CS - 110

INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES

Abdul Ahad Bukhari

Higher Education
Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Computers and ICT ................................. 1
1.1. What are Computers? ........................................... 1
1.2. What is ICT? .................................................. 1
1.3. Why is ICT Important? ......................................... 1
1.4. Basic Computer Components ..................................... 1
1.4.1. Hardware .................................................. 1
1.4.2. Software .................................................. 2
1.5. Basic Computer Operations ..................................... 2
2. Data vs. Information .............................................. 3
2.1. Data Characteristics .......................................... 3
2.2. Information Characteristics ................................... 3
2.3. Data Processing ............................................... 3
2.4. Applications of Data and Information .......................... 4
3. Applications of Computer and ICT .................................. 5
3.1. Education ..................................................... 5
3.2. Business ...................................................... 5
3.3. Government .................................................... 5
3.4. Healthcare .................................................... 6
3.5. Entertainment ................................................. 6
3.6. Social Change and Empowerment ................................. 6
3.7. Economic Growth and Development ............................... 7
3.8. Challenges and Considerations ................................. 7
4. Structure of Computer System ...................................... 9
5. Types of Computers ............................................... 10
5.1. Supercomputers ............................................... 10
5.2. Mainframes ................................................... 10
5.3. Minicomputers ................................................ 10
5.4. Personal Computers (PCs) - Microcomputers .................... 10
5.5. Workstations ................................................. 10
5.6. Mobile Devices ............................................... 10
6. Input and Output Devices (I/O) ................................... 12
6.1. Input Devices ................................................ 12
6.2. Output Devices ............................................... 12
6.3. I/O Interfaces ............................................... 12
7. Computer Storage Devices ......................................... 14
7.1. Primary Storage .............................................. 14
7.2. Secondary Storage ............................................ 15
 1

7.3. Storage units ................................................ 16

8. Computer Software ................................................ 21
8.1. System Software .............................................. 21
8.2. Application Software ......................................... 21
9. operating system (OS) and its basic functions .................... 23
9.1. What is an Operating System? ................................. 23
9.2. Basic Functions of an Operating System ....................... 23
10. Introduction to networking ....................................... 25
10.1. What is Networking? .......................................... 25
10.2. Network Elements ............................................. 25
10.3. Types of Networks ............................................ 26
10.4. The World Wide Web (WWW) ..................................... 26
10.5. Key Features of the WWW ...................................... 26
10.6. Common Web Applications ...................................... 27
10.7. Email ........................................................ 27
10.7.1. Key Features of Email: .................................. 27
10.8. Common Email Applications: ................................... 27
10.9. Impact of the WWW and Email .................................. 28
11. Introduction to databases ........................................ 29
11.1. What is a Database? .......................................... 29
11.2. Characteristics of Relational Databases ...................... 29
11.3. Advantages of Relational Databases ........................... 29
11.4. Applications of Relational Databases ......................... 30
12. Computer security ................................................ 31
12.1. Computer Security ............................................ 31
12.2. Threats to Computer Security ................................. 31
12.3. Viruses and Worms ............................................ 31
12.4. Protecting Against Computer Threats .......................... 32
13. Number Systems ................................................... 33
13.1. Converting Binary to Decimal ................................. 33
13.2. Converting Decimal to Binary ................................. 33
13.3. Converting OCTAL to DECIMAL .................................. 33
13.4. Converting DECIMAL to OCTAL .................................. 34
13.5. Converting HExADECIMAL to DECIMAL ............................ 34
13.6. Converting DECIMAL to HExADECIMAL ............................ 34
13.7. Converting BInARY to OCTAL ................................... 34
13.8. Converting BInARY to HEXADECIMAL ............................. 35
13.9. CONVERTING OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL .............................. 35
13.10. Converting hexadecimal to octal ............................ 35

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Introduction to Computers and ICT 1

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS AND ICT

1.1. WHAT ARE COMPUTERS?
Computers are electronic devices that can process, store, and
retrieve data. They are used in a wide variety of applications, including
business, education, entertainment, and science.

