UNIT-1

What is mobile computing?

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices, such as smart
phones, tablets, laptops, and wearable technology that allow users to access and
process information while on the go. These devices typically use wireless
communication networks to connect to the internet and other devices, enabling a
range of activities such as browsing the web, sending emails, accessing
applications, and using location-based services. Key aspects of mobile computing
include:

Portability: Devices are designed to be easily carried and used anywhere.

Connectivity: Wireless communication technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and

cellular networks facilitate internet access and device interconnectivity.

Convenience: Mobile computing allows users to perform tasks and access

information from virtually any location.

Integration of Services: Mobile devices often integrate various services such as

GPS, cameras, and sensors, enhancing their functionality.

Applications: Mobile computing supports a wide range of applications, from

social media and entertainment to productivity tools and enterprise solutions.

Wireless Communication: Mobile computing relies on wireless technologies such

as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks to enable internet access and device
communication.

Computing Power: Modern mobile devices are equipped with powerful

processors, ample memory, and advanced operating systems, enabling complex
tasks and applications.

1. User Interface: Touch screens, voice recognition, and other intuitive

interfaces enhance user interaction and accessibility.
2. Battery Life: Efficient power management and rechargeable batteries allow
for extended use without constant recharging.
 3. Applications and Services: Mobile devices support a wide range of
applications, from productivity tools and social media to navigation and
entertainment, often leveraging cloud-based services.
4. Location Awareness: GPS and other location-based technologies enable
services such as navigation, location-based advertising, and geofencing.

Overall, mobile computing has transformed the way people work, communicate,
and interact with technology, providing unprecedented flexibility and convenience.

Why need of mobile computing?

The need for mobile computing arises from the growing demand for flexibility,
convenience, and connectivity in both personal and professional contexts. Here are
some key reasons why mobile computing is essential:

Mobility and Convenience: Users can access information and perform tasks from
anywhere, at any time, without being tied to a specific location.

Real-Time Communication: Enables instant communication through calls,

messaging, and video conferencing, enhancing personal and professional
interactions.

Productivity on the Go: Mobile devices allow users to manage work tasks,
emails, schedules, and documents while traveling or away from the office,
increasing overall productivity.

Access to Information: Provides instant access to the internet, social media, news,
and other information sources, keeping users informed and connected.

Enhanced Services: Supports various applications and services such as

navigation, mobile banking, e-commerce, and entertainment, improving the quality
of daily life.

Collaboration: Facilitates collaboration among team members through shared

applications and cloud-based services, enabling efficient teamwork regardless of
location.

Emergency and Safety: Mobile computing devices can be crucial in emergencies,

providing access to help, navigation, and real-time information.
Business and Commerce: Supports mobile commerce (m-commerce), enabling
businesses to reach customers through mobile platforms and allowing consumers
to shop, pay, and manage transactions from their devices.

Education and Learning: Enables remote learning and access to educational

resources, making education more flexible and accessible.

Health and Fitness: Mobile devices and wearable track health metrics, fitness
activities, and provide access to telemedicine services, contributing to better health
management.

In summary, mobile computing meets the increasing demand for connectivity,

flexibility, and efficiency in various aspects of life, transforming how we
communicate, work, learn, and manage daily activities.

Why mobile computing used?

Mobile computing is used for a variety of reasons, driven by the demand for
flexibility, convenience, and connectivity. Here are the primary uses and benefits:

1. Communication:

Instant Messaging and Calls: Platforms like WhatsApp, Skype, and Face Time
enable instant communication.

Email: Access to email on the go ensures timely responses and communication.

2. Productivity:

Work on the Go: Mobile devices enable access to office applications, documents,
and collaborative tools, allowing users to work from anywhere.

Scheduling and Task Management: Apps help users manage their schedules, set
reminders, and track tasks.

3. Access to Information:

Internet Browsing: Provides immediate access to information, news, and

research.

E-books and Educational Content: Access to digital libraries and online courses
for learning on the go.
 4. Entertainment:

Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Spotify, and YouTube provide

entertainment through movies, music, and videos.

Gaming: Mobile games offer entertainment and relaxation.

5. Navigation and Location-Based Services:

GPS and Maps: Applications like Google Maps and Waze provide navigation and
traffic updates.

Location-Based Services: Apps offer services based on location, such as

restaurant recommendations and local deals.

6. Health and Fitness:

Fitness Tracking: Devices and apps track physical activity, monitor health
metrics, and provide fitness coaching.

Telemedicine: Remote consultations with healthcare providers.

7. Social Networking:

Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow users to stay
connected with friends and family.

Professional Networking: LinkedIn and similar platforms facilitate professional

connections and opportunities.

8. Business and Commerce:

Mobile Banking: Manage finances, transfer money, and pay bills through banking
apps.

E-commerce: Shopping, ordering food, and managing transactions on platforms

like Amazon, eBay, and various delivery services.

