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Stabilized Municipal Solid Waste as an Alternative to Natural Sand in Paver

Block Construction

Article in Process Safety and Environmental Protection · December 2023

DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2023.12.032

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 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Process Safety and Environmental Protection

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/process-safety-and-environmental-protection

Stabilized municipal solid waste as an alternative to natural sand in paver

block construction
Sonal Saluja a, Prakash Somani b, *, Arun Gaur b, Sanjay Mundra c, Kafeel Ahmad d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Manav Rachna Campus Rd, Gadakhor Basti Village, Sector 43,
Faridabad, Haryana 121004, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jawahar Lal Nehru Marg, Jhalana Gram, Malviya Nagar, Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302017,
India
c
Construction, Development and Research, National Council for Cement and Building Materials, 34, Km Stone, Delhi-Mathura Road (NH-2), Sector 4, Ballabhgarh,
Faridabad, Haryana, 121004, India
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, Okhla, New Delhi 110025, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A large amount of stabilized municipal solid waste (SMSW) obtained in landfill mining operations constitutes
Stabilized municipal solid waste about 60–70% of total mining waste. In this study, attempts were made to use SMSW in paver block construction,
Paver block a unique solution for unpaved urban surfaces considering its ease of handling and low cost. The mechanical and
Concrete
durability properties of the paver block, along with microstructure and mineralogical analysis, were investigated
Compressive strength
in which various dosages of SMSW vary from 10–50% by the weight of natural sand. The results of various tests,
Abrasion
Microstructure i.e., compressive, flexural strength, abrasion resistance, water absorption, and analysis of microstructure and
mineralogical, revealed that SMSW as a partial replacement of natural sand up to 30% replacement could be
satisfactorily used in the paver block construction, especially in the low volume roads. Also, the replacements,
40% and 50%, can be used for footpaths, cycle paths, garden parks, domestic drives, and embankment slopes.
The geometrical properties and visual aspects were checked to confirm the production standardization of the
paver blocks. All the samples have shown promising results in respect of all dimensions. The statistical analysis
exhibited that the SMSW had a significant effect on the compressive and flexural strength of the paver block.
Therefore, incorporating SMSW as a natural sand replacement will be a sustainable and economical construction
solution for light-traffic roads. It also promotes a ‘Circular economy’ as it recycles the stabilized municipal solid
waste.

1. Introduction special concrete, asphalt mix concrete, and thin surface layers (Di
Mascio et al., 2019). One such technology is “Paver Block Construction”,
In recent times, a steady upsurge in the rate of urbanization and which can be considered better suited for the job as it is economically
industrialization has led to the growth and expansion of road networks viable, technically feasible, and environmentally sound (Mendoza et al.,
for varied purposes, such as for the movement of motorized vehicles, 2012). Furthermore, given the possible use of various materials and
cycle tracks, pedestrian paths, footways, and parking areas (Lyu et al., different shapes of paver blocks, its application has increased to a large
2017). Today, roads play a very significant role in a person’s daily life extent in the construction industry (Hengl and Füssl, 2016).
and have also established themselves as the "lifeline of the modern According to the latest studies, the construction sector emits around
economies." The need of the hour is constant research and innovation in 40% of CO2 and uses 36% of global energy (International Energy Agency
the field and finding new techniques and designs employed for forming and the United Nations Environment Programme, 2018). Necessities of
road networks that better serve the needs and strengthen its economic global warming require the construction industry to adopt various
viability. Various new technologies have emerged and have also been eco-friendly measures to reduce its carbon footprint (Van den Heede and
successful in replacing traditional asphalt pavements. Some of these De Belie, 2012) significantly. In pursuance of this, the 3Rs of waste
technologies encompass the application of interlocked paver blocks, management, i.e., reuse, reduce and recycle, seem to be a feasible

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P. Somani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.12.032
Received 30 September 2023; Received in revised form 9 December 2023; Accepted 12 December 2023
Available online 14 December 2023
0957-5820/© 2023 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 1. (a) Sample excavation (b) and (c) Coning and Quartering technique (d) Sieving of SMSW.

