Unit 5: Learning Characteristics of Students with SLD

5.1. Basic understanding of specific learning disability, definition

and description (concept, etiology, prevalence, incidence,
historical perspective cultural perspective, myths, recent
trends and updates), dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia,
dyspraxia and developmental aphasia.
5.2 Attention, perception, memory, thinking characteristics, motor
perception,
5.3 Reading related characteristics
5.4 Writing related characteristics
5.5 Math related characteristics
5.1 Basic understanding of specific learning disability,
definition and description (concept, etiology, prevalence,
incidence, historical perspective cultural perspective,
myths, recent trends and updates), dyslexia, dysgraphia,
dyscalculia, dyspraxia and developmental aphasia.

Individuals with disabilities act idea- reauthorized definition of learning

disabilities (1997)

Specific Learning Disability:

''(A) IN GENERAL.

''(B) DISORDERS INCLUDED.

''(C) DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED.

ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, 2010)

A condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind, which is

especially characterised by impairment of skills manifested during the
developmental period, which contribute to the overall level of intelligence, i.e.
cognitive, language, motor and social abilities.

According to RCI :

Learning disabilities (LEARNING DISABILITYs) are real. They affect the brain's
ability to receive, process, store, respond to and communicate information.
LEARNING DISABILITYs are actually a group of disorders, not a single disorder.

Learning disabilities are not the same as intellectual disabilities (formerly

known as mental retardation), sensory impairments (vision or hearing) or
autism spectrum disorders. People with LEARNING DISABILITY are of average
or above-average intelligence but still struggle to acquire skills that impact
their performance in school, at home, in the community and in the workplace.
Learning disabilities are lifelong, and the sooner they are recognized and
identified, the sooner steps can be taken to circumvent or overcome the
challenges they present.

ACCORDING TO WHO:

ICD-10 (INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 2010)

A condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind, which is

especially characterised by impairment of skills manifested during the
developmental period, which contribute to the overall level of intelligence, i.e.
cognitive, language, motor and social abilities.

ACCORDING TO AAMR:

Specific learning disability refers to heterogeneous clusters of disorders that

significantly impede the normal progress of academic achievement in 2%-3% of
the school population. The lack of progress is exhibited in school performance
that remains below expectation for chronological and mental ages, even when
provided with high-quality instruction. The primary manifestation of the failure
to progress is significant underachievement in a basic skill area (i.e., reading,
math, writing) that is not associated with insufficient educational,
interpersonal, cultural/familial, and/or sociolinguistic experiences. The primary
severe ability-achievement discrepancy is coincident with deficits in linguistic
competence (receptive and/or expressive), cognitive functioning (e.g., problem
solving, thinking abilities, maturation), neuropsychological processes (e.g.,
perception, attention, memory), or any combination of such contributing
deficits that are presumed to originate from central nervous system
 dysfunction. The specific learning disability is a discrete condition
differentiated from generalized learning failure by average or above (> 90)
cognitive ability and a learning skill profile exhibiting significant scatter
indicating areas of strength and weakness. The major specific learning
disability may be accompanied by secondary learning difficulties that also may
be considered when planning the more intensive, individualized special
education instruction directed at the primary problem.

Specific types of learning disabilities and related disorders

Symptoms include
Disability Area of difficulty Example
trouble with

Confusing letter
names and sounds,

Reading difficulties blending

sounds into words,
Dyslexia Processing language Writing
slow rate of reading,
Spelling trouble
remembering after
reading text

Computation
Difficulty learning to
Remembering math count by 2s, 3s, 4s,
Dyscalculia Math skills facts poor mental math
skills, problems with
Concepts of time
spatial directions
and money
 Handwriting Illegible
handwriting,
Dysgraphia Written expression Spelling
difficulty organizing
Composition ideas for writing

Trouble with
Coordination
Dyspraxia Fine motor skills scissors, buttons,
Manual dexterity
drawing

Information Processing Disorders

Difficulty
Auditory Language
Interpreting auditory anticipating how a
Processing development
information speaker will end a
Disorder Reading
sentence

Reading
Visual Difficulty
Interpreting visual
Processing Writing distinguishing letters
information
Disorder like
Math

