Session 3 - Manufacturing Processes and Practices

Session 03 :
Conventional Machining
ME3203 Manufacturing Processes and Practices
Dr. Krishan Wickramasinghe
PhD (Tokyo, Japan), MEng (Moratuwa, SL), BSc Eng (Ruhuna, SL)
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing

❑ Importance of machining
1. Variety of work materials.

2. Variety of part shapes and geometric features.
3. Dimensional accuracy.
4. Good surface finishes.
❑ Disadvantages associated with machining
1. Wasteful of material
2. Time consuming
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❑ Basic Machining Operations
 Turning  Milling  Drilling
 Sawing  Grinding  Broaching
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❑ Basic Machining Operations
 Shaping or Planing
04
❑ Independent variables in machining
1. Tool material and it`s condition

2. Too1 shape, surface finish, and sharpness
3. Work piece material, condition, and temp.
4. Cutting conditions, such as speed, depth of cut and feed
5. Cutting fluid
6. Quality of machine tool, such as stiffness
7. Damping
05
❑ Dependent variables in machining
1. Type of chip
2. Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process
3. Temp. Rise in the work piece, the chip, and the tool
4. Wear and failure of the tool
5. Surface finish
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❑ Discontinuous chip
▪ When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons)

are machined at low cutting speeds.
▪ This tends to impart an irregular texture to the

machined surface.
▪ High tool–chip friction and large feed and depth

of cut promote the formation of this chip type.
❑ Continuous chip
▪ When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and
relatively small feeds and depths.
▪ A good surface finish typically results when this chip

type is formed.
▪ A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip

friction encourage the formation of continuous chips. 07
❑ Continuous chip with built-up edge
▪ When machining ductile materials at low-to medium cutting speeds.
▪ Friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to
adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This formation is called a
built-up edge (BUE).
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❑ Mechanics of Chip Formation
Orthogonal cutting
▪ Cutting edge is perpendicular to the motion
direction of the tool
▪ Chip slides directly in the orthogonal plane
(directly up the tool surface)
Oblique Cutting
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10
Chip thickness ratio
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❑ Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
▪ Relation of orthogonal cutting forces are developed by a scientist

named “Merchant”.
Assumptions:
• The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face.
• The shear surface is plane extending upward from the cutting edge.
• The cutting edge is a straight line, extending perpendicular to the direction of
motion.
• No side flow of chip (uncut chip width = chip width).
• The depth of cut is constant.
• Cutting speed is continuous and constant.
• The cutting produces continuous chip without built up edge.
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▪ Resultant R0 must be equal in magnitude,

opposite in direction, and collinear with
the resultant R.
13
▪ None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured
in a machining operation.
▪ However, it is possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a force

measuring device called a dynamometer.
▪ So that two additional force components acting against the tool can be directly
measured: Fc - Cutting force , Ft - Thrust force
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❑ Experimental setup to measure cutting forces and temperature
Tool modification for WTI temp. measurement
Cutting forces and cutting temperature were

monitored and recorded in real time.
15
❑ Simulation setup to analysis cutting temperature
Dry, Stress distribution

Modified Johnson–Cook equation
−𝑣
𝜀ሶ 𝑇
𝜎 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑐𝜀 1 + 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝜀0ሶ 𝑇𝑟
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❑ Tool Wear and Failure
▪ Fracture failure
This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point becomes
excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
▪ Temperature failure.
This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the tool material,
causing the material at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic deformation
and loss of the sharp edge.
▪ Gradual wear.
Gradual wearing of the cutting-edge causes' loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting
efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and
finally tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.
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Tool may fail due to any of the following reasons.
1) Temperature Failure
▪ Plastic deformation of the cutting edge due to

high temperature
▪ Cracking at the cutting edge due to thermal

stresses
▪ Typical temperature distribution

the cutting zone. Note the steep
temperature gradients within the
tool and the chip.
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Rupture of tool point

▪ Due to mechanical shock or thermal fatigue
▪ Small fragments on the cutting edge: micro chipping
▪ Relatively large fragments: gross chipping or fracture
▪ High positive rake angle or too brittle of tool
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The mechanisms that cause wear at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces in
machining.
▪ Abrasion
▪ Adhesion
▪ Diffusion
▪ Chemical reactions
▪ Plastic deformation
❑ Taylor Tool Life Equation
▪ The discovery of this relationship around 1900 is credited to F.W. Taylor.
▪ It can be expressed in equation form and is called the Taylor tool life equation:
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❑ Tool Life And The Taylor Tool Life Equation
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❑ Tool Materials
The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three important properties
required in a tool material,
▪ Toughness
To avoid fracture failure, the tool material must possess high toughness.
▪ Hot hardness
Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at high temperatures.
▪ Wear resistance
Hardness is the single most important property needed to resist abrasive wear.
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Session 03 :

ME3203 Manufacturing Processes and Practices

Dr. Krishan Wickramasinghe

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing

1. Variety of work materials.

❑ Disadvantages associated with machining

 Turning  Milling  Drilling

 Sawing  Grinding  Broaching

1. Tool material and it`s condition

▪ When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons)

▪ This tends to impart an irregular texture to the

▪ High tool–chip friction and large feed and depth

▪ A good surface finish typically results when this chip

▪ A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip

▪ When machining ductile materials at low-to medium cutting speeds.

Chip thickness ratio

▪ Relation of orthogonal cutting forces are developed by a scientist

▪ Resultant R0 must be equal in magnitude,

▪ However, it is possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a force

Tool modification for WTI temp. measurement

Cutting forces and cutting temperature were

Dry, Stress distribution

Tool may fail due to any of the following reasons.

▪ Plastic deformation of the cutting edge due to

▪ Cracking at the cutting edge due to thermal

▪ Typical temperature distribution

Rupture of tool point

▪ Relatively large fragments: gross chipping or fracture

▪ High positive rake angle or too brittle of tool

❑ Taylor Tool Life Equation

▪ The discovery of this relationship around 1900 is credited to F.W. Taylor.

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