1.2. WHAT IS ICT?

ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. It refers
to the use of computers and other
electronic devices to store,
retrieve, and transmit
information. ICT includes a wide
range of technologies, such as the
internet, email, social media,
and mobile phones.

1.3. WHY IS ICT IMPORTANT?

ICT is important because it has revolutionized the way we live, work,
and communicate. It has made it possible to connect with people all over
the world, access information instantly, and automate tasks.

1.4. BASIC COMPUTER COMPONENTS

A computer consists of two main components: hardware and software.
1.4.1. Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer, such as the
CPU, RAM, hard drive, and monitor.
• CPU (Central Processing Unit): The brain of the computer,
responsible for executing instructions.
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage space for data that
the computer is currently
working on.
• Hard Drive: Permanent storage
space for data, even when the
computer is turned off.
• Monitor: Displays the output
of the computer.

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Introduction to Computers and ICT 2

1.4.2. Software
Software refers to the programs that tell the computer what, how and when
to do.
• System Software or Operating System: Manages the hardware and
software resources of the computer.
• Application Software: Performs specific tasks, such as word
processing, spreadsheets, and web browsing.
Software applications are used to perform specific tasks. Some common
software applications include:
• Word processors: Used to create and edit documents.
• Spreadsheets: Used to store and manipulate data in a tabular format.
• Presentation software: Used to create presentations.
• Web browsers: Used to access the internet.
• Entertainment: Games, videos etc.

1.5. BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

There are four basic computer operations:
Operation Description
The process of entering data or instructions into the
Input computer. This can be done through a variety of devices, such
as the keyboard, mouse, scanner, or microphone.
The manipulation of data by the computer according to the
instructions that are given to it. This involves performing
Processing
calculations, making decisions, and carrying out other tasks
as specified by the software.
The presentation of the results of processing to the user.
Output This can be done through a variety of devices, such as the
monitor, printer, or speakers.
The saving of data and instructions in the computer's memory
for future use. This can be done on temporary storage
Storage
devices, such as RAM, or on permanent storage devices, such
as hard drives.
Note: A computer can also perform data
communication by transmitting data from
one computer to another via a wired or
wireless network, but this operation is
not mandatory.

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Data vs. Information 3

2. DATA VS. INFORMATION

Data and information are often used interchangeably, but they have
distinct meanings. Data is raw, unorganized facts or figures, while
information is processed, organized, and structured data that has been
given meaning and context.

2.1. DATA CHARACTERISTICS

Data can be characterized by the following attributes:
• Unorganized: Data exists in its raw form, without any meaningful
structure or context.
• Objective: Data represents facts and figures without any
interpretation or bias.
• Quantitative: Data is typically numerical and can be measured or
counted.
• Granular: Data consists of individual pieces of facts or figures.

2.2. INFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS

Information, on the other hand, possesses the following
characteristics:
• Organized: Information is structured and presented in a meaningful
way, providing context and interpretation.
• Subjective: Information may involve interpretation, analysis, and
judgment.
• Qualitative: Information can encompass both quantitative and
qualitative aspects, including textual descriptions, images, and
audio or video content.
• Contextualized: Information is linked to specific contexts,
providing relevance and understanding.

2.3. DATA PROCESSING

The process of transforming raw data into meaningful information
involves several steps:
• Data Collection: Data is gathered from various sources, such as
sensors, surveys, experiments, or transactions.
• Data Cleaning: Data is cleansed to remove errors, inconsistencies,
and missing values.
• Data Transformation: Data is converted into a suitable format for
analysis, such as numerical values or text encoding.

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• Data Analysis: Data is analyzed using various techniques, such as

statistical methods, machine learning algorithms, or data
visualization tools.
• Information Creation: Processed data is transformed into
meaningful information by applying context, interpretation, and
insights.

