CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of various literatures and studies from

thesis papers, articles, and journals related to the experimentation of pyrolysis of plastic wastes,

focusing on its potential for energy conservation in fuel production for engines.

2.1 Experimental study of the use of plastic pyrolysis oil as an additive to improve
(Tambunan et al., 2024)
physicochemical properties and performance rubber seed biodiesel

The global energy crisis and environmental pollution are pressing issues, exacerbated by

rapid population growth and industrialization, which increase energy demand and plastic waste

production. The widespread use of non-degradable plastics significantly contributes to land and

sea pollution, while heavy reliance on fossil fuels depletes reserves and releases greenhouse

gases, accelerating climate change and ecosystem damage. As a result, there is growing interest

in replacing fossil fuels with sustainable bioenergy, particularly from agricultural and municipal

waste, to produce high-quality bio-oil. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of incorporating

Pyrolysis Plastic Oil (PPO) as an additive to enhance the physicochemical properties and

performance of Rubber Seed Biodiesel (BKB) in diesel engines. The research revealed that the

inclusion of PPO improved several key fuel characteristics, including viscosity, density, and

energy content, which are critical to efficient combustion and overall engine performance.

Tambunan et al. (2024) demonstrated that adding PPO to BKB resulted in a fuel blend

that exhibited enhanced thermal and oxidative stability. These improvements contributed to

better fuel atomization and combustion efficiency, leading to a more complete combustion

process in diesel engines. The study also reported reductions in fuel consumption and exhaust
emissions, particularly in carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons, suggesting that

PPO could be an effective additive for improving biodiesel's environmental and operational

performance.

This study is relevant in the context of broader research on pyrolysis oils derived from

waste materials, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), for use in diesel engine systems.

The use of pyrolysis oils as additives aligns with ongoing efforts to reduce reliance on fossil

fuels and minimize waste by converting plastic waste into valuable energy resources. The

findings from Tambunan et al. (2024) provide insights into the potential benefits of thermally

decomposed hydrocarbon derivatives in improving biodiesel formulations, making this study a

valuable reference for further investigation into emission mitigation and fuel performance

optimization in diesel generator systems.

2.2 Remediation of plastic waste generated during the COVID-19 pandemic: A conceptual

process design of pyrolysis using polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene based polymers

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a significant increase in plastic-based medical

waste, particularly from personal protective equipment (PPE) like gloves, masks, and sanitizer

bottles, posing severe environmental challenges. The volume of clinical waste generated daily far

exceeds incineration capacity, highlighting the need for effective waste management strategies.

Thermal treatments like autoclaving, incineration, and plasma or microwave treatment are

potential solutions, but plastics’ non-degradability and energy potential suggest the importance of

waste-to-energy approaches such as pyrolysis. Pyrolysis, though requiring higher initial capital

than incineration, offers lower operating costs and produces valuable by-products like crude oil

and biochar, making it economically beneficial. Co-pyrolysis of biomass and PPE offers a
sustainable way to produce green fuels, particularly relevant for regions like ASEAN with

abundant biomass. The pandemic has also exacerbated single-use plastic pollution, stressing the

need for improved waste management, recycling, and sustainable practices to mitigate

environmental impacts.

In their study, Kawale et al. (2024) proposed a conceptual process design using pyrolysis

to address the plastic waste crisis, specifically targeting polyethylene, polypropylene, and

polystyrene-based polymers. Pyrolysis, a thermal decomposition process, converts plastic waste

into useful hydrocarbon derivatives such as fuels and chemicals, presenting a viable solution for

mitigating environmental pollution. Kawale et al. (2024) highlight the efficiency of pyrolysis in

breaking down non-degradable plastic materials into valuable by-products, which can serve as

alternative energy sources. Their study outlines the potential of polyethylene, polypropylene, and

polystyrene — the primary constituents of pandemic-related waste — to be transformed into

pyrolysis oil and gases with high calorific value. These by-products not only reduce the

environmental footprint of plastic waste but also offer a sustainable pathway to energy recovery,

aligning with global efforts to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

This study's relevance is heightened in the context of post-pandemic plastic waste

management and sustainable energy production. The use of pyrolysis as a remediation method

for large-scale plastic waste demonstrates its potential as an integral part of circular economy

models, where waste is repurposed into energy or raw materials. Kawale et al. (2024) contribute

to the growing body of research that emphasizes the environmental and economic benefits of

converting plastic waste into usable fuels, supporting broader initiatives for emission reduction

and sustainable fuel alternatives. Their findings provide valuable insights into the application of

pyrolysis for mitigating plastic waste and creating a cleaner energy future.
2.3 Review on production of liquid fuel from plastic wastes through thermal and catalytic
(Saha et al., 2024)
degradation

The increasing global concern over plastic waste and its environmental impact has

spurred significant research into converting plastic waste into valuable energy resources. Saha et

al. (2024) provide a comprehensive review on the production of liquid fuel from plastic wastes

through thermal and catalytic degradation processes. Their study highlights the urgent need for

innovative waste management solutions in light of the escalating plastic waste crisis.