solution for the construction industry. It helps conserve the resources

Table 1
destined to end up in landfills (Sormunen and Kärki, 2019). Moreover,
Compositional Analysis of SMSW.
various types of research have nullified the conception that the reuse of
waste material has a bearing on construction standards (Robayo-Salazar Waste fraction Weight (kg) Percentage (%)
et al., 2017). In the past few years, various researchers have made efforts > 80 mm
to replace the natural fine aggregate with sustainable material. The Coarser particle 12.9 9.21
20-80 mm
feasibility of replacing fine aggregates with recycled waste materials
C&D waste 18.5 13.21
(ceramic tiles, waste marble, etc.) was evaluated, and positive results Paper 0.002 0.001
were confirmed for the same (Wang et al., 2018; Wattanasiriwech et al., Plastic 0.5 0.36
2009; Gencel et al., 2012). Using municipal solid waste in the con­ Textile 0.2 0.14
struction of roads, i.e., flexible pavement and rigid pavement, is also one Wood 0.6 0.43
Glass 0.9 0.64
example of a technique in compliance with sustainable and eco-friendly
Soft plastic 2 0.93
development. others 1.3 1.43
Due to this urbanization, an abrupt municipal solid waste (MSW) Total 17.14
generation growth has been observed in the last few decades. Conse­ < 20 mm
quently, the estimated MSW generated globally was around 1.3 billion Soil like material 103.1 73.64
Total 100
tons/year in 2015 and projected to upsurge around 2.2 billion tons/year
by 2025 (Agyeman et al., 2019). Solid waste management authorities
must tackle many issues in managing this waste throughout and across The utilization of SMSW as an alternative pavement material has
the country. Gencel et al (Gencel et al., 2012). replaced the fine aggre­ been limited in previous reports. However, in light of the pressing
gate with marble dust with a replacement level of 10%− 40%. They challenges presented by climate change and urban pollution, the
reported that up to 30% replacement of waste marble could be used in imperative of our era is the development of sustainable infrastructure. In
paver blocks satisfactorily. Wang et al (Wang et al., 2019). studied the accordance with this, the current study has employed SMSW with par­
effect of coarse and fine aggregate replacement with recycled concrete, ticle sizes less than 4.75 mm, obtained from the Okhla landfill site in
crushed glass, crumb rubber, and GGBS as a cement replacement in Delhi, as a substitute for natural sand in the construction of paver blocks.
paver block construction. They found that recycled aggregates reduce These paver blocks are not only sustainable and cost-effective but also
the strength and increase the water absorption, and using crushed glass hold the potential to address the serious issue of environmental degra­
with these inverses the condition. The paver block properties were dation in urban areas. This approach contributes to conserving natural
adversely affected by the crumb rubber. Jankovic et al (Jankovic et al., resources, promoting green construction practices, and offering an
2012). reported that crushed brick up to a replacement level of 32.5% economically viable solution.
and 65% could be effectively used as a substitution for natural aggregate
in paver blocks and flags as per European specifications. Tataranni et al 2. Materials and method
(Tataranni, 2019). exhibited that waste basalt powder with and without
coarse aggregate through the alkali-activation process can be effectively Under this section, the detailed specifications of materials and
used in urban pavements. Kumar and Kumar (Kumar and Kumar, 2013) methodology used has been described.
used red mud with fly ash in geo-paver block construction and stated
that the reaction rate was based on NaOH concentration. At the same
2.1. Materials
time, the mechanical properties were utterly dependent on the cumu­
lative effect of NaOH concentration, silicate solubility, and the presence
2.1.1. Stabilized municipal solid waste (SMSW)
of iron oxides. Various researchers also reported that fine fractions ob­
Solid waste is excavated from an Okhla landfill site in Delhi, carrying
tained from landfill mining vary from 69–75% of the whole composition
waste from the Central, South, West, and Najafgarh zone of Delhi. The
of the waste (Saluja et al., 2021; Parrodi et al., 2017; Somani et al., 2018;
sample was excavated at 14–15 m height around the landfill’s periphery
Kurian et al., 2004). However, after suitable treatment, i.e., thermal
using a bucket excavator of one cubic meter capacity (Fig. 1(a)). A total
treatment, washing, and blending, it can be used in roads and dams and
amount of approximately 1.10 tons were collected from different loca­
for geotechnical purposes (Parrodi et al., 2017; Somani et al., 2018;
tions. After that, the sample was reduced by using the quartering and
Kurian et al., 2004). Several investigators have investigated geotech­
coning technique, as shown in Fig. 1(b, c). The collected waste was first
nical properties and found that all the values are in the acceptable range
made consistent through proper mixing. After that, the excavated waste
(Oettle et al., 2010; Hyun et al., 2011).
was partially air-dried for 7–8 days on-site. Compositional analysis plays