9. Remote Work and Collaboration:

Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet
facilitate virtual meetings and collaboration.
Cloud Services: Access to cloud storage and collaborative documents through
services like Google Drive and Dropbox.

10.Emergency and Safety:

Emergency Alerts: Receive real-time alerts and updates about emergencies and
natural disasters.

Safety Apps: Personal safety apps provide features like emergency contacts and
location sharing.

In essence, mobile computing is used because it enhances convenience, improves

productivity, facilitates communication, and provides access to a wealth of
information and services, all of which contribute to a more connected and efficient
lifestyle.

Where is mobile computing used?

Mobile computing is used in a wide variety of settings, enhancing the functionality

and efficiency of numerous activities across different sectors. Here are some key
areas where mobile computing is widely utilized:

1. Personal Use:

Daily Communication: Instant messaging, social media, and video calls.

Entertainment: Streaming movies, music, and gaming.

Health and Fitness: Tracking workouts, monitoring health metrics, and using
fitness apps.

2. Business and Enterprise:

Remote Work: Accessing work emails, documents, and collaborative tools from
anywhere.

Field Work: Equipping salespeople, technicians, and service workers with mobile
devices for tasks on the go.

Meetings and Presentations: Using tablets and laptops for presentations and
video conferencing.
 3. Education:

E-learning: Online courses, digital textbooks, and virtual classrooms.

Student Collaboration: Group projects and communication through mobile apps.

Administration: Managing student records, attendance, and communication with

parents.

4. Healthcare:

Telemedicine: Remote consultations and virtual doctor visits.

Patient Monitoring: Using wearables to track patient health metrics in real time.

Mobile Health Records: Accessing and updating patient information on the go.

5. Retail and E-commerce:

Mobile Shopping: Browsing and purchasing products via mobile apps.

Inventory Management: Using mobile devices to track and manage inventory.

Customer Engagement: Personalized marketing and loyalty programs through

mobile apps.

6. Transportation and Logistics:

Navigation and Fleet Management: GPS and real-time tracking of vehicles and
shipments.

Delivery Services: Mobile apps for managing orders, routes, and customer
communication.

Public Transport: Mobile ticketing and real-time schedule updates.

7. Finance and Banking:

Mobile Banking: Managing accounts, transferring funds, and paying bills via
mobile apps.

Mobile Payments: Contactless payments and digital wallets.

Investment Management: Tracking and managing investments through mobile
platforms.

8. Public Safety and Emergency Services:

First Responders: Accessing information and communicating in real time during

emergencies.

Disaster Management: Coordinating response efforts and disseminating

information.

Personal Safety Apps: Providing features like emergency contacts and location
sharing.

9. Agriculture:

Precision Farming: Using mobile devices to monitor crop health, soil conditions,
and weather forecasts.

Equipment Management: Tracking and managing agricultural machinery.

Market Access: Connecting farmers with markets and buyers through mobile
platforms.

10.Tourism and Hospitality:

Travel Planning: Booking flights, hotels, and activities via mobile apps.

On-the-Go Information: Accessing maps, guides, and travel tips.

Customer Service: Enhancing guest experiences through mobile check-ins and

concierge services.

In essence, mobile computing is pervasive across various sectors, transforming

how people communicate, and work, learn, shop, travel, and manage their daily
lives.

Before mobile computing used:

Before the advent of mobile computing, several technologies and methods were
commonly used for communication, information access, and computing tasks.
Here are some of the key tools and technologies that were prevalent:
 1. Desktop Computers:

Personal Computers (PCs): Used for a wide range of tasks, including word
processing, spreadsheets, and internet browsing.

Mainframes and Workstations: Utilized by businesses and institutions for

complex computing tasks and data processing.

2. Landline Telephones:

Fixed-line Phones: The primary means of voice communication.

Pay Phones: Public phones available in various locations for making calls.

3. Typewriters:

Manual and Electric Typewriters: Used for creating typed documents before the
widespread adoption of personal computers.

4. Postal Mail:

Letters and Packages: Physical mail was a primary method of communication

and document delivery.

5. Fax Machines:

Facsimile Transmission: Used to send scanned documents over telephone lines,

allowing for the quick sharing of printed materials.

6. Pagers:

Beepers: Used to send short messages or alerts, primarily for business and
emergency communication.

7. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs):

Handheld Devices: Early mobile devices used for managing contacts, calendars,
and tasks. Examples include the Palm Pilot and Psion Organizer.
 8. Paper Maps and Atlases:

Printed Navigation Tools: Used for navigation and finding locations before GPS
technology became widely available.

9. Radio and Television:

Broadcast Media: Major sources of news, information, and entertainment.

10. Libraries and Encyclopedias:

Physical Books and Reference Materials: Primary sources of information and

research before the internet became widespread.

11. Film Cameras:

Analog Photography: Used for capturing images, which were then developed and
printed.

12.Physical Newspapers and Magazines:

Print Media: Main sources of news, articles, and advertisements.

13.Audio Cassette and CD Players:

Music and Audio Playback: Used for listening to music and audio content.