Saha et al. (2024) discuss various methods of thermal degradation, emphasizing how

these processes can effectively break down complex plastic polymers into liquid hydrocarbons.

This conversion not only reduces the volume of plastic waste but also generates high-energy

liquid fuels that can be utilized in various applications, including transportation and power

generation. The review outlines the advantages and limitations of different thermal degradation

techniques, such as pyrolysis and gasification, emphasizing the need for optimized process

conditions to maximize fuel yield and quality.

Moreover, the authors delve into catalytic degradation, which involves the use of

catalysts to enhance the breakdown of plastics at lower temperatures and with higher selectivity.

This method can significantly improve the efficiency of liquid fuel production while reducing the

formation of undesirable by-products. Saha et al. highlight the potential of various catalysts,

including zeolites and metal-based catalysts, to facilitate the conversion process and improve the

quality of the resulting fuels.

The review also addresses the environmental benefits of converting plastic waste into

liquid fuels, which can help mitigate the adverse effects of plastic pollution while contributing to
renewable energy production. By transforming waste into energy, these processes align with

circular economy principles and provide a sustainable approach to waste management.

2.4 Pyrolysis plastic oil production and optimization followed by maximum possible

replacement of diesel with bio-oil/methanol blends in a CRDI engine

The rising concerns over fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution have led to

increased interest in alternative fuels derived from waste materials. Mariappan et al. (2021)

investigate the production and optimization of pyrolysis plastic oil and its potential as a

renewable fuel source in compression ignition engines. This study focuses on maximizing the

replacement of diesel with bio-oil/methanol blends, showcasing a promising approach to

addressing energy sustainability and waste management challenges. In their research, Mariappan

et al. (2021) detail the pyrolysis process, which involves thermally decomposing plastic waste to

produce pyrolysis oil, a liquid fuel rich in hydrocarbons. The authors emphasize the optimization

of production parameters, including temperature, heating rate, and residence time, to enhance the

yield and quality of the pyrolysis oil. Their findings indicate that optimizing these variables can

significantly improve the physicochemical properties of the oil, making it a viable alternative to

conventional diesel fuel.

The study further explores the blending of pyrolysis plastic oil with methanol to create

bio-oil/methanol blends suitable for use in common rail direct injection (CRDI) engines.

Mariappan et al. demonstrate that these blends can effectively replace a substantial portion of

diesel fuel without compromising engine performance. Their experiments reveal that the bio-

oil/methanol blends exhibit favorable combustion characteristics, leading to reduced emissions

of harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), and
particulate matter (PM). Additionally, the authors discuss the economic and environmental

implications of utilizing pyrolysis oil and methanol blends as a sustainable fuel alternative. By

converting plastic waste into high-energy fuels, this approach not only mitigates the

environmental burden of plastic pollution but also contributes to energy diversification and

reduced reliance on fossil fuels.

To encapsulate, the study by Mariappan et al. (2021) offers valuable insights into the

potential of pyrolysis plastic oil as a renewable fuel source for diesel engines. Their research

highlights the feasibility of optimizing production processes and blending methodologies to

achieve high replacement rates of diesel fuel with bio-oil/methanol blends. This work supports

ongoing efforts to develop sustainable fuel alternatives and underscores the importance of

advancing waste-to-energy technologies in the context of global energy and environmental

challenges.

2.5 Investigation of gasoline-like transportation fuel obtained by plastic waste pyrolysis and
(Hegedüs et al., 2024)
distillation

The urgent need for sustainable energy solutions and effective plastic waste management

has prompted extensive research into converting plastic waste into usable fuels. As waste streams

continue to grow, alternative solutions are essential to reduce environmental pollution and

repurpose these materials into valuable products. Pyrolysis offers a promising method for energy

recovery and recycling of plastic waste, capable of producing valuable raw materials for the

chemical industry and transportation fuel. By transforming waste into resources, pyrolysis can

contribute to traditional fuel production from crude oil, potentially lowering the carbon footprint

of related industries.
 Hegedüs et al. (2024) investigate the production of gasoline-like transportation fuel

derived from plastic waste through pyrolysis and subsequent distillation processes. This study

provides critical insights into the feasibility of transforming non-degradable plastics into

valuable energy resources, addressing both environmental concerns and energy demands. In their

research, Hegedüs et al. (2024) detail the pyrolysis process, which involves the thermal

decomposition of plastic waste in an oxygen-free environment, resulting in the production of

liquid hydrocarbons. The authors emphasize the importance of optimizing pyrolysis conditions,

such as temperature and heating rate, to maximize the yield and quality of the resultant fuel. The

study demonstrates that the properties of the pyrolysis oil can be tuned to mimic those of

conventional gasoline, making it suitable for use in standard internal combustion engines.