2.4. APPLICATIONS OF DATA AND INFORMATION

Data and information play a crucial role in various domains, including:
• Business: Data and information are used for decision-making,
market analysis, customer relationship management, and risk
assessment.
• Science and Research: Data collection, analysis, and
interpretation are fundamental to scientific research and
technological advancements.
• Government and Public Policy: Data and information are used for
policy formulation, resource allocation, and public service
delivery.
• Healthcare: Data and information are used for patient diagnosis,
treatment planning, and healthcare outcomes analysis.
• Education: Data and information are used for personalized
learning, educational assessment, and curriculum development.

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Applications of Computer and ICT 5

3. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER AND ICT

Computers and ICT have revolutionized nearly every aspect of our
lives, from the way we work and communicate to the way we learn and
entertain ourselves. Here are some of the key applications of computers
and ICT:

3.1. EDUCATION
• Online learning: Computers and ICT have made it possible to access
education from anywhere in the world. Students can now take online
courses, participate in virtual classrooms, and access a wealth of
educational resources online.
• Personalized learning: Computers and ICT can be used to tailor
education to the individual needs of each student. This can be done
through adaptive learning software, which adjusts the difficulty of
the material based on the student's progress, and through
personalized learning plans, which are created by teachers to meet
the specific needs of each student.
• Special education: Computers and ICT can be used to help students
with disabilities learn and succeed. For example, text-to-speech
software can help students with reading difficulties, and assistive
technology can help students with physical challenges.

3.2. BUSINESS
• E-commerce: Computers and ICT have made it possible for businesses
to sell their products and services online. This has opened up new
markets for businesses and has made it easier for consumers to shop.
• Supply chain management: Computers and ICT can be used to manage
the flow of goods and services from suppliers to customers. This can
help businesses to improve efficiency and reduce costs.
• Customer relationship management (CRM): Computers and ICT can be
used to manage customer relationships. This can help businesses to
improve customer service, increase sales, and retain customers.

3.3. GOVERNMENT
• E-government: Computers and ICT can be used to provide government
services online. This can make it easier for citizens to access
government services and can reduce costs for the government.
• Tax collection: Computers and ICT can be used to collect taxes.
This can help to increase tax revenue and reduce tax evasion.

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• Law enforcement: Computers and ICT can be used to fight crime.

This can be done through crime mapping, facial recognition software,
and other tools.

3.4. HEALTHCARE
• Electronic health records (EHRs): EHRs are electronic records of a
patient's medical history. EHRs can help doctors to make better
decisions about patient care and can improve patient safety.
• Telemedicine: Telemedicine is the use of telecommunications
technology to provide healthcare services. Telemedicine can be used
to provide consultations, monitor patients, and provide remote care.
• Medical imaging: Computers and ICT are used to create medical
images, such as X-rays, MRI scans, and CT scans. These images can
help doctors to diagnose diseases and injuries.

3.5. ENTERTAINMENT
• Streaming: Computers and ICT can be used to stream movies, TV
shows, and music. This has made it easier for people to access
entertainment content.
• Video games: Computers and ICT are used to create and play video
games. Video games have become a popular form of entertainment for
people of all ages.
• Social media: Computers and ICT are used to access social media
platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Social media
has become a way for people to connect with friends and family, share
news and information, and express themselves.

3.6. SOCIAL CHANGE AND EMPOWERMENT

ICT has played a pivotal role in social change movements, providing
platforms for activism, organizing, and raising awareness. It has also
empowered individuals and communities to connect, share experiences, and
advocate for their rights.
• Social Activism: ICT tools like social media have become powerful
tools for social activism, enabling individuals to mobilize support
for causes, organize protests, and raise awareness of social
injustices.
• Community Building: ICT has facilitated the creation of online
communities and networks, connecting individuals with shared

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Applications of Computer and ICT 7

interests, backgrounds, or experiences. These virtual communities

provide support, foster belonging, and promote cultural exchange.
• Empowerment and Participation: ICT has empowered individuals and
communities to participate in civic life, engage in democratic
processes, and hold their governments accountable. This has led to
increased transparency, citizen engagement, and social progress.