Other Related Disorders

Attention-
Over-activity
Deficit/ Can't sit still, loses
Concentration and
Hyperactivity Distractibility interest quickly,
focus
Disorder daydreams
Impulsivity
(ADHD)
Dyslexia is a term that refers to difficulty in acquiring and processing language
that is typically manifested by the lack or proficiency in reading, spelling and
writing. People with dyslexia have difficulty connecting letters they see on a
page with the sounds they make. As a result, reading becomes slow and
effortful and is not a fluent process for them.
Problems in reading begin even before learning to read. For example, children
may have trouble breaking down spoken words into syllables and recognizing
words that rhyme. Kindergarten-age children may not be able to recognize and
write letters as well as their peers. People with dyslexia may have difficulty
with accuracy and spelling as well. It
People with dyslexia, including adolescents and adults, often try to avoid
activities involving reading when they can (reading for pleasure, reading
instructions). They often gravitate to other mediums such as pictures, video, or
audio.

Dysgraphia is a term used to describe difficulties with putting one

Dyscalculia is a term used to describe difficulties learning number related
concepts or using the symbols and functions to perform math calculations.
Problems with math can include difficulties with number sense, memorizing
math facts, math calculations, math reasoning and math problem solving.

Dyspraxia is a neurological disorder that impacts an individual

Individuals with dyspraxia often have language problems, and sometimes a

degree of difficulty with thought and perception. Dyspraxia, however, does not
affect the person

Developmental dyspraxia is an immaturity of the organization of movement.

The brain does not process information in a way that allows for a full
transmission of neural messages.

Aphasia is a disorder that results from damage to areas of the brain that
produce and process language. A person with aphasia can have trouble
speaking, reading, writing, and understanding language. Impairment in these
abilities can range from mild to very severe (nearly impossible to communicate
in any form). Some people with aphasia have difficulty in only one area of
communication, such as trouble putting words together into meaningful
sentences, trouble reading, or difficulty understanding what others are saying.
More commonly, people with aphasia are limited in more than one
communication area. Nearly all patients with aphasia have word-finding
difficulties
Learning disorder can vary in severity:
o Mild: Some difficulties with learning in one or two academic areas, but
may be able to compensate
o Moderate: Significant difficulties with learning, requiring some
specialized teaching and some accommodations or supportive services
o Severe: Severe difficulties with learning, affecting several academic areas
and requiring ongoing intensive specialized teaching

Causes
Experts say that there is no single, specific cause for learning disabilities.
However, there are some factors that could cause a learning disability:
Heredity: It is observed that a child, whose parents have had a learning
disability, is likely to develop the same disorder.

Illness during and after birth: An illness or injury during or after birth may
cause learning disabilities. Other possible factors could be drug or
alcohol consumption during pregnancy, physical trauma, poor growth in
the uterus, low birth weight, and premature or prolonged labor.

Stress during infancy: A stressful incident after birth such as high fever,
head injury, or poor nutrition.

Environment: Increased exposure to toxins such as lead (in paint, ceramics,

toys, etc.)

Comorbidity: Children with learning disabilities are at a higher-than-

average risk for attention problems or disruptive behavior disorders. Up
to 25 percent of children with reading disorder also have ADHD.
Conversely, it is estimated that between 15 and 30 percent of children
diagnosed with ADHD have a learning disorder.

Researchers do not know all of the possible causes of learning disabilities, but
they have found a range of risk factors during their work to find potential
causes. Research shows that risk factors may be present from birth and tend to
run in families. In fact, children who have a parent with a learning disability are
more likely to develop a learning disability themselves. To better understand
learning disabilities, researchers are studying how children write, and develop
math skills. Researchers are working on interventions to help address the
needs of those who struggle with reading the most, including those with
learning disabilities, to improve learning and overall health.
Factors that affect a fetus developing in the womb, such as alcohol or drug use,
can put a child at higher risk for a learning problem or disability. Other factors
in an infant
Prevalence of specific learning disability in India ranges from 5%

1. Myth: People with LDs cannot learn.

Fact:

 People with LDs are smart and can learn.

 LDs mean learning in different ways.

2. Myth: People with LDs are just lazy.

Fact:

 People with LDs often have to work harder, but the results may not
show their efforts.
 Some people with LDs may become discouraged because they have
struggled so hard, and they may appear unmotivated or lazy.

3. Myth: Accommodations give an unfair advantage.

Fact:

 Fair is not always equal.

 Accommodations allow people with LDs to work to their level of their
ability and not their disability.

