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Unit – II
Polygon: Windowing & Clipping

1. Polygons

1.1 Introduction to polygon

Polygons are fundamental shapes in geometry and computer graphics, defined as a flat, two-
dimensional shape with straight sides that are fully connected, forming a closed loop. Polygons
can have any number of sides, but they must have at least three.

Key Characteristics of Polygons:

1. Vertices: The points where the sides of the polygon meet are called vertices.

2. Edges: The straight lines connecting the vertices are called edges or sides.

3. Interior Angles: The angles inside the polygon formed by the edges are called interior
angles.

1.2 Types of Polygons

1. Convex Polygons:

A convex polygon is a polygon in which all interior angles are less than 180 degrees. This
implies that if you draw a line between any two points inside the polygon, the line will never
exit the polygon. Essentially, a convex polygon has no indentations or "inward" curves.
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Characteristics of Convex Polygons:

 All interior angles are less than 180 degrees.

 Any line segment drawn between two points inside the polygon lies entirely within the
polygon.

 No internal angle "points inward."

 Examples include regular polygons like equilateral triangles, squares, and regular
hexagons.

2. Concave Polygons:

A concave polygon is a polygon that has at least one interior angle greater than 180 degrees.
This means that the polygon has at least one "indentation" or inward curve. In other words, a
concave polygon will have at least one line segment that, when drawn between two points
inside the polygon, will pass outside of the polygon.

Characteristics of Concave Polygons:

 At least one interior angle is greater than 180 degrees.

 There exists at least one line segment that can be drawn between two points inside the
polygon that passes outside of it.

 The polygon has a "dent" or inward-pointing vertex.

 Examples include a star shape or an arrowhead shape.

1.3 Inside Test

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The Even-Odd Method and the Winding Number Method are two algorithms used to
determine whether a given point lies inside or outside a polygon.

1. Even-Odd Method:

The Even-Odd Method, also known as the Ray Casting Method, is based on counting how
many times a ray extending from the point in question, intersects the edges of the polygon.

How It Works:

 Draw an imaginary ray from the point in question in any direction.

 Count the number of times this ray intersects the edges of the polygon.

o If the number of intersections is odd, the point is inside the polygon.

o If the number of intersections is even, the point is outside the polygon.

In the figure, the line segment from ‘A’ passes single edge and hence point A is inside the
polygon. The point B is also inside the polygon as the line segment from B crosses three (odd)
edges. But point C is outside the polygon it as the line segment from C crosses two (even)
edges.

But this even-odd test fails when the intersection point is a vertex.

To handle this case, we have to make few modifications.

We must look at the other end points of the two segments of a polygon which meet at this
vertex. If these points lie on the same side of the constructed line AP, then the intersection point
counts as an even number of intersections. But if they lie on the opposite side of constructed
line AP, then the intersection points count as a single intersection.
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As we can see the line segment A`P` intersects at M which is a vertex and L & Z are the other
end points of the two segments meeting at M. L & Z lie on same side of the line segment A’P’,
so the count is taken as even.

2. Winding Number Method:

There is another alternative method for defining a polygons’ interior point is called the winding
number method. Conceptually, one can stretch a piece of elastic between the point (P) to be
checked and the point on the polygon boundary.

How It Works:

 Imagine traversing the boundary of the polygon in a consistent direction

 For each edge of the polygon, determine how it "winds" around the point:

o If the edge starts below the line segment and finishes above, the edge has
direction number ‘−1’

o If the edge starts from above the line segment & finishes below the line, the
edge has direction number ‘1’.

 The winding number is the sum of all the direction numbers.

 After considering all edges:

o If the winding number is non-zero, the point is inside the polygon.

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o If the winding number is zero, the point is outside the polygon.

Consider that an elastic is tied to point (P) to be checked, and the other end of the elastic is
sliding along the boundary of the polygon until it has made one complete circuit. Then we
check how many times the elastic has been wound around the point of intersection. If it is
wound at-least once, point is inside. If there is no net winding then point is outside.

In this method, instead of just counting the intersections, we give each boundary line crossed
a direction number, and we sum these directions numbers. The direction number indicates the
direction of the polygon edge that was drawn relative to the line segment we constructed for
the test.