3.7. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

ICT has become a driving force of economic growth and development,
creating new industries, job opportunities, and enhancing economic
efficiency.
• New Industries and Jobs: ICT has spawned new industries and job
opportunities in areas such as software development, data analytics,
cybersecurity, and digital marketing. These new fields have
attracted talent, driven innovation, and contributed to economic
growth.
• Economic Efficiency: ICT has improved economic efficiency by
streamlining business processes, reducing transaction costs, and
enhancing supply chain management. This has led to increased
productivity, cost savings, and improved competitiveness.
• Global Connectivity: ICT has facilitated global connectivity,
enabling businesses to reach new markets, expand their customer base,
and participate in international trade. This has promoted economic
growth and interdependence across nations.
These are just a few examples of the many applications of computers and
ICT. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more
innovative and transformative applications in the years to come.

3.8. CHALLENGES AND CONSIDERATIONS

While ICT has brought about significant positive changes, it is
important to acknowledge and address the challenges and considerations
associated with its rapid adoption.
• Digital Divide: The unequal access to ICT infrastructure, devices,
and skills across different regions, socioeconomic groups, and
generations creates a digital divide that can exacerbate existing
inequalities.
• Privacy and Security Concerns: The vast amount of personal data
collected and stored through ICT raises concerns about privacy,
surveillance, and data security.

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• Ethical Implications: The use of ICT raises ethical questions

regarding artificial intelligence, algorithmic bias, and the
potential for social manipulation.
• Addiction and Social Impacts: Excessive use of ICT can lead to
addiction, social isolation, and negative impacts on mental health
and well-being.
Navigating the challenges and maximizing the benefits of ICT requires
a concerted effort from individuals, governments, and organizations to
promote responsible and inclusive digital transformation.

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Structure of Computer System 9

4. STRUCTURE OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

The basic structure of a computer system consists of four main
components:
• Input Unit: The input unit is responsible for taking data from the
outside world and converting it into a format that the computer can
understand. Examples of input devices include the keyboard, mouse,
scanner, microphone, and webcam.
• Memory: Memory is responsible for storing data and instructions.
There are two main types of memory: random access memory (RAM) and
read-only memory (ROM). RAM is volatile, which means that data stored
in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off. ROM is non-volatile,
which means that data stored in ROM is retained even when the
computer is turned off.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the "brain" of the
computer. It is responsible for executing instructions and
performing calculations. The CPU is made up of two main components:
the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The control
unit fetches instructions from memory and directs the ALU to perform
operations. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.
• Output Unit: The output unit is responsible for taking data from
the computer and displaying it to the outside world. Examples of
output devices include the monitor, printer, and speakers.
These four components work together to perform the basic operations of
a computer: input, storage, processing, and output, with an optional
component data communication responsible for data transmission from one
computer to another over a network

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Types of Computers 10

5. TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified into different categories based on their
size, processing power, and intended use. Here are some of the main types
of computers:

5.1. SUPERCOMPUTERS
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers in the world. They
are used for scientific research, engineering simulations, and other
computationally intensive tasks. Supercomputers are typically very large
and expensive, and they are housed in special facilities with controlled
environments.

5.2. MAINFRAMES
Mainframes are large, powerful computers that are used by businesses
and organizations to process large amounts of data. Mainframes are
typically very reliable and secure, and they can handle a large number of
users simultaneously.

5.3. MINICOMPUTERS
Minicomputers are smaller and less powerful than mainframes, but
they are still more powerful than personal computers. Minicomputers are
typically used by businesses and organizations that need more computing
power than a personal computer can provide, but do not need the power of
a mainframe.

5.4. PERSONAL COMPUTERS (PCS) - MICROCOMPUTERS

Personal computers, or PCs, are the most common type of computer.
PCs are typically used by individuals for personal use, such as browsing
the internet, checking email, and playing games.

5.5. WORKSTATIONS
Workstations are powerful computers that are designed for
professional use. Workstations are typically used by engineers,
scientists, and other professionals who need a powerful computer for their
work.