4. Myth: All LDs are outgrown by adulthood.

Fact:

 LDs tend to be noticed most often in school, but can affect all areas of
life.
  Often by adulthood, people have found ways to use their strengths to
compensate for their LDs. Many adults seek work environments that are
a good fit.

5. Myth: LDs are all the same.

Fact:

 LDs are complicated and vary from person to person.

 LDs come in many forms and affect everyone differently.
 The impact of LDs may change in different settings depending on the
demands of the situation.

5.2 Attention, perception, memory, thinking characteristics,

motor perception

Individuals with visual perceptual/visual motor deficits have poor eye-hand

coordination, lose their position frequently when reading, and struggle using
pencils, crayons, glue, scissors, and other fine motor skills. When reading or
completing tasks, they may also confuse similar-looking letters, have difficulty
navigating their surroundings, or display atypical eye activity. It impairs a
person
The brain can process visual information in a variety of ways, as per National
Center for Learning Disabilities (2003) and individuals with this disability may
experience difficulty in a variety of areas, and they are not limited to
experiencing difficulties in just one of the categories listed below.
These are some of the categories
Visual discrimination: Visual discrimination refers to a person
Visual figure-ground discrimination: It entails determining the difference
between a figure and its surroundings. A person who struggles in this category
may have trouble finding a specific piece of information on a page full of words
or numbers. They may also struggle to notice an image if there is distracting
background.
Visual sequencing: The is the ability to tell the difference between symbols,
words, and images. Individuals with problems in this category may be unable
to stay in the correct spot while reading (skipping lines or re-reading the same
line over and over), struggle with using a separate answer sheet, reversing or
misreading letters and words, and have difficulty understanding mathematical
equations.
Visual motor processing: It is the feedback from the eyes that allows other
body components to move in coordination. Individuals may struggle to stay
between the lines while writing (or coloring), copying from a board onto
paper, moving about without tripping over things, and playing sports that
involve timed and exact space motions.
Visual memory: Visual memory problems can be divided into two categories.
The first has to do with recalling something that happened a long time ago.
The second is the ability to recall something that has recently been viewed. A
person may have trouble remembering and spelling common words,
remembering phone numbers, reading comprehension, and typing on a
keyboard or pad.
Visual closure: Refers to the ability to determine what an object is while only a
portion of it is visible. An individual may have difficulty recognizing an object in
a picture that is not presented in its entirety (for example, portraying an
elephant without a trunk), identifying a word with a letter missing, and
recognizing a face with only one feature missing (such as the ears).
Spatial relationships: It refers to the skill to identify an object in space and
relate it to oneself. According to National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2003,
an individual child with this difficulty will have trouble going from one place to
another, spacing of words and letters on a page, judging time, and reading
maps
Learning disabilities are historically characterized as having a strong impact on
psychological processes, academic achievement, and social/emotional
development.

Psychological Processes
Psychological processes is a broad term that incorporates the wide range of
thinking skills we use to process and learn information. The five psychological,
or cognitive, processes that are affected by a learning disability are perception,
attention, memory, metacognition, and organization.
Perception
Perception is the ability to organize and interpret the information experienced
through the sensory channels, such as visual or auditory input. Perception is
important to learning because it provides us with our first sensory impressions
about something we see or hear. A student relies on his perceptual abilities to
recognize, compare, and discriminate information. An example would be the
ability to distinguish the letter "B" from the letter "D" based on the overall
shape, direction of the letter, and its parts. Some children with learning
disabilities reverse letters, words, or whole passages during reading or writing.

Attention
Attention is a broad term that refers to the ability to receive and process
information. Attention deficits are one of the disorders teachers most
frequently associate with individuals with learning disabilities. Teachers may
describe their students with learning disabilities as "distractible" or "in his own
world." The inability to focus on information can inhibit the student's ability to
perform tasks in the classroom at the appropriate achievement level.

Memory
Memory involves many different skills and processes such as encoding (the
ability to organize information for learning). Students with learning disabilities
may experience deficits in working memory which affects their ability to store
new information and to retrieve previously processed information from long-
term memory.

Metacognition
Metacognition is the ability to monitor and evaluate performance. This process
supplies many of the keys to learning from experience, generalizing
information and strategies, and applying what you have learned. It requires the
ability to:

Identify and select learning skills and techniques to facilitate the

acquisition of information
Choose or create the setting in which you are most likely to receive
material accurately
Identify the most effective and efficient way to process and present
information
 Evaluate and adapt your techniques for different materials and
situations
A deficit in any of these skills can have a major impact on the ability of a
student to learn new information and apply it to any situation.