Following the pyrolysis process, Hegedüs et al. explore the distillation of the liquid

hydrocarbons to further refine the fuel. The distillation process allows for the separation of

various fractions based on boiling points, enabling the isolation of gasoline-like components. The

researchers assess the chemical composition and combustion characteristics of the distilled fuel,

highlighting its potential as a viable alternative to traditional gasoline.

Moreover, the study discusses the environmental benefits of utilizing plastic waste as a

feedstock for fuel production. By converting plastic waste into transportation fuel, Hegedüs et al.

underscore the dual benefits of reducing plastic pollution while simultaneously providing a

renewable energy source. The findings illustrate how this approach aligns with circular economy

principles, promoting waste valorization and energy sustainability. In conclusion, Hegedüs et al.

(2024) provide valuable contributions to the growing body of literature on waste-to-energy

technologies. Their investigation into the production of gasoline-like fuel from plastic waste

through pyrolysis and distillation demonstrates a promising pathway for addressing the
challenges of plastic waste management and fossil fuel reliance. This study serves as an

important reference for further research and development in the field of alternative fuels derived

from plastic waste, supporting broader efforts toward sustainable energy solutions.

2.6 Experimental study for converting the HDPE wastes into valuable fuel
(Al-Iessa et al., 2023)

The increasing accumulation of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) waste poses

significant environmental challenges, prompting research into effective waste management and

conversion techniques. Al-Iessa et al. (2023) conduct an experimental study focused on

converting HDPE waste into valuable fuel, exploring the potential of pyrolysis as a sustainable

solution for waste recycling and energy recovery.

In their study, Al-Iessa et al. emphasize the pyrolysis process, which involves thermally

decomposing HDPE in an oxygen-free environment to produce liquid hydrocarbons. The authors

detail the optimization of key parameters such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time to

maximize the yield and quality of the resultant fuel. Their experimental results indicate that

appropriate control of these parameters significantly enhances the efficiency of the conversion

process, yielding a high-quality liquid fuel suitable for various applications.

The study also investigates the physicochemical properties of the pyrolysis oil obtained

from HDPE waste. Al-Iessa et al. analyze characteristics such as viscosity, density, and energy

content, comparing them with conventional fuels to evaluate the potential for practical use in

internal combustion engines. The findings suggest that the produced fuel exhibits favorable

properties, making it a viable alternative to traditional fossil fuels. Moreover, Al-Iessa et al.

highlight the environmental benefits of converting HDPE waste into fuel. By utilizing pyrolysis,
the study addresses the pressing issue of plastic waste disposal while simultaneously providing a

renewable energy source. The researchers discuss how this process aligns with circular economy

principles by transforming waste into valuable resources, thus reducing reliance on fossil fuels

and mitigating plastic pollution.

The research conducted by Al-Iessa et al. (2023) contributes valuable insights into the

conversion of HDPE waste into valuable fuel through pyrolysis. Their findings support the

feasibility of this approach as an effective waste management strategy that not only recycles

plastic waste but also promotes sustainable energy production. This study serves as an important

reference for further exploration of waste-to-energy technologies and their potential impact on

environmental sustainability and energy security.

2.7 Life-cycle analysis of recycling of post-use plastic to plastic via pyrolysis

In their study, Gracida-Alvarez et al. examine the pyrolysis process, which thermally

decomposes plastic waste in an oxygen-free environment to convert it into valuable raw

materials. The authors highlight the key stages of the life cycle, from the collection and

preprocessing of post-use plastics to the pyrolysis process and the subsequent conversion of the

produced pyrolysis oil back into plastic or other products. This holistic approach allows for a

detailed understanding of the energy inputs, emissions, and overall sustainability of the recycling

process.
 Figure 2.1 System boundary of the base analysis of the plastic-to-plastic process.

The results of the LCA indicate that pyrolysis significantly reduces the environmental

footprint associated with plastic waste disposal compared to traditional incineration and landfill

methods. Gracida-Alvarez et al. find that the use of pyrolysis not only decreases greenhouse gas

emissions but also minimizes resource depletion by enabling the recycling of plastics into high-

quality feedstock for further production.

Furthermore, the study assesses the economic viability of the pyrolysis process,

considering factors such as capital investment, operational costs, and potential revenue from the

sale of recycled products. The authors conclude that while initial costs may be higher than

conventional methods, the long-term benefits, including reduced waste management costs and

the generation of valuable materials, make pyrolysis an economically feasible solution for plastic

recycling. Gracida-Alvarez et al. also emphasize the importance of integrating pyrolysis into

broader waste management and recycling strategies. Their findings support the notion that
pyrolysis can play a crucial role in advancing circular economy initiatives by transforming

plastic waste into valuable resources, thereby contributing to environmental sustainability and

resource efficiency.
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