14.Television and Radio Broadcasts:

Entertainment and News: Provided real-time information and entertainment

through scheduled programming.

15. Conference Calls and Video Conferencing:

Office Communication Tools: Used for remote meetings and collaboration before
the proliferation of internet-based solutions.

These tools and technologies laid the foundation for the development of mobile
computing, which has since revolutionized how people communicate, access
information, and perform various tasks.
Application of mobile computing: Mobile computing has a wide range of
applications across various fields, revolutionizing the way we work, communicate,
and perform daily activities. Here are some key applications:

1. Communication:

Instant Messaging and Social Media: Apps like WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram enable instant communication and social interaction.

Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom, Skype, and Microsoft Teams facilitate
remote meetings and virtual collaboration.

2. Productivity:

Office Applications: Mobile versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Google

Docs allow users to create, edit, and share documents on the go.

Task Management: Apps like Trello, Asana, and Todoist help users manage
tasks, set reminders, and track projects.

3. Navigation and Travel:

GPS and Maps: Applications like Google Maps and Waze provide real-time
navigation, traffic updates, and location-based services.

Travel Booking: Apps like Expedia, Booking.com, and Airbnb allow users to
book flights, hotels, and rental cars.

4. Healthcare:

Telemedicine: Platforms like Teladoc and Doctor on Demand enable virtual

consultations with healthcare providers.

Fitness Tracking: Wearable devices and apps like Fitbit and MyFitnessPal
monitor physical activity, health metrics, and fitness goals.

5. Retail and E-commerce:

Online Shopping: Apps like Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba provide a platform for
browsing, purchasing, and tracking orders.
Mobile Payments: Services like Apple Pay, Google Wallet, and PayPal facilitate
secure mobile transactions.

6. Entertainment:

Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Spotify, and YouTube offer streaming
of movies, TV shows, music, and videos.

Gaming: Mobile games and apps provide entertainment and interactive

experiences on devices.

7. Education:

E-learning: Apps like Coursera, Khan Academy, and Duolingo provide access to
online courses and learning materials.

Digital Classrooms: Tools like Google Classroom and Edmodo facilitate remote
learning and collaboration among students and teachers.

8. Finance:

Mobile Banking: Apps from banks allow users to manage accounts, transfer
money, and pay bills.

Investment and Trading: Platforms like Robinhood and E*TRADE enable users
to trade stocks and manage investments from their devices.

9. Public Safety and Emergency Services:

Emergency Alerts: Mobile devices receive real-time alerts and updates during
emergencies and natural disasters.

Personal Safety Apps: Apps like Life360 provide location sharing and emergency
contact features for personal safety.

10.Business and Enterprise:

Field Service Management: Mobile apps allow field workers to access job details,
update statuses, and communicate with the office.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Mobile CRM apps like Sales force
enable sales and support teams to manage customer interactions and data.

11.Agriculture:

Precision Farming: Mobile apps and devices help monitor crop health, soil
conditions, and weather forecasts, optimizing agricultural practices.

Market Access: Farmers use mobile platforms to connect with markets, buyers,
and suppliers.

12.Transportation and Logistics:

Fleet Management: Mobile apps track vehicle locations, monitor driver

performance, and optimize routes.

Delivery Services: Apps like Uber Eats and Door Dash manage orders, track
deliveries, and provide customer communication.

13. Tourism and Hospitality:

Travel Guides and Maps: Mobile apps offer information on tourist attractions,
restaurants, and local events.

Hotel and Restaurant Management: Mobile apps assist in booking management,

guest services, and operations.

14. Replacement of Wired Networks: For trade exhibitions, historic buildings,

or remote sensors, wireless networks can also take the role of wired networks.
Remote sensor wiring for weather forecasting, seismic detection, and
environmental data is frequently unfeasible due to financial constraints.

15. Credit Card Verification: When consumers use credit cards at Point of Sale
(POS) terminals in stores and supermarkets, the necessary communication between
the bank's central computer and the POS terminal to verify the card usage can
happen swiftly and securely over cellular channels by means of a mobile computer
unit. This can reduce traffic at the POS terminals and expedite the transaction
process.
Mobile computing has integrated into nearly every aspect of modern life, providing
convenience, enhancing productivity, and enabling new possibilities across diverse
fields.

