcher cavity. The
signal which needs to be amplified is applied to the Buncher cavity and
amplified output is taken from Catcher cavity.
• It consists of electron gun assembly which consist of Cathode, heating
element and Anode. The anode is kept at a positive potential with respect
to the cathode.
• The electron beam passes through gap A and output is collected at the
gap B at the catcher cavity.
• The region between two cavities is known as drift space.
• To allow focussed propagation of electron beam inside the tube an
external electromagnetic winding is used that generates magnetic field.
This is done in order to prevent the spreading of the beam inside the tube.
• A collector is present near the second cavity that collects the electron
bunch. Positive potential is given to the collector so that it can collect
electron beam.

Working
• Rf signal to be amplified is applied through buncher cavity which
resonate the cavity and generates a.c electric field across the gap A.
 • Electron gun emits electron beam. If A.C voltage is zero, then electron
beam remains unaffected. If AC voltage is positive then velocity of the
electron beam increases and if AC voltage is negative, velocity of
electron beam decreases.
• Consider electron Y which passes through Buncher cavity when the
voltage is zero then velocity of electron Y remains unaffected.
• Another electron Z passes through the gap slightly later than Y when gap
voltage is positive then the velocity of electron increases, and it will catch
electron Y in drift space.
• Another electron X passes through the gap before Y when the gap voltage
is negative then the velocity of electron decreases, and electron Y and Z
will catch electron X in drift space.
• In this way when electron beam passes through Buncher cavity, it gets
velocity modulated. These electrons will form the bunch and exchange
energy with each other i.e faster electrons gives their energy to the slower
electrons. As the beam moves in drift space, it forms complete bunches.
• These bunches excite the catcher cavity by giving their energy. High
electromagnetic field is generated in catcher cavity. This produces
amplified alternating current in catcher cavity. Thus, velocity modulation
converted into current modulation.

Applegate diagram

X Y Z

• In Applegate diagram process of bunches formation is shown with three

electrons.
Specifications
• Frequency: 250 MHz to 100 GHz
• Power : 10 kW to 500 kW
• Power gain : 15dB to 70 dB
• Bandwidth : 10-60 MHz
• Noise figure : 15-20 dB
• Efficiency : 58%

Applications
• As power output tubes
(a) In UHF TV transmitter
(b) In troposphere scatter transmitter
(c) Satellite communication ground station
(d) Radar transmitter
• As a power oscillator(5-50GHz) if used as a klystron oscillator

2) Explain Reflex Klystron in detail with Applegate diagram

Construction

• It consists of electron gun, a filament surrounded cathode and focussing

electrode at cathode potential. The electron beam is injected from the
cathode.
 • Electron beam is accelerated towards anode cavity which is at positive
potential. This cavity works as a buncher cavity for forward-moving
electrons and catcher cavity for backward moving electrons.
• The velocity and current modulation take place in the cavity gap.
• The repeller electrode is given negative potential. It will repel the
electrons.
Operation
• The operating mechanism is best understood by considering the behaviour
of individual electrons. Inherent noise acts as a.c voltage for electron beam.
• Consider the reference electron, passes the gap on its way to the repeller at
the time when the gap voltage is zero. This electron is unaffected, travel in
the repeller space and is ultimately returned to the gap, when repelled by
repelled electrode.
• An electron passing the gap slightly earlier when the voltage is positive .
Due to positive voltage the velocity of electron increases. This electron
travels more distance into the repeller space.
• Similarly, an electron passing the gap when the gap voltage is negative.
The velocity of the electrons decreases. It travels less distance in the
repeller space.
• On the return journey to the gap electrons will form bunches. Velocity
modulation is converted to current modulation in the repeller space, and
one bunch is formed per cycle of oscillations. It should be mentioned that
bunching is not nearly as complete in this case, and so the Reflex Klystron
Oscillator is much less efficient than the multicavity klystron.
• This energy from the bunches is used to sustain the oscillations.
Applegate Time
The best possible time for electrons to return to the gap is when the voltage then
existing across the gap will apply maximum retardation to them. This is the time
when the gap voltage is maximum positive.