Organization
Organization is the underlying thread of all these cognitive processes. The
inability to organize information can affect the most superficial tasks or the
most complex cognitive activities. Students with learning disabilities may have
difficulties organizing their thought processes, their classwork, and their
environment. Any deficit in these areas can have a detrimental effect on the
academic success of the student.

Together, these five key processes enable us to receive information correctly,

arrange it for easier learning, identify similarities and differences with other
knowledge we have, select a way to learn the information effectively, and
evaluate the effectiveness of our learning process. If a student has problems
doing any or all of these things, it is easy to see how all learning can be
affected.

5.3 Reading related characteristics

Because of the effect on cognitive processes, students with learning disabilities

may have difficulty in a variety of academic areas as well as social and
emotional development. While a student with a learning disability may have
difficulties in all academic areas, major problems are more often found in
reading, language arts, and mathematics.
Reading
Reading is the most difficult skill area for the majority of students with learning
disabilities. Learning disabilities in reading encompass a vast array of reading
issues including dyslexia. Some of the most common reading disabilities are
word analysis, fluency, and reading comprehension.

Word analysis includes the ability to associate sounds with the various
letters and letter combinations used to write them, to immediately
 recognize and remember words, and to use the surrounding text to
help figure out a specific word. Word analysis is a foundational skill
for reading. For students with learning disabilities, it is a major issue
to overcome to be a successful reader.
Fluency is the rate of accurate reading (correct words per minute). With
processing and word analysis issues, a high rate of reading fluency is
often quite difficult for a student with a learning disability.
Reading comprehension is the ability to understand written material. If a
student with learning disabilities has difficulty reading written
material, then comprehension will always be greatly affected. While
problems with word analysis can affect reading comprehension,
other factors that may contribute to problems with reading
comprehension include the inability to successfully identify and
organize information from the material.
Strategies for reading
Provide a quiet area for reading activities.

Use books on tape, and books with large print and big spaces between lines.

Provide a copy of class notes to student.

Allow alternative forms for book reports.

Have students use both visual and auditory senses when reading text.

Present material in small units.

Use graphic organizers to connect ideas.

Read and share stories with students.

Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that highlight key points
in their reading.

Announce reading assignments well in advance.

Offer to read written material aloud, when necessary.

Share informational texts and invite students to wonder about the new ideas
presented.

Point out ways in which reading is important in everyday life (e.g., on labels,
instructions, and signs).

Teach students how books are organized.

Use stories that have predictable words and words that occur frequently in the
text.

Label objects in classroom.

Help students notice the letters in the environmental print that surrounds
them.

Engage students in activities that help them learn to recognize letters visually.

Teach students to attend to the sounds in language.

Model and demonstrate how to break short sentences into individual words.

Have students clap out syllables and listen for and generate rhymes.

Focus on activities that involve sounds of words, not on letters or spellings.

Model specific sounds, and ask students to produce each sound in isolation.

Teach students to blend, identify sounds, and break up words into sounds.

When teaching the letters of the alphabet, activities should be explicit and
unambiguous.

When teaching decoding, begin with small, familiar words.

Model sounding out words, blending the sounds together, and saying the
word.
Have students read new stories and reread old stories every day to build
fluency.

Engage students in discussion of reading topics that are of interest.

Provide high interest reading selections whenever possible.

Model comprehension strategies and provide students with guided assistance.

Point out how titles, headings, and graphics reveal main ideas and tell what a
book is about.

Teach students to identify main ideas presented in the text, as well as the
supporting details.

Point out unfamiliar words, revisit them, and explore their meaning.

Teach students to use contextual clues to figure out meanings of unfamiliar

words.

Build background for reading selections and create a mental scheme for text
organization.

5.4 Writing related characteristics

Language Arts
Language arts is often another problematic academic area for students with
learning disabilities. While language arts is a broad subject, students with
learning disabilities have problems with three major skill areas that affect the
entire subject. These include spelling, spoken language, and written language.
Because of the close relationship of some of these skills to reading ability, they
tend to be areas of great difficulty for many students with learning disabilities.