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Table 2 Table 4.
Physical properties of natural sand and SMSW. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) test result of SMSW at a
Parameter Natural Sand SMSW magnification of 500 × and 2000 × is shown in Fig. 2 below. From the
result, it was observed that the SMSW has a rough surface along with an
Specific Gravity 2.61 2.47
Water Absorption (%) 1.0 14.4 irregular shape of particles. Furthermore, the agglomeration of fine
Fineness Modulus 2.52 2.04 particles can be seen in the image.
Free surface moisture (%) 0.4 1.63
2.1.2. Other constituting materials
Pozzolana Portland Cement (PPC), meeting the requirements of IS
a crucial role in assessing landfill potential. The outcomes of the on-site
1489 (BIS, 1991) (specific gravity 2.86, normal consistency 30.5%), was
compositional analysis, as presented in Table 1, offer substantial insights
used in the current study. A coarse aggregate of maximum 10 mm size
into the composition of the stabilized waste. During compositional
(specific gravity 2.72, fineness modulus 2.07, water absorption 0.50%,
analysis, the moisture content was reported as 9.8%, after that sample
free surface moisture 0.1%) and natural sand as a fine aggregate
was then processed into the screening equipment of sizes 80 mm, 20
observing Zone-II (specific gravity 2.61, water absorption 1.0%, fineness
mm, and 4.75 mm for segregating the waste into various fractions (Fig. 1
modulus 2.52, free surface moisture 0.4%) as per IS 383:2016 (BIS,
(d)). From Table 1 it can be depicted particles passing from 20 mm sieve
2016) was used. The grading curve of fine aggregate and SMSW as per
is dominating in overall waste, which more often like soil type. The
the procedure laid in IS 383:2016 (BIS, 2016) is presented in Fig. 3.
fraction passing through the 4.75 mm sieve was collected and trans­
Water conforming to the specification given in IS 456:2000 (BIS, 2000)
ported to the laboratory for subsequent research. These samples were
was used for the study. A high-performance admixture based on
oven-dried to eliminate excess moisture, and this processed material is
Poly-Carboxylic Ether was used as per IS:9103–1999 specifications (BIS,
denoted as SMSW. Physico-chemical analysis was then performed on the
1999) to achieve the desired workability.
SMSW sample to gather comprehensive insights for research purposes.
Particle size distribution of SMSW was done to inspect feasibility as
partial replacement of natural sand. SMSW confirms the gradation of 2.2. Method
Zone - III as per Indian Standard 383:2016 (BIS, 2016), specification of
fine aggregate for concrete. The physical properties of natural sand and 2.2.1. Production of Paver block
SMSW are shown in Table 2. The chemical analysis of SMSW and other Paver blocks were manufactured with a control mix and substitution
waste materials is reported in other literature, as depicted in Table 3. A of natural sand with SMSW at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The mix
comparison of heavy metals in SMSW with various standards is shown in design of M 35 grade with a water-cement ratio of 0.39 was prepared as

Table 3
Chemical properties of SMSW and reported in different literature.
Parameter Present Tataranni P (2019) Rodrigues, L. P., & De Holanda, J. Tantawy, M. A., & Mohamed, R. Oliveira, E. S., Sampaio, V. G., & Ahmad, T et al (
Study (Tataranni, 2019) N. F. (2018) (Rodrigues and De S. (2017) (Tantawy and Holanda, J. F. (2006) (Oliveira Ahmad et al.,
Holanda, 2018) Mohamed, 2017) et al., 2006) 2016).