Example: To test a point (xi, yi), let us consider a horizontal line segment y = yi which runs
from outside the polygon to (xi, yi). We find all the sides which crossed this line segment.
Now there are 2 ways for side to cross, the side could be drawn starting below end, cross it and
end above the line. In this case we can give direction numbers – 1, to the side or the edge could
start above the line & finish below it in this case, given a direction 1. The sum of the direction
numbers for the sides that cross the constructed horizontal line segment yield the “Winding
Number” for the point.

If the winding number is non-zero, the point is inside the polygon, else, the point is outside the
polygon.

In the above figure, the line segment crosses 4 edges having different direction numbers:

1, -1, 1 & −1 respectively, then:

Winding Number = 1 + (-1) + 1 + (-1) = 0

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So, the point P is outside the Polygon. The edge has direction number −1 because it starts below
the line segment & finishes above. Similarly, edge has direction number +1 because it starts
from above the line segment & finishes below the line segment (See the directions in the
figure).

2. Polygon Filling
2.1 Flood fill / Seed fill

Flood Fill is a classic algorithm used in computer graphics for filling an area bounded by a
polygon or another region with a specific color. It is commonly used in paint programs and
graphic editors for operations like filling enclosed areas with a solid color or pattern.

2.1.1 How Flood Fill Works:

Flood Fill works by starting from a seed point (a pixel inside the area to be filled) and then
spreading out to fill neighboring pixels that meet a specific criterion (such as having the same
color as the seed point).

2.1.2 Types of Flood Fill Algorithms:

1. 4-Connected Flood Fill:

o This method checks the four neighboring pixels (up, down, left, right) of the
current pixel.
o The algorithm recursively or iteratively fills the neighboring pixels if they
match the target color (the color to be replaced).
o This approach is simple but might leave gaps if the region to be filled has
diagonal connections.

Steps:
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1. Start from the seed point.

2. If the pixel's color matches the target color, change it to the fill color.
3. Move to the neighboring pixels (left, right, up, down) and repeat the process.
4. Stop when all connected pixels with the target color are filled.

2. 8-Connected Flood Fill:

o This method is similar to the 4-connected method but additionally checks the
diagonal neighbors.

o The algorithm ensures that all pixels connected diagonally, as well as

horizontally and vertically, are filled.

Steps:

1. Start from the seed point.

2. If the pixel's color matches the target color, change it to the fill color.
3. Move to all eight neighboring pixels (left, right, up, down, and the four diagonals)
and repeat the process.
4. Stop when all connected pixels with the target color are filled.

2.1.3 Advantages of 8-Connected Flood Fill over the 4-Connected Flood Fill

Comprehensive Diagonal Coverage: The 8-Connected Method considers diagonal neighbors

in addition to horizontal and vertical ones, ensuring that all connected pixels, including those
diagonally adjacent, are filled.

More Complete Fill for Irregular Shapes: This method is better suited for filling irregular
shapes, especially those with diagonal components, ensuring that no gaps are left unfilled.

Better Handling of Thin Lines and Corners: The 8-Connected Method can accurately fill
thin lines and sharp corners, which might be missed or only partially filled by the 4-Connected
Method.

Natural and Accurate Fill Appearance: The fill produced by the 8-Connected Method tends
to look more natural and complete, especially in complex regions, leading to a smoother and
more accurate representation of the filled area.
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Avoidance of Unintended Gaps: By considering diagonal connections, the 8-Connected

Method prevents the creation of unintended gaps that might occur in regions where diagonal
pixels are part of the shape or boundary.

Example:

Imagine filling a region using the 4-Connected Method, the algorithm would only fill the
central pixels, leaving the diagonally connected parts unfilled as shown in the figure below.
The 8-Connected Method, however, would fill the entire shape, as it takes diagonal connections
into account as well.

2.2 Boundary Fill

Boundary Fill is a polygon filling algorithm used in computer graphics to fill a region defined
by a specific boundary. The algorithm starts from a seed point inside the region and spreads
outwards, filling pixels until it reaches the boundary. The boundary is typically defined by a
specific color, and the algorithm stops filling when it encounters this boundary color.