Specifications of reflex klystron

• Frequency: 4 to 200 GHz
• Power : 1mW – 2.5 W
• Theoretical Efficiency : 22.78%
• Practical Efficiency : 10 to 20 %
• Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2W -30 GHz at 10mW

Applications of reflex klystron

• In Radar receiver
• Local oscillator in microwave receivers
• Signal source in microwave generator of variable frequency
• Portable microwave link
• Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier

Travelling Wave Tube.

• Describe the working principle of TWT and state its two
applications
 • Travelling wave tubes are broadband microwave devices. It has no cavity
resonators like Klystrons.
• Amplification is done due to the interaction between an electron beam
and Electric field (RF field)
Construction :
• Travelling wave tube is a cylindrical structure which contains an electron
gun, helix and a collector. RF input is sent to one end of the helix and the
output is drawn from the other end of the helix.
• An electron gun focusses an electron beam with the velocity of light.
• A magnetic field guides the beam to focus and passes it through the centre
of the helix.
• Collector is at positive potential, so electrons gets collected by it.
Working
• The phase velocity of RF signal is greater than the velocity of the light
and electron beam velocity is less than the velocity of light. For proper
interaction between the RF field and electron beam the velocity of RF field
is reduced by using slow wave helical structure.
• Due to helical structure the time required to travel RF field increases hence
velocity decreases.

Helix Pitch
The velocity of RF field = Velocity of light x
Helix circumference

Vp =Vc (Pitch/2πr)
• RF signal generates axial electric field. Electrons are passing through the
centre of helix. If axial electric field is zero, velocity of electrons will not
change. If the axial electric field is positive, electrons gets accelerated
and if the axial electric field is negative then velocity of electrons
deceases. Thus, electrons gets velocity modulated.
• This velocity modulated electrons form Bunches.
• These bunches deliver energy to the RF signal and RF signal gets
amplified.
Specifications of Travelling wave tube
➢ Frequency: 500 MHz- 95 GHz
➢ Power: 5mW (Low power TWT, 250KW( High Power TWT)
➢ Power gain: 40-70 dB
Applications of TWT
➢ In microwave receiver as a low noise amplifier
➢ TWTs are also used in wide-band communication links and co-axial
cables as repeater amplifiers or intermediate amplifiers to amplify low
signals.
➢ TWTs have a long tube life, due to which they are used as power output
tubes in communication satellites.
➢ Continuous wave high power TWTs are used in Troposcatter links,
because of large power and large bandwidths, to scatter to large distances.
➢ TWTs are used in high power pulsed radars and ground-based radars.

MAGNETRON
Construction

• It is high power vaccum tube and multicavity device work as self-excited

microwave oscillator. Frequency range is 0.6GHz to 30GHz.and it works
with fixed frequency constructively.
• It is available with 8 to 20 cavities. It has cylindrical cathode at the
centre, and it is surrounded by anode cavities. These anode cavities are
resonant cavities.
• The area between anode and cathode is interaction chamber. One cavity is
connected to coaxial cable to extract the output.
• There exists a phase difference of 1800 between adjacent cavities.
Therefore, cavities will transfer their excitation from one cavity to
another with a phase shift of 180⁰.
• It is cross field device where the electric field is between cathode and
anode radial whereas magnetic field is axial produced by permanent
magnet.

Working:

1. Effect of Magnetic field on the path of electron

• In the absence of magnetic field , electron travel straight from cathode to
anode (electron a ) due to radial electric field.
• If the magnetic field is applied, it bends the electron path.( electron b )
when going from cathode to anode.
• If magnetic field is increased to sufficiently high level, then it prevents
the electron to reach anode. The electron will just touch the anode and
returned to cathode. This magnetic field is called ‘ Critical magnetic
field’ (electron c).
• If the magnetic field is increased beyond critical magnetic field, the
electron will not reach to anode. By taking shorter path electron will
reach to cathode. It causes back heating of cathode.
2. Sustained Oscillations
• When RF oscillations starts during initial noise within magnetron, It will
be sustained by device operations.