SiO2 42.35 45.3 30.11 59.70 35.92 52.78

Al2O3 10.61 21.6 31.73 10.52 31.71 14.38
Fe2O3 4.86 8.5 10.39 4.38 12.79 5.20
CaO 7.48 8.8 0.35 6.01 0.10 4.39
MgO 1.84 2.0 - 2.20 0.37 3.08
Na2O 1.47 1.7 - 1.53 0.06 0.97
K2O 2.28 9.7 1.29 1.16 0.58 3.62
MnO 0.07 - 0.14 - 0.09 0.08
TiO2 0.68 0.2 1.06 - 1.10 0.61
LOI 5.36 - 24.93 11.10 16.93 8.96

Table 4
Heavy metal concentration in SMSW, along with permissible limits.
Parameters Present VLAREBO limit values for use VLAREBO limit values for use of Ceiling Concentration High Quality Pollutant Cumulative Pollutant
ug/g. study of soil in or as construction waste in or as construction Limits (mg/kg) *b Concentration (mg/kg) Loading Rates (kg/
material (mg/kg) *a material (mg/kg) *a *b ha) * b

Cr 78.53- 880 1250 - - -

194.01
Mn 199.32- - - - - -
822.07
Fe 8333.58- - - - - -
23670.53
Co 2.84-13.79 - - - - -
Ni 11.29- 250 250 420 420 420
26.59
Cu 106.10- 375 375 4300 1500 1500
334.40
As 3.06-8.04 250 250 75 41 41
Cd 0.64-1.80 10 10 85 39 39
Pb 57.04- 1250 1250 840 300 300
141.40
Hg 0.76-1.74 - - 57 17 17

*a adopted in Quaghebeur et al., 2013 (Quaghebeur et al., 2013)

*b USEPA for land application of sewer sludge (USEPA,1995) (USEPA)

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 2. SEM image of SMSW at magnification of (a) 500 × (b) 2000 × .

per specifications (BIS, 2000, 2019), as shown in Table 4. The required the help of a vibrator for about 60 s to attain the proper compaction. In
quantity of material was taken by weight. The mixing procedure was as total, 72 specimens each (6 specimens of control mix and each
follows: At first, all the ingredients of the mix were prepared thoroughly replacement) were prepared to test the compressive and flexural
for 3 min in a concrete mixer in dry condition. Afterward, the estimated strength, and 36 specimens each (3 specimens of control mix and each
water quantity and admixture were added and mixed well for the next replacement) for water absorption and abrasion test. All samples were
3 min. The workability of concrete mixes was determined using the demoulded after 24 h, as shown in Fig. 4(b), and cured in water at a
slump test as per specifications mentioned in IS 1199–1959 (BIS, 1959) temperature of 25 ± 2 ◦ C for 7 days and 28 days, respectively.
to check the slump value. Since the water absorption value of SMSW was
so high, there was a need to adjust the admixture dose to maintain the 2.2.2. Characterization procedure
same water-cement ratio and workability, as shown in Table 5. The samples were visually examined first and then tested to deter­
The fresh mix was placed into the rubber mould of an I-section mine their geometrical properties, density, compressive and flexural
(175 mm × 220 mm × 60 mm) as given in Fig. 4(a) and compacted with strength, abrasion resistance, water absorption, and microstructure

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of Fine aggregate and SMSW.

Table 5
Mix proportion of the paver block.
Mix Type Mix Quantity

Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) SMSW (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Admixture (%)

SMSW 0 426.7 947 829 0 166.4 0.80

SMSW 10 426.7 947 746.1 82.9 166.4 0.82
SMSW 20 426.7 947 663.2 165.8 166.4 0.84
SMSW 30 426.7 947 580.3 248.7 166.4 0.85
SMSW 40 426.7 947 497.4 331.6 166.4 0.86
SMSW 50 426.7 947 414.5 414.5 166.4 0.89

Fig. 4. (a) Moulding (b) demoulding of I-section paver block.