How Boundary Fill Works:

1. Seed Point: The algorithm begins at a seed point, which is a pixel inside the area to be
filled.

2. Filling Process:

o The algorithm checks the color of the current pixel. If the pixel is not the
boundary color and not the fill color, it changes the pixel to the fill color.

o The algorithm then recursively or iteratively moves to the neighboring pixels

and repeats the process.

3. Boundary Detection:
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o The filling process continues until the algorithm encounters the boundary color,
at which point it stops filling in that direction.

Types of Boundary Fill:

1. 4-Connected Boundary Fill:

o This method checks and fills the four neighboring pixels (left, right, up, down)
of the current pixel.

o It is simple but may leave gaps if the boundary is diagonal.

Steps:

1. Start from the seed point.

2. If the current pixel's color is neither the boundary color nor the fill color, change it
to the fill color.
3. Move to the left, right, up, and down neighbors and repeat the process.
4. Stop when all connected pixels within the boundary are filled.

2. 8-Connected Boundary Fill:

o This method checks and fills the eight neighboring pixels (left, right, up, down,
and the four diagonals).

o This approach ensures that all areas within the boundary, including diagonally
connected regions, are filled.

Steps:

1. Start from the seed point.

2. If the current pixel's color is neither the boundary color nor the fill color, change it
to the fill color.
3. Move to the eight neighboring pixels and repeat the process.
4. Stop when all connected pixels within the boundary are filled.

Example: Imagine you have a region bounded by a black line, and the area inside this boundary
is white. You want to fill this white area with red.
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The 4-connected method fails to fill this figure completely. This figure will be efficiently filled
using the 8-connected technique.

2.3 Comparison between Flood-fill and Boundary-fill Algorithm

Sr No. Flood-fill Algorithm Boundary-fill Algorithm

1 It can process the image containing It can only process the image containing
more than one boundary colors. single boundary color.
2 Flood-fill algorithm is Boundary-fill algorithm is faster than the
comparatively slower than the Flood-fill algorithm.
Boundary-fill algorithm.
3 In Flood-fill algorithm a random In Boundary-fill algorithm Interior points
color can be used to paint the are painted by continuously searching for
interior portion then the old one is the boundary color.
replaced with a new one.
4 It requires huge amount of memory. Memory consumption is relatively low in
Boundary-fill algorithm.
5 Flood-fill algorithms are simple and The complexity of Boundary-fill algorithm
efficient. is high.

2.2 Scan-Line Fill

Scan-Line Fill is a widely used polygon filling algorithm in computer graphics, especially for
rendering filled polygons on raster displays. It operates by processing the polygon one
horizontal line (or scan line) at a time, determining which parts of the scan line lie inside the
polygon, and then filling those parts with the desired color.
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How Scan-Line Fill Works:

The algorithm works by considering the intersections of the polygon's edges with each scan
line. Here's the step-by-step process:

1. Initialization:

o Determine the bounding box of the polygon (i.e., the minimum and maximum
x and y coordinates that enclose the polygon).

o Start with the lowest y-coordinate of the bounding box and process each scan
line up to the highest y-coordinate.

2. Edge Intersections:

o For each scan line, determine the intersection points between the scan line and
the edges of the polygon.

o This is typically done by solving the line equation for each edge of the polygon
to find where the scan line intersects the edge.

3. Sort Intersections:

o The intersection points on the scan line are sorted by their x-coordinates.

4. Filling Between Intersections:

o After sorting, the algorithm fills the pixels between pairs of intersection points.

o If there are multiple pairs of intersections, alternate between filling and not
filling the sections, because only the even-numbered intervals (inside the
polygon) need to be filled.

5. Handling Special Cases:

o If a scan line passes exactly through a vertex, careful handling is required to

avoid counting the vertex twice, which could lead to an incorrect fill.

o Shared vertices or edges that lie on the scan line should only be considered once.

Example of Scan-Line Fill:

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Step 1: Find out the ymin and ymax from the given polygon.