• These RF oscillations gives RF electric field. If RF field is zero electron

will be returned back to cathode.(shown by dotted line)
• Due to the presence of RF electric field and the direction of electric field
and direction of the movement of electron a are same, it will give its
energy to the RF field. Those electrons which transfer the energy to the
RF field are called ‘ Favoured electrons’
• For electron b, the direction of electric field and direction of the
movement of the electron b are different. Such electrons are taking the
energy from RF field and are called as ‘ Unfavoured electrons’
• All favoured electrons forms bunches and provides energy to the RF
electric field. This bunches formation is known as Phase focussing
Effect.
 • These bunches will form spoke-wheel. These bunches will rotate the
counter clockwise direction and gives energy to RF field and oscillations
are maintained.

Specifications of Magnetron
• Power output : 250 KW (pulsed mode)
10 mW (For UHF band)
2 mW (For X band)
• Frequency : 500MHz- 10GHz
• Duty cycle : 0.1%
• Efficiency : 40 % to 70%
Applications
• Used in pulsed radar with large pulse power.
• Voltage tuneable magnetrons used in Telemetry and missile applications
• Fixed frequency magnetrons are used in industrial heating and microwave
oven.

Transferred Electron Effect:

GUNN diode:
• It is the type of semiconductor microwave solid state device formed only
by N-type material that operates on microwave frequency range.
• J.B Gunn discovered that if sufficiently high voltage is applied to GaAs
having very small thickness, then very high frequency oscillations are
generated.
• It is also termed as Transferred Electron device.
• It is a two terminal device basically made up of semiconductor material
like GaAs, InP, CdTe, GaN
• Symbol :
 Construction of Gunn diode:

• Gunn diode is made up of mainly three layers of N-type semiconductor.

• The semiconductors used in Gunn diodes are Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Gallium Nitride (GaN), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Cadmium Sulphide
(CdS), Indium Phosphide (InP), Indium Arsenide (InAs)
• Among these three layers the top most and the bottom most are heavily
doped while the middle layer is lightly doped in comparison with other
two layers
• The metallic contacts are provided on extreme layers to facilitate biasing.
The heat sink is there so that the diode can withstand excessive heat and
can be prevented from damage.
Working of GUNN diode
 • The diode that is made up of only N-type semiconductor material shows
three energy bands. In conduction band there are two energy levels
namely lower valley and upper valley.
• When bias is applied to Gunn diode then most of the voltage is applied
across the active region. The electrons at the lower valley have high
mobility and less mass hence current increases initially but when
electrons are transferred from lower valley to upper valley their mobility
will decrease due to increase in effective mass. Since the electrons are
transferred from lower valley to upper valley, they are called as
Transferred electron device.
• At upper valley due to increase in mass and decrease in mobility, current
decreases. As voltage increases, current decreases and device shows
Negative resistance region.
• In this region, high field domain is formed at cathode. This domain will
move across the slice of active region from cathode to anode. The new
domain will form only when previous domain reached to anode and
oscillations are generated. The electric field required for domain
formation is 2000- 4000 V/cm.

V-I characteristics of Gunn diode

• As voltage increases, the current increases up to peak value.

• If voltage increases further, then electric field increases beyond critical
value and current decreases. Thus, it shows negative resistance region.
• In this region it will act as an Oscillator and amplifier.
Equivalent Circuit of Gunn diode

where
Cj is diode capacitance;
Rj is diode negative resistance;
Rs is sum of lead, ohmic contacts, and bulk resistance of the diode,
Cp is package capacitance
Lp is package inductance.
Modes of Gunn diode
Gunn diode operates under different modes of oscillations.
• Transit time mode:
This is also called as Gunn mode. τt is the transit time required for the
high frequency domain to travel from cathode to anode. τo is the
oscillation period of external tuned circuit. In transit time mode
τo = τt

• Delayed mode :
In this mode, τo > τt, Formation of new domain is delayed.
• Quenched Mode:
In this mode, τo < τt, If DC voltage is less than Es then domain
collapses before reached to anode. When the voltage increases above
threshold value, a new domain will be formed.