Mobile apps are majorly developed for 3 Operating System. :

1. Android
2. IOS
3. Windows
There are 3 different ways to develop Mobile apps: –
1. 1st Party Native App development
2. Progressive web Application
3. Cross-Platform Application

1st Party Native App development: –

These types of apps normally run in the native devices, that is, it runs only in the
OS that it is specifically designed for it. The apps that are developed for android
are normally coded using Java or Kotlin languages. The IDE normally used for
android app development is Android Studio which provides all features and the
apps that are developed for IOS are generally coded in Swift language or
Objective-C.
Example,
Here’s an example of a 1st party native app:
A retail company wants to improve the in-store shopping experience for its
customers. They develop a 1st party native app that allows customers to:
 Browse the store’s inventory and product information
 Create a shopping list
 Scan barcodes to view product information and reviews
 Locate items in the store using an interactive map
 Pay for items directly through the app, without having to wait in line at the
register
 The app is only available to the company’s customers and can only be used in
their physical stores. The app is designed to integrate with the company’s
existing systems, such as inventory management and point-of-sale systems.
This app is developed by the retail company for their own use, to improve the in-
store customer experience, increase sales and gain insights from the customer’s
behavior.
In this example, the retail company is the 1st party, and the app is a native app,
because it is developed for the specific platform (iOS or Android) and can take
full advantage of the device’s capabilities and features.
Advantages of 1st Party Native App development:
1. The performances of these apps are very high these apps very fast compared
to any other apps.
2. We have easy access to all the features and APIs.
3. The community is widespread so all your doubts and errors can be discussed
and solved easily.
4. Updates are available on the same day.
Disadvantages of 1st Party Native App development:
1. The development speed is too slow as we have to code it again for different
OS.
2. And this category doesn’t support open source.

2. Progressive web Application: –

Progressive web apps are essentially a website which runs locally on your device.
The technologies used are Microsoft Blazor, React, Angular JS, Native Script,
and Iconic. These technologies normally used for web development propose. The
apps’ UI is developed the same way as they are developed while developing the
website. This category has many ups and downs let’s start with the advantages of
Progressive web apps.
Example,
Here’s an example of a Progressive Web App:
A news website wants to provide its users with a better mobile experience. They
develop a Progressive Web App that:
 Allows users to access the website offline by storing content on the user’s
device
 Sends push notifications to users to alert them of breaking news
 Can be installed on the user’s home screen like a native app
 Provides a fast and smooth browsing experience
 Has a responsive design that adapts to different screen sizes
 Users can access the PWA by visiting the website on their mobile browser.
They are prompted to install the PWA on their home screen, which allows
them to access the website offline and receive push notifications.
Advantages of Progressive web Application:
1. The main advantage of this process is that its development speed is fast the
same code base is used for IOS, Android, web applications.
2. The web development team can be repurposed to develop the mobile
application.
3. No installation required.
Disadvantages of Progressive web Application:
1. The major disadvantage is that PWA don’t have access to all the feature and
so the user experience is not that good IOS does not support all the features of
PWA.
2. The UI for development is bespoke i.e. the buttons, edit texts need to be
programmed which was not necessary for the 1st party native Apps.
3. The community is not that wide spread.
4. No extra room for business model i.e. it is still a challenge to develop a
revenue model or advertising opportunities for PWAs. At the moment, there
are fewer options than among native apps to subscribe to.

3.Cross-Platform Application: –
These are frameworks that allow developing total native applications which have
access to all the native features of IOS and Android but with the same code base.
These apps run on both Android and IOS. So normally the development speeds of
these apps are very fast and the maintenance cost is low. The performance speed
is comparatively low to 1st party native apps but faster than PWA.
React Native is Facebook’s cross-platform solution which uses the language
JavaScript And the preferred IDE is WebStrome & Visual Studio Code. Same
like Xamarin React Native has totally native UI/UX and gives access to all
features. And the updates are released the same day by Facebook as Android and
IOS. Flutter is Google’s cross-platform solution which uses the language, Dart.
The IDE preferred is Android Studio, IntelliJ IDE, and Visual Studio Code. The
UI/UX is bespoke and Flutters has to come up with their new libraries whenever
Android and IOS comes up with an update to mimic those update. The
community is fast growing.
Example,
Here’s an example of a cross-platform application:
A project management company wants to create a project management tool that
can be used by teams on different platforms. They develop a cross-platform
application that:
 Can be used on Windows, Mac, iOS, and Android devices
 Allows users to create and assign tasks, set deadlines, and track progress
 Integrates with popular tools such as Google Calendar and Trello
 Has a user-friendly interface that works seamlessly across all platforms
 The application can be downloaded from the company’s website or from
different app stores such as App Store, Google Play Store, Microsoft Store,
and Mac App Store, depending on the platform.
Advantages of Cross-Platform Application:
1. The apps’ development speed is very high as they use the same code base for
both Android and IOS.
2. The apps’ maintenance cost is low as the errors and updates as to be countered
only once.
Disadvantages of Cross-Platform Application:
1. Slow Code Performance With Limited Tool Availability.
2. Limited User Experience i.e. these apps does not have access to Native only
features.
Issues and Challenges in Mobile Computing Technology
Due to technology growth distances become short, communication becomes easy,
data transfer is enriched, but there are so many issues and challenges in the domain
that need to be researched and addressed to make mobile computing more secure,
robust and reliable. Some important issues are discussed here.