analysis of paver block samples as per IS specifications. the apparent compressive strength values to get the corrected one.
As per IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006), the measurements of two oppo­ Flexural strength was determined using a flexural testing machine in
site faces were taken along the length and width of the sample by using a which the sample was placed on supporting rollers of diameter in the
steel ruler. Two readings for length and three for width have been taken, range of 25 to 40 mm. After that, the load was applied through the
and their mean value was taken as nearest to 1 mm. Also, the thickness midway roller at an increasing rate of 6 KN/min until the specimen
of the specimen was taken as the mean value of four different positions failed, and flexural strength was calculated based on failure load as per
and must be closest to 1 mm. Visual inspection of the specimens were code provisions (BIS, 2006).
carried out by placing the paver blocks on the floor in the desired pattern As per the procedure in IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006) for water ab­
covering an area of 1 m2. Any visible defects like cracks and flaking were sorption determination, the samples were put into the water for 7 days
to be recorded at a distance of approximately 2 m from each edge of the and 28 days, respectively. After that, the specimens were taken out from
paved area. the water at the desired period. The initial weight of the samples was
The weight of the sample that was placed in an oven for 24 h at measured and kept in the oven for 24 h at a temperature of 107 ± 7 ◦ C
100 ◦ C and then cooled at room temperature for 5 h was then calculated and allowed to cool for some time. The oven-dried weight was calcu­
first. After that, this weight is divided by the volume of the sample to lated, and then the difference between two weights divided by the
determine the density of the paver block. oven-drying weight was calculated and multiplied by 100 to obtain the
The sample’s compressive strength was determined per the proced­ percentage of water absorption.
ure in IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006) subjected to a maximum load that the Abrasion resistance was determined by rubbing the square-shaped
specimen can sustain with an increased loading rate at 15 sample (71 mm × 71 mm) with the abrasive powder under controlled
± 3 N/mm2/min. While calculating compressive strength, a correction conditions as mentioned in IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006). The abrasive
factor for thickness and arris/chamfer of the paver block was applied to powder of weight 20 g was evenly spread over the grinding disc and was

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 5. Density at various replacement levels.

made to run at a speed of 30 rpm. The position of the sample should be

such that the testing surface is in contact with the grinding disc. The Fig. 6. Compressive strength at 7 days and 28 days.
sample was loaded centrally with 294 ± 3 N. It was turned at a 90º angle
about the vertical axis in a clockwise direction after completing one respectively, compared to SMSW 0. The density of SMSW-replaced
cycle of 22 revolutions. The same procedure was repeated until one samples was lower than that of natural sand due to the internal voids
sample completed 9 cycles. The abrasion-wearing thickness of the in SMSW samples. This result is supported by the density test results of
sample was determined by using the formula given in IS code, and lesser Djamaluddin et al (Djamaluddin et al., 2020). used processed waste tea
thickness implies better resistance against abrasion. ash (PWTA) as a partial replacement for cement.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was done to analyse
the microstructure behavior of the concrete structure on a 10 × 10 mm
3.3. Compressive strength
taken from the sample tested for compressive strength at 28 days. A Zeiss
Evo series scanning electron microscope apparatus was used for this
A total no. of 72 specimens (175 mm × 220 mm×60 mm) were cast
analysis.
with each incremental percentage of SMSW to test the compressive
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) is an efficient and effective technique that is
strength of the paver block at 7 days and 28 days. The corrected value of
employed for analysing the phase identification of a crystalline material
compressive strength was calculated after applying the correction factor
and also for understanding information on unit cell dimensions. The
to the apparent value, which was 1 for the present study. Fig. 6 shows
material so analysed is finely ground and homogenized, and the average
the effect of the replacement level of SMSW on the compressive strength
bulk composition is evaluated. It is worked on monochromatic X-rays
of the paver block. It was experimental that the control mix had high
interference and a crystalline sample. These deflected X-rays are then
compressive strength in respect of all the replacement levels. The
detected, processed, and counted. By scanning the sample through a
average compressive strength of the control mix at 7 days of curing was
range of 2θ angles, all possible deflection directions of the framework
found at 41.66 MPa and after curing at 28 days was 59.34 MPa
should be attained due to the random orientation of the powdered
(approximately a 30% increase in strength). The reduction in
material.
compressive strength is about 6.84%, 9.86%, 12.94%, 30.33%, and
38.19%, respectively, at 28 days towards the control sample, which
3. Results and discussion showed that the sample with more percentage of replacement had lower
compressive strength. The replacement of SMSW by 30% shows the
3.1. Geometrical properties and visual aspects densification of concrete due to better lubrication of concrete constitu­
ents, which reflects in the Fig. 13(b). It indicates that the strength
The dimension measurement test of the paver block is obligatory to development of SMSW 30% is in line with the control sample. Similar
confirm the production standardization of the paver block, which would behavior was observed in the samples that used fine recycled asphalt
otherwise lead to exertion in the construction of roads. As per IS aggregate (FRAA) as a replacement of natural sand and coarse recycled
15658:2006 (Annex B) (BIS, 2006) procedure, all the dimensions were asphalt aggregate (CRAA), as the natural coarse aggregate replacement
measured as an average of four samples nearest 1 mm. As per the results, varies between 25–75% (Hossiney et al., 2020).
no variation was observed in the control mix, and SMSW replaced paver Also, the higher compressive strength was observed at higher density
block samples. Furthermore, it was noted that the workability of the mix (Gencel et al., 2012) as presented in Fig. 7. Furthermore, the sample
allowed the complete filling of material in the mould and the perfect with a replacement level of up to 30% can be satisfactorily used in paver
adhesion of the concrete mix with the mould (Tataranni, 2019). So, the block construction for light traffic roads.
same procedure can be adopted for the paver block production at the
mass level in the field as per dimension perceptions.
3.4. Flexural strength
However, during a visual inspection, tiny bubbles on the paver block
surface were observed due to air entrapped during the casting proced­
A total of 72 specimens (175 mm × 220 mm×60 mm) with varying
ure, which should be improved to maintain the quality standards.
percentages of SMSW were prepared to test the flexural strength of the
paver block at 7 days and 28 days to get more precise results, as shown in
3.2. Density Fig. 8.
The tested paver block samples are shown in Fig. 9. A similar trend
The density value of the paver block at different replacement levels is was observed in flexural strength value as in the compressive strength of
presented in Fig. 5. It can be inferred from the figure that at each the paver block. The flexural strength of the paver block reduced at each
replacement level, the density value decreased, and it was lower than replacement level and reached around 9% of reduction in a more sub­
that of the control mix (SMSW 0). It fell by 1.53%, 3.42%, 4.16%, 5.48% stantial way than the control mix. The replacement of SMSW at 30%
and 6.64% for SMSW 10 to SMSW 50 with an increment of 10%, indicates the less fractured surface of concrete similar to control sample