Step 2: Scan Line intersects with each edge of the polygon from ymin to ymax. Name each
intersection point of the polygon. As per the figure shown above, they are named as p0, p1, p2,
p3 .

Step 3: Sort the intersection point in the increasing order of x coordinate i.e. (p0, p1), (p1, p2)
and (p2, p3).

Step 4: Fill all those pairs of coordinates that are inside polygons and ignore the alternate pairs.

3. Windowing and Clipping

3.1 Viewport Transformations

Viewing transformations are a set of operations in computer graphics that map a scene from
world coordinates to a device's screen coordinates. These transformations define how a 3D
scene is projected onto a 2D viewing surface (like a computer screen), allowing us to view a
3D object from different perspectives. The process involves several key steps:

Steps in Viewing Transformation:

1. Modeling Transformation:

o Transforms the object coordinates to world coordinates. This step involves

translating, scaling, and rotating the object within the world coordinate system.

2. Viewing Transformation:

o Transforms the world coordinates to viewing coordinates. This aligns the scene
with the viewer's position and orientation.

3. Projection Transformation:
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o Projects the viewing coordinates onto the projection plane, creating a 2D

representation of the 3D scene.

4. Clipping and Normalization:

o Removes parts of the scene outside the view volume and normalizes the
coordinates within a standard range.

5. Viewport Transformation:

o Maps the normalized coordinates to the device's viewport, where they are finally
displayed.

General Terms:

 World Coordinate: It is the Cartesian coordinate w.r.t which we define the diagram,
like xwmin, xwmax, ywmin, ywmax.

 Device Coordinate: It is the screen coordinate where the objects are to be displayed,
like xvmin, xvmax, yvmin, yvmax.

 Window: It is the area on the world coordinate selected for display.

 Viewport: It is the area on the device coordinate where graphics is to be displayed.

3.2 2D Clipping

2D Clipping is a process in computer graphics that involves restricting the rendering of objects
or parts of objects (like lines, polygons, or text) to a specific rectangular region known as the
clipping window or clipping rectangle.
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Any part of an object outside this clipping window is "clipped" away, meaning it is not
displayed.

The purpose of 2D clipping is to ensure that only the visible portions of objects are drawn on
the screen, which optimizes rendering and maintains focus on the relevant part of the scene.

3.2.1 Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm

The Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm is a popular method used in computer

graphics for clipping a line segment to a rectangular clipping window.

Description:

In this algorithm, we are given 9 regions on the screen. Out of which one region is of the
window and the rest 8 regions are around it given by 4-digit binary. The division of the regions
are based on (xmax, ymax) and (xmin, ymin).

The central part is the viewing region or window, all the lines which lie within this region are
completely visible. A region code is always assigned to the endpoints of the given line.

To check whether the line is visible or not.

Formula to check binary digits: TBRL which can be defined as top, bottom, right, and left
accordingly.
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Steps of the Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:

1. Assign Outcodes:

 Compute the outcodes for both endpoints of the line segment.

2. Line Completely Inside:

 If both outcodes are 0000, the line segment is completely inside the clipping window,
and the line can be accepted without further processing.

3. Line Completely Outside:

 If the logical AND operation between the two outcodes is not 0000, the line segment
is entirely outside the clipping window, and the line can be rejected.

4. Line Partially Inside:

 If the line cannot be trivially accepted or rejected, the line intersects the clipping
window, and further processing is needed to find the intersection points.

 Determine which bit is set in the outcode of the point outside the clipping window and
calculate the intersection of the line with the corresponding clipping boundary.

 Replace the outside endpoint with the intersection point and update its outcode.

 Repeat the process until the line is either trivially accepted or rejected.
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Example: Let ABCD be the rectangular window with A(20, 20), B(90, 20), C(90, 70), and
D(20, 70). Find region codes for endpoints and use the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm to clip
the lines: (i) P1 P2 with P1 (10, 30), P 2 (80, 90).

P1 = 0001, P2 = 1000

AND of P1 and P2 = 0000

Hence, the line is partially visible.