Low bandwidth
Mobile internet access is slower than the fixed desktop connection while using
GSM and other advanced technologies such as 3G, 4G, and 5G. Local wireless
connection offers Mbit/s of speed and wide wireless connection offers only Kbit/s
of speed. There is a requirement of using more bandwidth while using such
advanced mobile technologies so that the user can transfer data at a higher speed
while the user is mobile.
Lower security
When working with mobile people are completely dependent on the public
network which can be easily tracked and hacked by hackers. There is a big
problem with the security of data while transferring from one mobile device to
another device. Therefore, to protect the data from eavesdropping there is a need
for strongly secured algorithms of authentication and security.

Transmission interferences
Radio transmission cannot be protected therefore there is higher transmission
interference due to electric engines, lightening, high buildings, mountains, weather
conditions, etc., all this results in a higher loss of data rate and bit errors.
Shared medium
Radio access is a shared medium because it is just impossible to give dedicated
radio access to all the users. However, different techniques are deployed still so
many questions are unanswered such as how to provide quality of service to each
user sharing radio access.

Ad-hoc networking
Wireless and mobile computing allow ad-hoc networking without a prior set of
infrastructure between senders and receivers. This creates several challenges and
issues before the network administration such as the reliable and secure
connections between sources to destination. Dynamic topology again a challenging
issue for a reliable connection from one point to another point.

High delays, large delay variation

A serious problem faced by Internet protocols is variations in link characteristics.
In wireless transmission delays of various seconds occur that create so many
problems in transmission and communication.
Also links are asymmetrical and provide different service qualities depending on
the wireless devices.

Regulations and spectrum

Due to technical and political reasons, very limited frequencies are available. This
is also a serious issue in mobile computing that need to addressed and researched.

Power consumption
When a power supply is not available mobile devices totally depend on battery
power. There is a need to use some resources that can provide power supply at a
cheaper cost and with ease.

Potential health hazards:

People use a mobile phone and other mobile devices while driving that again
creates problems and prone to accidents. Moreover, mobile devices are found
injurious for health if not used carefully. Therefore, there is a need to research and
develop mobile devices which are perfect for health whether you are in mobile or
in rest.
Overview of Wireless Telephony - Cellular Concept Mobile Computing
Technology:
Cellular Concepts refers to the use of a group of cells to provide communication
from one place to another place when the user is mobile. A cellular system in
mobile computing implements space division multiplexing or SDM. Each
transmitter in the cellular system is called a base station.

Base station
The base station covers a specific area that is called a cell.

Cell
Cell radius can vary from tens of meters in building, hundreds of meters in a city,
and tens of kilometers in the country. The shape of a cell depends on the
environmental conditions such as type of building, mountains, weather conditions,
load, and other conditions. Generally, it is hexagon shape but not an exact
hexagon.

Figure: Cell Structure

Mobile computing used cellular system and it has the following advantages:
Higher Capacity:
Cellular system uses SDM. SDM allows frequency reuse. If one transmitter is far
away from another transmitter particularly out of the range of the interference area
then another transmitter can use the same frequency as shown in the following
figure-
Mobile systems assign one specific frequency to a certain user and that frequency
is blocked for the use by other users. But frequency is a scarce resource therefore
for their optimum utilization of the same frequency; the same frequency is used for
other users using the technique frequency reuse.


Less Transmission Power
Transmission power is not a big issue for the base station but it is important for the
mobile receivers. Keeping cell size small facilitates mobile receivers because as
they move far from the base station their receiving capacity reduces and due to
small cells after a few distances they can again access receiving power from the
cell nearby them and the problem of the mobile receiver is solved.
Local Interference
When the distance is large between the sender and receiver then interference is also
more and difficult to manage. There is only local interference when cells are small
and that is easy to handle by the base station and the mobile station.

Robustness
The cellular system is decentralized therefore more robust as compared to when
centralized. If any component fails only that specific area affected and the rest of
the part remains unaffected and works efficiently.
Cellular System or having small cells have the following disadvantages.
Infrastructure Requirement
Cellular system establishment needs complex infrastructure, storage registers to
locate mobile users in local areas and roaming, antennas, transmitters, receivers,
and amplifiers, etc. that are expensive.

Handover Needed
The mobile system needs handovers when they change cells. This is quite often
which further incur a cost.

Frequency Planning
To avoid the interference between transmitters frequencies are planned carefully.
Frequency is a limited resource therefore they are distributed intelligently so that
they can be reused without any kind of interference.