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 7. Relation between compressive strength and density of paver block.

Fig. 8. Flexural strength at 7 days and 28 days.

Fig. 9. Flexural strength test (a) Paver block on machine (b) Fracture sample.

due to better abrasion resistance of concrete (shown in Fig. 9). It in­ 3.5. Abrasion resistance
dicates that the flexural strength development of SMSW 30% is almost
similar to the control sample. Similarly, a flexural strength of a concrete The ability of a material to resist abrasion reflects the durability of a
sample replaced with tire rubber up to 50% decreased more significantly paver block since it is directly exposed to the rubbing, skid/slip of an
and reached approximately 32% of reduction in respect of a control mix object. Therefore, abrasion resistance is the mandated requirement as
(da Silva et al., 2015). per IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006) specification to ensure that the paver
block’s quality is expressed in volume loss in 1000 mm3/5000 mm2.
Fig. 10 illustrates the effect of increasing the percentage of replacement

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S. Saluja et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 182 (2024) 1035–1046

Fig. 10. Abrasion value at 7 days and 28 days.

increased compressive strength. Also, wear loss increases with an

increased percentage of waste material due to chipping action of SMSW
particles in paver blocks, which can be easily seen from abrasion resis­
tance results. This statement is supported by the previous study (Turgut
and Yahlizade, 2009) in which at 10% and 20% replacement with coarse
glass (CG), abrasion resistance improved slightly, thereafter it was
reduced by 18% at CG-30.