Spelling requires all the essential skills used in the word-analysis

strategies of phonics and sight-word reading. The difficulties students
 with learning disabilities have in learning and applying rules of
phonics, visualizing the word correctly, and evaluating spellings result
in frequent misspellings, even as they become more adept at reading.
Spoken language, or oral language, is a deficit area for many students
with learning disabilities, impacting both academic and social
performance. Spoken language issues may include problems
identifying and using appropriate speech sounds, using appropriate
words and understanding word meanings, using and understanding
various sentence structures, and using appropriate grammar and
language. Other problem areas include understanding underlying
meanings, such as irony or figurative language, and adjusting
language for different uses and purposes.
Written language is often an area of great difficulty for students with
learning disabilities. Specific problems include inadequate planning,
structure, and organization; immature or limited sentence structure;
limited and repetitive vocabulary; limited consideration of audience,
unnecessary or unrelated information or details; and errors in
spelling, punctuation, grammar, and handwriting. Students with
learning disabilities often lack both the motivation and the
monitoring and evaluation skills considered necessary for good
writing.
Strategies for writing
Use oral exams in place of written exams when possible.

Allow use of tape recorder in class.

Assign a note taker for student.

Provide notes or outlines to reduce the amount of writing.

Provide a partially completed outline that allows student to fill in details under
major headings.

Allow use of a laptop or other computer for writing assignments.

Provide computer with spell check, grammar, and cut and paste features.
Reduce copying that the student is required to do (e.g. offer pre-printed math
problems).

Have wide rule paper, graph paper, and pencil grips available.

Provide alternatives to written assignments (video-taping or audio recording).

Use mnemonic devices to teach writing process (e.g. COPS: Capitalization,

Organization, Punctuation, Spelling).

Teach students spelling conventions systematically, such as the

Allow the student to use print or cursive.

Teach pre-organization strategies, such as use of graphic organizers.

Use a speech recognition program combined with the word processor so

students can dictate rather than type (for older students).

Do not count off for poor spelling on first drafts, in-class assignments, or on
tests.

Have student proofread papers using a checklist (not immediately after

writing).

Shorten writing assignments and allow extra time if necessary.

Have students complete writing tasks in small steps.

Stress or de-emphasize certain task requirements during a complex

assignment.

Allow use of abbreviations in writing assignments, and have student keep a

list of appropriate abbreviations available.
5.5 Math related characteristics

Mathematics does not receive the same attention as reading and language
arts, but many students with learning disabilities have unique difficulties in this
subject area. Specific problems may include difficulty understanding size and
spatial relationships and concepts related to direction, place value, decimals,
fractions, and time and difficulty remembering math facts. Remembering and
correctly applying the steps in mathematical problems (such as the steps
involved in long division) and reading and solving word problems are
significant problem areas.
 Difficulties with processing numbers and quantities, including:
o Connecting a number to the quantity it represents (the number 2
to two apples)
o Counting, backwards and forwards
o Comparing two amounts
 Trouble with subitizing (recognize quantities without counting)
 Trouble recalling basic math facts (like multiplication tables)
 Difficulty linking numbers and symbols to amounts
 Trouble with mental math and problem-solving
 Difficulty making sense of money and estimating quantities
 Difficulty with telling time on an analog clock
 Poor visual and spatial orientation
 Difficulty immediately sorting out direction (right from left)
 Troubles with recognizing patterns and sequencing numbers
Strategies for Math
Allow use of fingers and scratch paper.

Use diagrams and draw math concepts.

Present activities that involve all sensory modalities

Arrange peer assistance and tutoring opportunities.

Have graph paper available so students can align numbers in math problems.

Use colored pencils to differentiate problems.

Offer manipulatives throughout instruction.

Teach students to draw pictures of word problems.

Use mnemonic devices to teach steps of a math concept (e.g. order of

operations:

Use rhythm and music to teach math facts and to set steps to a beat.

Schedule computer time for drill and practice with math facts.

Practice new strategies until students are comfortable with them.

Explain why learning math strategies are important while teaching, and match
strategies with the material.

Encourage and monitor use of strategies to ensure correct usage and

generalization.

Teach students to understand the problem, develop a plan to solve the

problem, carry out the plan, and look back to be sure the answer solves the
problem.

Use materials such as games for practice, which are interactive and
motivational.

Use distributed practice, meaning practice in small increments (e.g. two 15-
minute sessions per day, rather than an hour session three times a week).

Use small numbers of math facts per group for mastery, and frequently
practice with mixed groups.
Emphasize "reverses," or "turnarounds" (e.g., 1+ 2/2 + 1, 1x2/2x1) in vertical,
horizontal, and oral formats.