• LSA mode (Limited Space charge accumulation mode)

In this mode, , τo =3 τt domain is not allowed to form. The frequency
and RF voltage are chosen so that domain do not have sufficient time to
form when the field is above threshold.

Applications of Gunn diode :

• Used in radio communication.
• Used in military
• Used in Police radar
• Used in Tachometer, door opening system.
• Used as an oscillator- as a microwave source in laboratory purpose.
Avalanche Transit Time Device
IMPATT diode ( Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit time )
➢ It is a semiconductor device that is used for generating microwave radio
frequency signal.
➢ IMPATT diode technology can generate signals typically from about 3 to
100GHz.
➢ This device shows Negative resistance region and can used as an
Oscillator.
➢ It is also known as a Read diode.
Construction

➢ P- region is heavily doped hence depletion region is more in N-region

➢ I-region is intrinsic region through which carriers are generated during
breakdown they will drift
➢ It consists of heavily doped P-type material that forms Anode and N-type
material that forms Cathode
➢ Generally, materials like GaAs, Si, Ge or InP are used for its
construction.
➢ It consists of Avalanche multiplication region (P+N) and carrier drift
region. When reverse bias is applied, charge carriers are generated in
avalanche region and these carriers are forced through drift region with
constant electric field.
V-I characteristics of IMPATT diode
I

➢ It conducts in the forward direction once the turn on voltage has been
reached.
➢ In the reverse direction it blocks current flow, until the diode breakdown
voltage is reached. At this point avalanche breakdown occurs and current
flows in the reverse direction.
➢ Due to Avalanche effect, current increases rapidly.

Working
A.C
 ➢ IMPATT diode is operated in reverse biased condition. RF voltage
superimposed on DC voltage.
➢ DC voltage is slightly less than breakdown value. During positive
half cycle of a.c input since the voltage is higher than breakdown
value and avalanche takes place that results into generation of large
number of charge carriers.
➢ During negative cycle, voltage is less than breakdown value hence
process stops, and these charge carriers start moving in drift space
with constant electric field. After reaching anode, output current
pulse is available.
➢ There is 1800 difference between input voltage( RF+DC) and
output current. Since output current lags input voltage by 1800, this
device is known as negative resistance device.
Advantages
• It provides high operating range.
• It shows compactness in size.
• IMPATT diodes are economical.
• It provides reliable operation at high temperature.
Disadvantages
• The rate of generation of electron-hole pair in the avalanche region causes
the generation of high noise. Thus, makes the system noisy.
• It offers a low tuning range.
• It offers high sensitivity to different operating conditions.
Applications
• Used in microwave oscillators
• Parametric amplifiers and microwave generators. Along with these, other
uses involve presence
• Used in intruder alarm systems, telecommunication transmitters and
receivers etc.
 PIN diode

Symbol of PIN diode

Construction

• It is made up of three layers.

- P+ region : Holes as a majority carrier doped with trivalent
impurity.
- I region : Intrinsic region. It is pure semiconductor region.
- N+ region : Electrons as a majority carrier doped with pentavalent
impurity.
• It offers high resistance due to intrinsic layer
• Lower capacitance due to intrinsic layer.

𝐴
C = ε0. εr
𝑑
As the distance between P and N region increases due to intrinsic layer,
capacitance decreases.
• Silicon is widely used due to its power handling capacity and high
resistivity in the intrinsic region.

PIN characteristics
• Low capacitance
• High breakdown voltage
 • Sensitive to photodetection
• Carrier storage

Working of PIN diode

1. Unbiased condition: At zero bias the diffusion of holes and electrons
across the junction takes place. An ideal I layer has no depletion region. P
layer has a fixed negative charge and N layer has fixed negative charge
under zero bias
2. Reverse bias: As reverse bias is applied; charge carriers will be removed
from the intrinsic region. The reverse resistance will be high and almost
remains constant. In reverse biased condition it will acts as Capacitor.
3. Forward bias: When the PIN diode is forward biased the gradual increase
in forward voltage decreases the width of the depletion layer at P-I
junction. Thus, with the decrease in the width of depletion layer current
starts increasing. Thus, in forward biasing it acts as a variable resistor by
providing variable resistance.