Mobile Computing Architecture – GSM Network Architecture

The full form of GSM is group special mobile (GSM) and later it was named as a
global system for mobile communications (GSM). It was founded in 1965. GSM is
the most successful and popular mobile telecommunication system. GSM is used
by over 800 million people and in over 190 countries. The main aim of GSM was
to provide a mobile phone system that allows users to move throughout Europe and
allows voice services compatible with the ISDN and PSTN systems.
GSM is a particularly second-generation system, replacement of the first-
generation analog system. This system was not capable to give high worldwide
data rates as promised by the third generation systems.
GSM has initially been deployed in Europe with 890-915 MHz for uplinks and
935-960 MHz downlinks. This GSM system is called GSM 900.
The next version is called GSM 1800 MHz, 1710-1785 MHz uplink and 1805-
1880 MHz downlink. This system is called DCS or the digital cellular system-
1900.
The next versions of GSM are GSM 400. It is deployed in sparsely populated areas
as a replacement of the analog system.
The primary goal of GSM was to provide a mobile phone system that allows users
to roam throughout Europe and provides voice services compatible to ISDN and
other PSTN systems. The specification for the initial system already covers more
than 5,000 pages; new services, in particular data services, now add even more
specification details. Readers familiar with the ISDN reference model.Will
recognize many similar acronyms, reference points, and interfaces.GSM
standardization aims at adopting as much as possible.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells
 Macro: In this size of the cell, a Base Station antenna is installed.
 Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
 Pico: Small cells’ diameter of a few meters.
 Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fills the gaps between cells) regions.

The widely used digital cellular communication protocol is called GSM. The GSM
standard was developed by the European Telecommunication Standards Institute to
specify the protocols for second-generation digital mobile networks, which are
utilized by gadgets like cell phones. It is software for wide-area communications
technology that creates multimedia, information, and audio communication
systems by using digital radio channeling.
GSM is not a computer network; it is a mobile network. opens a new window,
indicating that devices communicate with it by attempting to locate adjacent cells.
The development of mobile wireless telecommunication services has been
impacted by GSM and other technology advancements. The connection between
base stations, switching systems, and mobile stations is managed by a GSM
system.
Each GSM radio channel has a width of 200 kHz and is further split into frames, or
intervals of eight time slots. The acronym comes from the fact that the global
system for mobile communication (GSM) was originally called Groupe Special
Mobile. Mobile stations, base stations, and overlapping switching systems make up
the GSM system.
All radio channels can be shared by 8–16 audio users through the GSM
application, and there can be more than one radio channel at any given radio
broadcast point. At present, GSM is the most widely used network technology in
the Internet of Things (IoT) due to its price, simplicity, and accessibility. Launches
applications in a new window. But in the years to come, this is probably going to
alter. While mobile telecommunication services have evolved; numerous programs
have been created without the benefit of standardized provisions.
As digital radio technology developed, this led to a great deal of problems that
were directly related to consistency. The international mobile communication
system is developed to deal with these problems. Globally, GSM is responsible for
around 70% of digital cellular services. Before being transmitted via a channel that
has three separate streams of user data inside each time slot, GSM automates and
encrypts the data. It is also the most popular 2G digital cell phone standard for the
great majority of people on the planet. It controls how mobile devices
communicate with the system of land-based towers. While GSM operates in the
1.9GHz PCS frequency in the US, it uses the 900MHz and 1.8GHz frequencies in
Europe. Because GSM is based on a circuit-switched topology that divides each
200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time frames, it describes the entire mobile
network, not just the Time division multiple access air interface. GSM is a fast
growing transmission technology; by the early 2000s, there were over 250 million
GSM subscribers. By mid-2004, the billionth GSM user had established a
connection.
GSM Mobile Services
GSM system has defined three kinds of services:
Bearer Services
Tele-Services
Supplementary services

Bearer Services in GSM

Bearer Services allow transparent and nontransparent, synchronous and
nonsynchronous data transmission services.
Transparent bearer services in GSM
Transparent bearer services use the functions of the physical layer to transmit data.
Using transparent and nontransparent services, GSM provides various bearer
services for internetworking PSTN, ISDN, and packet-switched public data
networks such as X.25. X.25 is available worldwide.

Nontransparent Bearer Services

These services use transparent bearer services using radio link protocol.
This radio link protocol (RLP) includes the high-level data link control (HDLC)
mechanism and special selective reject mechanism to trigger retransmission
erroneous data.

TeleServices of GSM
GSM provides voice-oriented teleservices. Teleservices include voice
transmission, message services, and basic data communication services or PSTN
and ISDN services.

Emergency Number Service of GSM

This service is free of cost and essential for all the service providers. Emergency
number service is of the highest priority service and pre-empting other
connections. The service is automatically set up with the closest emergency center.

Short Message Service

SMS is a simple short message service. It allows 160 characters of messages.
SMS services do not use the standard data channel of GSM. It uses unused
capacity in the channels.