3.6. Water absorption

The water absorption value of an average of 3 specimens for each

replacement level is presented in Fig. 12. Due to the high-water ab­
sorption of SMSW, the water absorption value at each replacement level
was increased. These outcomes also concur with the other research
studies (Poon and Chan, 2006; Gayarre et al., 2013). According to
Fig. 11. Relationship between compressive strength and abrasion value. Rodríguez et al (Rodríguez et al., 2017)., an increase in waste material
percentage increases the water absorption level of the precast concrete
level on the abrasion wearing thickness. The increase in the wear loss sample; that statement substantiates the observations made in the pre­
was recorded as 1.04%, 1.73%, 2.77%, 4.49% and 7.27%, respectively, sent study. Furthermore, the water absorption values of all samples were
concerning the control paver block at 28 days. Kosmatka et al (Kosmatka within limits specified in IS:15658–2006 (BIS, 2006). The values, as
et al., 2002). also stated that the abrasion resistance of concrete is very mentioned, should be less than 6% by mass (as an average of a minimum
much related to the aggregate type and its compressive strength. of three samples); in an individual sample, it is restricted to 7%.
Fig. 11 shows the relationship between compressive strength and
abrasion-wearing thickness. This figure shows that abrasion wearing 3.7. Scanning electron microstructure (SEM)
thickness increases while the compressive strength decreases. This
statement is supported by the previous study (Sadek et al., 2017), which The microstructure analysis was carried out on the control mix and
stated that the paver block’s capability to resist abrasion improves with representative paver block SMSW 30 and SMSW 50 at 28 days. As shown

Fig. 12. Water absorption at 7 days and 28 days.

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Fig. 13. SEM images of (a) control mix (b) 30% replacement (c) 50% replacement.

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Fig. 14. XRD images of (a) Control mix (b) 30% replacement (c) 50% replacement.

in Fig. 13 (a), the control mix has a suitable binder matrix. However, the However, a rise in the rate of sand replacement results in a decrease in
microstructure of SMSW 30 reported in Fig. 13 (b) shows the better the silicon concentration of the system, which causes the C/S ratio to
hydration of cement with negligible voids at the internal surface and fluctuate. Notably, C–S–H gels with shorter silicate chains that crystal­
also having a similar compact structure to that of the control mix. SMSW lize into tobermorite more easily are formed when the C/S ratio is
50 has a more porous structure that can be easily seen from Fig. 13 (c) in greater. Consequently, the production of different crystalline forms of
the form of fissures; this resulted in a weak interfacial transition zone tobermorite is facilitated by the ideal integration of siliceous solid waste.
(ITZ). As depicted in Fig. 13 (b) and (c), significant accumulations of Moreover, tobermorite formation is strongly influenced by the amount
ettringite are evident in the SMSW samples. The occurrence of delayed of Al, Na, and Mg in the solid waste, which also affects crystal shape and,
ettringite formation (DEF) in the concrete, particularly at later stages as a result, material qualities.
(28 days), stands out as a primary contributing factor to the develop­ Within its crystal structure, ettringite has a special capacity to absorb
ment of microcracks in this mixture, as observed distinctly. and immobilize heavy metal ions. This is made possible by ettringite’s
It seems possible to use solid waste as sand for paver bricks. unique structure, which uses a mix of adsorption and ion exchange

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Table 6
ANOVA analysis results of concrete having different independent variables.
Dependent Variable Independent Variable DF* SS* MS* F-Value p-Value Significance Contribution (%)

Compressive Strength Days of curing 1 618.92 618.92 156.74 0 Significant 52.59%

SMSW 5 538.18 107.64 27.26 0.001 Significant 45.73%
Error 5 19.74 3.95
Flexural Strength Days of curing 1 26.31 26.31 497.73 0 Significant 85.93%
SMSW 5 4.05 0.81 15.3 0.005 Significant 13.21%
Error 5 0.26 0.05
Water Absorption Days of curing 1 2.40 2.40 34.5 0.002 Significant 59.18%
SMSW 5 1.31 0.26 3.76 0.086 32.24%
Error 5 0.35 0.07
Abrasion Resistance Days of curing 1 1.30 1.30 51.78 0.001 Significant 73.39%
SMSW 5 0.35 0.07 2.76 0.145 19.52%
Error 5 0.13 0.03
*
DF- degree of freedom; SS-sum of the square; MS- mean of the square