Slope, 𝑚 = = = =

For 1st intersection point I1:

y = m(x − x1) + y1

y = m(xmin − x1) + y1

y = 0.857(20 – 10) + 30 = 8.57 + 30

y = 38.57 = 39

I1 (xmin, y) = (20, 39)

For 2nd intersection point:

1
𝑥= (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) + 𝑥
𝑚
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1
𝑥= (𝑦 −𝑦 )+𝑥
𝑚

1 40
𝑥= (70 − 30) + 10 = + 10
0.857 0.857

𝑥 = 56.67

I2 (x, ymax) = (57, 70)

3.2.2 Sutherland Hodgeman Polygon Clipping Algorithm

The Sutherland-Hodgman Polygon Clipping Algorithm is a widely used method in

computer graphics for clipping a polygon against a rectangular clipping window. This
algorithm processes each edge of the clipping window and modifies the vertices of the
polygon to ensure that only the portion inside the clipping window is retained.

Steps of the Sutherland-Hodgman Polygon Clipping Algorithm:

The algorithm processes the polygon vertices by clipping the polygon against each of the four
clipping window edges (left, right, bottom, and top) one by one. After processing against one
edge, the resulting polygon is used as input for the next edge.

1. Read coordinates of all vertices of the polygon.

2. Read coordinates of the clipping window
3. Consider the left edge of the window
4. Compare the vertices of each edge of the polygon, individually with the clipping plane
5. Save the resulting intersections and vertices in the new list of vertices according to four
possible relationships between the edge and the clipping boundary discussed earlier.
6. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for remaining edges of the clipping window. Each time the
resultant list of vertices is successively passed to process the next edge of the clipping
window.
7. Stop.

There are four possible cases for any given edge of given polygon against current clipping
edge.
1. Both vertices are inside: Only the second vertex is added to the output list.
2. First vertex is outside while second one is inside: Both the point of intersection of
the edge with the clip boundary and the second vertex are added to the output list.
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3. First vertex is inside while second one is outside: Only the point of intersection of
the edge with the clip boundary is added to the output list.
4. Both vertices are outside: No vertices are added to the output list.
Example: Let us consider a polygon and the clipping window as shown in figure ‘Before
Clipping’.

The vertices of the original polygon are V1, V2, V3, V4, V5. After clipping each boundary, the
new vertices are given in figure ‘After Clipping’.

After Left Clipping: V1', V2', V3, V4, V5, V1

After Right Clipping: V1', V2', V3, V4, V5, V1

After Top Clipping: V1', V2', V3, V3', V4' V4, V5, V1

After Bottom Clipping: V1', V2', V3, V3', V4' V4, V5, V5' V1

3.2.3 Weiler Atherton Polygon Clipping Algorithm

The Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping Algorithm is a versatile and robust algorithm used
for clipping polygons against a convex or concave clipping window.

Unlike simpler polygon clipping algorithms like Sutherland-Hodgman, which are limited to
convex clipping windows, the Weiler-Atherton algorithm can handle both convex and concave
clipping regions.

When the clipped polygons have two or more separate sections, then it is the concave polygon
handled by this algorithm. The vertex-processing procedures for window boundaries are
modified so that concave polygon is displayed.
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Let the clipping window be initially called clip polygon and the polygon to be clipped the
subject polygon. We start with an arbitrary vertex of the subject polygon and trace around its
border in the clockwise direction until an intersection with the clip polygon is encountered:

1. If the edge enters the clip polygon, record the intersection point and continue to trace the
subject polygon.

2. If the edge leaves the clip polygon, record the intersection point and make a right turn to
follow the clip polygon in the same manner (i.e., treat the clip polygon as subject polygon and
the subject polygon as clip polygon and proceed as before).

Whenever our path of traversal forms a sub-polygon, we output the sub-polygon as part of the
overall result. We then continue to trace the rest of the original subject polygon from a recorded
intersection point that marks the beginning of a not-yet traced edge or portion of an edge. The
algorithm terminates when the entire border of the original subject polygon has been traced
exactly once.