Supplementary services
In addition to teleservices and bearer services, GSM providers provide various
supplementary services.
Examples o supplementary services are as follows-
1. Identification
2. Call redirection
3. Forward incoming calls
4. Close user group service – Through company-specific GSM sub-network facility
only members of a group can communicate.
5. Multi-party communication service.
 GSM System Architecture
The GSM architecture is made up of three central systems. The following are the
primary components of the GSM architecture:

The network switching system (NSS)

 The mobile station (MS)
 The base station system (BSS)
 The operations and support system (OSS)
1. The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): NSS is a GSM element that
provides flow management and call processing for mobile devices moving between
base stations. The switching system consists of the functional units listed below.
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC):
The core network space of the GSM network architecture is occupied by the
Mobile Switching Center. For users of fixed or mobile networks, including cell
phones, the MSC facilitates call switching. Call forwarding to a roaming user,
location updates, registration, and other cellular services are also monitored by it.
Radio Subsystem (RSS): Radio subsystem As the name implies, the radio
subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the mobile stations (MS)
and the base station subsystem (BSS).
Home Location Register (HLR):
It's a collection of data pieces meant for subscription management and storage.
Each customer's information is provided, along with their most recent location.
Due to its ability to maintain permanent records about users, the HLR is
recognized as the most important database. An individual is added to an operator's
HLR when they acquire a membership from that operator.
Visitor Location Register (VLR):
The VLR database offers subscriber data that the MSC needs in order to deliver
passenger services. A temporary copy of the majority of the data kept in the HLR
is included in this. Although it can be used independently, the visitor location
register is typically integrated into the MSC.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
It is the section that establishes whether or not a specific piece of mobile
equipment can be used on the system. Each working mobile device on the system
is listed here, and each one is identified by its unique International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) number.
Authentication Center (AuC):
To guarantee the user's identification and the privacy of each call, the AUC is a
unit that provides encryption and verification factors. The user's private key is
stored on the SIM card in a secure file called the verification center. The AUC
protects network operators from the many forms of fraud that are common in
today's cellular environment.
2. The Mobile Station (MS):
A SIM card controls the radio transceiver, digital signal processor, and display of a
mobile phone that is part of a system. The SIM card and hardware are the two most
important components of the MS. Cell phones are parts of a GSM mobile
communications network that the operator works and supervises, and they are the
device that most people associate with the term "mobile station" (MS).
As of right now, their powers have increased considerably yet their size has
decreased dramatically. Furthermore, there has been a noticeable improvement in
the intervals between charges.

3. The Base Station System (BSS):

It serves as a connection between the network subsystem and the mobile station. It
consists of two parts:

The Base Transceiver System (BTS): The radio transceivers in the cell are
located in the BTS, which is also in charge of radio connection protocols with the
MS. In a large metro region, businesses may deploy a sizable number of BTSs. The
BTS is made up of antennas and transceivers in each network cell. Every BTS has
one to sixteen transceivers, depending on the consumer density of the cell.

The Base Station Controller (BSC): One or more BTS(s)' radio resources are
managed by the BSC. Handovers and radio channel setup are managed by this. The
link that is visible between mobile and MSC is the BSC. It assigns and releases MS
time slots and frequency bands. The BSC also transmits the BSS and MS power
within its authority and is in charge of inter cell handover.

4. The Operation and Support System (OSS): A component of the overall GSM
network architecture is the operation support system (OSS). The BSC and NSS
components are related to this. The GSM network and BSS traffic load are mostly
managed by the OSS. The system's financial burden is reduced as a few
maintenance tasks are moved to the base transceiver stations as the number of BS
rises as a result of the customer population scaling. Having a network overview
and helping different services and maintenance groups with their regular
maintenance plans are the key goals of OSS.
 Handoff in Cellular
Telecommunication

Definition

In cellular communications, the handoff is the process of transferring an active call

or data session from one cell in a cellular network or from one channel to another.
In satellite communications, it is the process of transferring control from one earth
station to another. Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of interruption of
service to a caller or a data session user. Handoff is also called handover.
Types of Handoffs

There are two types of handoffs −

Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the connection occurs while
switching from one cell to another. The radio links from the mobile station to the
existing cell is broken before establishing a link with the next cell. It is generally
an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break before make” policy.

Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio links are
added and removed to the mobile station. This ensures that during the handoff, no
break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It is a “make before
break” policy.
Channel Allocation Strategies in Computer
Network
Channel Allocation means to allocate the available channels to the cells in a
cellular system. When a user wants to make a call request then by using channel
allocation strategies their requests are fulfilled. Channel Allocation Strategies are
designed in such a way that there is efficient use of frequencies, time slots and
bandwidth.

Types of Channel Allocation Strategies:

These are Fixed, Dynamic, Hybrid Channel Allocation and Borrowing Channel
Allocation as explained as following below.

Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):

Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice

channels are allocated to the cells. Once the channels are allocated to the specific
cells then they cannot be changed. In FCA channels are allocated in a manner that
maximize Frequency reuse.

In cell A 20 Channels or Voice channels are allocated. If all channels are occupied
and user make a call then the call is blocked. Borrowing Channels handles this
type of problem. This cell borrow channels from other cells.
Advantages :

Simple to implement and manage

Does not require complex equipment or algorithms.

Disadvantages :

Limited channel utilization as unused channels remain unused.

Susceptible to interference and congestion.

Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in which channels are not permanently
allocated to the cells. When a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS)
send that request to the Mobile Station Center (MSC) for the allocation of channels
or voice channels. This way the likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic
increases more channels are assigned and vice-versa.