processes to draw in and cling to these ions. Furthermore, the hydration- strength, considering the p-value results. As per the contribution per­
formed gels have a large surface area and low porosity, which improves centage, all the dependent variables were significantly affected by days
their ability to physically capture and hold onto heavy metal ions. of curing than SMSW.
These microstructure images substantiate the results of the
compressive strength of concrete, which is also supported by the pre­ 4. Conclusions
vious studies of Ref (Mundra et al., 2020).
The research findings demonstrate that as the percentage of Stabi­
3.8. X-ray diffractometer (XRD) analysis lized Municipal Solid Waste (SMSW) increases, the workability of con­
crete paver blocks decreases, necessitating a higher dosage of
The X-Ray technique was carried out on powdered samples of the superplasticizer compared to natural sand. However, all concrete paver
control mix and SMSW 30 and SMSW 50 mixes, as shown in Fig. 14 (a, b, blocks maintain consistent dimensions, effectively filling the molds and
and c). Changes in the mineralogical composition of mixes were adhering well to the concrete mix. Density tests reveal that the control
observed with the inclusion of SMSW. Several new peaks of C-A-S-H, mix results in denser blocks than those with SMSW replacements, with
Ettringite, Quartz, C-S-H, Portlandite and Calcite were imagined. These reductions ranging from 1.53% to 6.64%. Compressive strength de­
new peaks confirm the cementing products of hydration and pozzolanic creases as SMSW replacement levels increase, with reductions of 6.84%
reactions between silicate phases of Portland pozzolana cement and to 38.19% at 28 days, though adequate compressive strength is achieved
water. When SMSW is added to paver blocks in place of natural sand, the up to 30% replacement. A correlation between compressive strength and
ettringite peak increases. This indicates that the addition of SMSW slows density is observed, indicating higher strength at higher density. Flex­
down the synthesis of calcium carbonate while promoting the creation ural strength decreases with SMSW replacement, reaching a 9% reduc­
of ettringite. Additionally, it has been shown that the addition of SMSW tion compared to the control mix. At 30% replacement, paver blocks
affects the CO2/SO3 ratio, restricting the production of ettringite and exhibit improved abrasion resistance. Water absorption increases line­
promoting its conversion to monosulfate—a process commonly referred arly with SMSW replacement due to its higher absorption properties.
to as the ettringite stabilizing effect. The hydration reaction and Abrasion testing shows a slight increase in wear depth, but all blocks
strength-gaining process in concrete, which are reduced in SMSW mixed meet performance standards. Microstructure analysis highlights differ­
samples, are mostly caused by calcite peaks. Therefore, it may be ences in structure and interfacial transition zones, with SMSW 50 dis­
concluded that SMSW replaced natural sand, reduced the formation of playing a more porous structure. Statistically, SMSW significantly
C-S-H phases attributed to the marginal decrease in the compressive and impacts strength, and curing duration affects all variables. The research
flexural strength up to 30% replacement in comparison to the control suggests SMSW can be effectively used as a substitute for natural sand up
mix. However, a higher decrease in strength was observed beyond 30% to 30%, benefiting low-volume road applications and lean concrete in
replacement. various construction projects, promoting the concept of a circular
economy by recycling waste materials and reducing resource con­
3.9. Statistical analysis sumption in construction processes.

The statistical analysis was done to determine the effect of days of Funding
curing and SMSW on the properties of concrete. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) technique was used with a significance level of 0.05. In this Not applicable.
analysis, days of curing and SMSW has been considered independent
variables, and compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, CRediT authorship contribution statement
and abrasion resistance test results were considered dependent vari­
ables. The output of the ANOVA analysis is shown in Table 6. Sonal Saluja has conducted the field study, lab investigations, anal­
The P-value depicts how significant the independent variables are to ysis and written the first draft of manuscript. Prakash Somani has
the dependent variables. If the p-value is below 0.05, it can be implied reviewed, edited, validated the data and written the first/revised draft of
that the independent variable is substantial over the dependent vari­ manuscript. Arun Gaur has supervised throughout the lab investigation.
ables and vice-versa. At the same time, the contribution percentage Sanjay Mundra has reviewed, edited and validated the data. Kafeel
specifies the independent variable (among all the independent vari­ Ahmad provides writing assistance/ proof reading of the manuscript.
ables), which has a more significant effect on the dependent variable
(Jain et al., 2021).
The results of the ANOVA analysis found that the days of curing have Declaration of Competing Interest
a considerable effect on all dependent variables. In contrast, the SMSW
impacts only two dependent variables, i.e., compressive and flexural The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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