Example:
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The number in fig (a) indicates the order in which the edges and portion of edges are traced.
We begin at the starting vertex and continue along the same edge (from 1 to 2) of the subject
polygon as it enters the clip polygon.
As we move along the edge that is leaving the clip polygon, we make a right turn (from 4 to
5) onto the clip polygon, which is now considered the subject polygon.
Following the same logic leads to the next right turn (from 5 to 6) onto the current clip
polygon, this is the original subject polygon.
With the next step done (from 7 to 8) in the same way, we have a sub-polygon for output in
fig (b).
We then resume our traversal of the original subject polygon from the recorded intersection
point where we first changed our course.
Going from 9 to 10 to 11 produces no output.
After skipping the already traversed 6 and 7, we continue with 12 and 13 and come to an end.
The fig (b) is the final result.

3.4 Limitations of the Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm:

1. Limited to Rectangular Clipping Windows:

o The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm is specifically designed for clipping against

rectangular clipping windows. It cannot be directly applied to clipping windows
of other shapes, such as polygons, circles, or arbitrary regions. For non-
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rectangular clipping, different algorithms like the Liang-Barsky algorithm or

the Cyrus-Beck algorithm might be more appropriate.

2. Complexity with Large Numbers of Line Segments:

o The algorithm becomes less efficient when dealing with a very large number of
line segments, especially if many segments are partially outside the clipping
window. Each partially outside segment requires intersection calculations,
which can increase computational overhead.

3. Does Not Handle Curved Lines or Splines:

o The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm is designed specifically for straight line

segments. It does not handle curved lines, splines, or other complex shapes. To
clip such shapes, additional algorithms or techniques would be required.

4. Inefficiency in Special Cases:

o In cases where the line segment is very close to the boundaries of the clipping
window but extends outside on both ends, the algorithm may need to perform
multiple intersection calculations. This can make the algorithm less efficient in
such edge cases compared to algorithms like Liang-Barsky, which can handle
such cases more efficiently using parametric line equations.

5. Potential for Numerical Precision Issues:

o When performing intersection calculations, especially with floating-point

arithmetic, there may be precision issues that can lead to inaccuracies in
determining the exact intersection points. This can affect the correctness of the
clipping in some cases.

6. Handling of Degenerate Cases:

o The algorithm might face challenges with degenerate cases, such as when the
line segment is reduced to a single point, or when both endpoints of the line
segment coincide with the clipping boundary.

3.5 Significance of Region Codes (Outcodes)

Region Codes (or Outcodes) are a critical component of the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm.
These are 4-bit binary codes assigned to each endpoint of the line segment based on its position
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relative to the clipping window. The significance of region codes lies in their role in efficiently
determining whether a line segment is inside, outside, or partially within the clipping window.

Key Points About Region Codes:

1. Division of Space:

o The clipping space is divided into nine regions based on the clipping window:
inside, left, right, above, below, and the four corner regions (top-left, top-right,
bottom-left, bottom-right).

o Each of the nine regions corresponds to a specific 4-bit region code.

2. Bitwise Representation:

o Each bit in the 4-bit code represents a position relative to the clipping window:

 Bit 1 (Left): 1 if the point is to the left of the window.

 Bit 2 (Right): 1 if the point is to the right of the window.

 Bit 3 (Below): 1 if the point is below the window.

 Bit 4 (Above): 1 if the point is above the window.

o For example:

 A point inside the window has a region code of 0000.

 A point to the left and above the window has a region code of 1001.

3. Acceptance and Rejection of Line Segment:

o If both endpoints of the line segment have a region code of 0000 (indicating that
both points are inside the clipping window), the line segment can be trivially
accepted without further processing.

o If the bitwise logical AND of the region codes of the two endpoints is non-zero
(indicating that both endpoints share at least one region outside the clipping
window), the line segment can be trivially rejected.

4. Efficient Clipping:

o The algorithm uses the region codes to determine which boundary of the
clipping window to intersect with first when clipping partially visible line
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segments. This reduces unnecessary calculations and speeds up the clipping

process.

5. Significance in Edge Cases:

o Region codes help in handling edge cases efficiently, such as when one endpoint
of the line is inside the window and the other is outside. The region code guides
the algorithm in finding the correct intersection point and updating the line
segment accordingly.