Advantage:

1. Efficient use of available bandwidth.

2. Reduces call blocking and improves call quality.

3. Allows for dynamic allocation of resources.

Disadvantage:

Requires more complex equipment and algorithms.

May result in call drops or poor quality if resources are not available.

Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA):

Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of both Fixed Channel Allocation

(FCA) and Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA). The total number of channels or
voice channels are divided into fixed and dynamic set. When a user make a call
then first fixed set of channels are utilized but if all the fixed sets are busy then
dynamic sets are used. The main purpose of HCA is to work efficiently under
heavy traffic and to maintain a minimum S/I.
Provides the benefits of both FCA and DCA.

Allows for dynamic allocation of resources while maintaining predictable call

quality and reliability.

Requires more complex equipment and algorithms than FCA.

May not provide the same level of efficiency as pure DCA.

When a cell experiences high traffic demand and all of its channels are occupied, it
can borrow channels from neighboring cells that are not being used at that time.
The borrowed channels are assigned to the busy cell and are used to support the
additional traffic demand. Once the demand subsides, the borrowed channels are
released and returned to their home cell. BCA can be implemented manually or
automatically using algorithms or policies but the main disadvantage is that if the
borrowed channel is reclaimed by the original cell the call drop may occur.

Advantage:

Efficient use of available bandwidth.

Reduces call blocking and improves call quality.

Disadvantage:

Increases interference between cells.

Can cause call drops if borrowed channels are reclaimed by the home cell.

CDMA: CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is basically a

channel access method and is also an example of multiple access. Multiple access
basically means that information by several transmitters can be sent simultaneously
onto a single communication channel.

There are multiple users which are provided or assigned variant CDMA
codes and thus the users can access the entire band of frequencies or the whole
bandwidth. This method does not limit the frequency range of the user. Hence,
with the help of CDMA, multiple users can share a band of frequencies without
any kind of undue interference between them. CDMA makes the use of spectrum
technology along with analog to digital conversion(ADC). It is thus used by
various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it is used for mobile
communication.

History

CDMA technology has been in use for a long time. In 1935, the first time this
subject was published by Dmitry Ageev. CDMA also came in use during the time
of World War-II in order to stop the efforts of jamming transmissions. Thus it
made its application in the military field and was used in anti-jamming, ranging,
etc. It was used in 1957 by Leonid Kupriyanovich while he was making a model of
automatic wearable mobile phone. Finally, in the year 1993, the
Telecommunications Industry Association(TIA) approved the standards for CDMA
technology. 16 million subscribers were recorded to use the CDMA systems in
September 1998. Currently, CDMA is being supported by 22 countries.
Characteristics of CDMA

It allows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides improved data
and voice communication capacity.

A full spectrum is used by all the channels in CDMA.

CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the interference and
noise and to thus improve the network quality.

CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique codes in order to
secure its signals.

In CDMA systems all the cells can thus use the same frequency.

CDMA systems have a soft capacity. Thus there is no particular limit to the
number of users in a CDMA system but with increase in the number of users the
performance degrades.

GPRS:General packet radio service (GPRS) is defined as a mobile

communications standard that operates on 2G and 3G cellular networks to enable
moderately high-speed data transfers using packet-based technologies.
 How GPRS Establishes a Connected Mobile Environment for IoT Applications

General packet radio service (GPRS) is essentially a packet-switching technology

that allows information to be transmitted via mobile networks. This is utilized for
internet connectivity, multimedia messaging service, and other types of data
transmission. GPRS is supported by GPRS cell phones, as well as laptops and
handheld devices equipped with GPRS modems. Subscribers have reported
downstream bandwidths of up to 80 Kbps.

GPRS could be employed to facilitate connections related to Internet protocols

which provide a set of functions including commercial and enterprise applications.
Before the transmission, the information is split into individual packets and routed
through the core network and radio. At the receiver’s end, the data is reattached.

The global system for mobile communications (GSM) is the primary standard for
the second generation (2G) cellular network, while GPRS is an improved version.
GPRS is not like GSM’s short messaging service (GSM-SMS), which has a
message length limit of 160 bytes. GPRS has a theoretical maximum speed of 115
kbps, although most networks operate at roughly 35 kbps. GPRS is sometimes
known as 2.5G unofficially. It’s a third-generation route to gain availability on the
internet.

GPRS can operate from either symmetric or asymmetric configuration, whereas

frequency for either direction is determined by which one of the 12 multisport
provider classes are chosen. The number of time slots for every path is determined
by the multisport service class, for every time slot propping up a theoretical
connection speed of 21.4 kbps. One of the most basic is service class 1, which
allows a one-time slot for each path. Service class 12 is by far the most proficient,
with four-time slots in every direction.

GSM-IP stands for global-system mobile communications internet protocol and is

also another name for GPRS. It ensures that customers are connected, making
audio calls and browsing the internet. This method enables packet radio access to
even time division multiple access (TDMA) customers. GPRS also allows network
operators to deploy an IP-based core architecture for integrated audio and data
applications, which can be used and improved for 3G networks.