Equivalent circuit

Applications of PIN diode:

• These diodes are used in the RF and also for microwave switches
and microwave variable attenuators since they are said to have low
capacitance.
• They are used in Photodetectors and photovoltaic cell and the PIN
photodiodes are used for fibre optic network cards and also
switches.
• These diodes are effectively used for RF protection circuits and it
can also be utilized as an RF switch.
 • The PIN photodiode is also used to detect X-rays and gamma rays’
photons.

Tunnel diode
• It is also known as Esaki diode. It is specially made PN junction diode
which exhibits negative resistance in forward biased condition.
• It has extremely heavy doping on both sides of junction. Due to negative
resistance it is used in oscillators and amplifiers.

V-I characteristics of Tunnel diode

• In forward biasing, the immediate conduction occurs in the diode because

of their heavy doping. The current in a diode reached their maximum
value IP when the VP voltage applied across it.
• When further the voltage increases, the current across the terminal
decreases. And it decreases until it reaches their minimum value. This
 minimum value of current is called the valley current Iv. This region is
known as “ Negative resistance region”.
• Tunnel diode can be used as an amplifier and oscillator

Tunneling Effect
• Tunneling is known as a direct flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence
band.
• Unbiased condition : In tunnel diode the width of depletion region is
very small.

• When no voltage is
applied to the tunnel
diode, it is said to be an
unbiased tunnel diode.
• In unbiased condition
current will not flow
through the diode.

• When a small voltage is applied to the tunnel diode, a small number of

electrons in the conduction band of the n-region will tunnel to the empty
states of the valence band in p-region. This will create a small forward
bias tunnel current.

• When the voltage applied to the tunnel diode is slightly increased, a large
number of free electrons at n-side and holes at p-side are generated.
Because of the increase in voltage, the overlapping of the conduction
band and valence band is increased.
• If the applied voltage is further increased, a slight misalign of the
conduction band and valence band takes place because of this current
decrease and shows negative resistance region.

Construction of Tunnel diode :

• A very small tin dot, about 50 μm in diameter, is soldered or alloyed to a

heavily doped pellet (about 0.5 mm square) of n-type Ge, GaSb or GaAs.
• The pellet is then soldered to a Kovar pedestal, used for heat dissipation,
which forms the anode contact.
• The cathode contact is also Kovar, being connected to the tin dot via a
mesh screen used to reduce inductance.
• The diode has a ceramic body and a hermetically sealing lid on top.
 Tunnel diode equivalent circuit diagram

rs = Series resistance due to ohmic contact

Ls = Lead inductance due to terminal leads
Cj = Junction diffusion capacitance
-R = negative resistance of tunnel diode.

Tunnel diode as an oscillator:

• In this circuit, the resistor R1 sets proper biasing for the diode and the
resistor R2 sets proper current level for the tank circuit. The parallel
combination of resistor Rp, inductor L and capacitor C form a tank circuit,
which resonates at the selected frequency.
• When the switch S is closed, the circuit current rises immediately towards
the constant value, whose value is determined by the value of resistor R
and the diode resistance. However, as the voltage drop across the tunnel
diode VD exceeds the peak-point voltage Vp, the tunnel diode is driven into
negative resistance region.
• In this region, the current starts decreasing, till the voltage V D becomes
equal to the valley point voltage Vv. At this point, a further increase in the
voltage VD drives the diode into positive resistance region. As a result of
this, the circuit current tends to increase. This increase in circuit will
 increase the voltage drop across the resistor R which will reduce the
voltage VD.

Advantages of tunnel diodes

• Long life
• High-speed operation
• Low noise
• Low power consumption

Disadvantages of tunnel diodes

• Tunnel diodes cannot be fabricated in large numbers

• Being a two-terminal device, the input and output are not isolated from
one another.

Applications of tunnel diodes

• Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.

• Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
• Tunnel diode is used as an ultra-high-speed switch.
• Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.