5.6. MOBILE DEVICES

Mobile devices are portable computers that are designed to be used
while on the go. Mobile devices include smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

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Types of Computers 11

In addition to these main types, there are many other specialized

types of computers. For example, there are computers that are designed for
use in harsh environments, such as in factories or on military aircraft.
There are also computers that are designed for specific tasks, such as
gaming or artificial intelligence.

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Input and Output Devices (I/O) 12

6. INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES (I/O)

Input and output (I/O) devices are hardware components that allow
computers to interact with the external world. Input devices allow users
to enter data and instructions into the computer, while output devices
present the results of processing to the user.

6.1. INPUT DEVICES

Input devices convert physical inputs into signals that the computer
can understand. Common input devices include:
• Keyboard: A keyboard is a typewriter-like device used to enter
alphanumeric characters and symbols.
• Mouse: A mouse is a pointing device that allows users to move a
cursor on the screen and interact with graphical user interfaces
(GUIs).
• Touchscreen: A touchscreen is a display that detects the touch of
a finger or other object and allows users to interact with the screen
directly.
• Scanner: A scanner captures images or documents and converts them
into digital files.
• Microphone: A microphone captures sound waves and converts them
into digital audio signals.
• Webcam: A webcam captures video images and streams them to the
computer.

6.2. OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices present the results of computer processing to the user.
Common output devices include:
• Monitor: A monitor displays images, text, and graphics on a screen.
• Printer: A printer produces physical copies of documents and images.
• Speakers: Speakers output sound from the computer.
• Projector: A projector displays images and videos on a larger
screen, such as a wall or whiteboard.

6.3. I/O INTERFACES

Input and output devices connect to the computer through various
interfaces, such as:
• USB (Universal Serial Bus): A widely used interface for connecting
a wide range of peripherals.

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Input and Output Devices (I/O) 13

• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): A high-bandwidth

interface for connecting high-resolution displays and audio devices.
• VGA (Video Graphics Array): An older analog interface for
connecting monitors.
• Ethernet: A network interface for connecting computers to a network.
• Bluetooth: A wireless technology for connecting devices over short
distances.
The specific I/O devices and interfaces used in a computer system depend
on the specific needs and applications of the user.

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Computer Storage Devices 14

7. COMPUTER STORAGE DEVICES

Computer storage devices can be broadly classified into two
categories: primary storage and secondary storage.

7.1. PRIMARY STORAGE

Primary storage, also known as main memory or RAM (Random Access
Memory), is the volatile storage that holds data and instructions currently
being used by the computer's CPU. It is characterized by its fast access
speed and temporary nature, meaning data is lost when the computer is
turned off.
7.1.1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is read/write memory, the
programs, and data the CPU requires
during the execution of a program are
stored in this memory. It is a volatile
memory which means the data is lost when
power is turned off. Architecture wise
RAM is further classified into two
categories SRAM (Static RAM – Doesn’t
need a period supply of electricity to
retain data) and DRAM (Dynamic RAM –
Needs a period supply o f electricity to
retain data).

7.1.2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Nonvolatile memory doesn’t need electricity to retain data. Data
written on ROM can only be accessed/read and can’t be overwritten or
deleted. At the time of manufacturing, data is written on ROM which
can’t be changed afterward.
PROM Programmable read-only memory is a type of ROM which is blank
at the time of manufacturing, after that data can only be written once
using special equipment and UV light.
EPROM Erasable Programmable read-only memory can be overwritten
for specific times using special equipment.
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable read-only memory can be
overwritten for specific times using electricity instead of UV and other
equipment, making it easy to use.

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Computer Storage Devices 15

7.2. SECONDARY STORAGE

Secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage or non-volatile
storage, is the permanent storage that holds data and instructions even
when the computer is turned off. It is characterized by its slower access
speed and larger capacity compared to primary storage.
Feature Primary Storage Secondary Storage

Volatility Volatile Non-volatile

Access Speed Faster Slower

Capacity Smaller Larger

Examples RAM Hard drives, SSDs, optical drives

Examples of Secondary Storage Devices

7.2.1. Magnetic Tapes
is a plastic strip coated with
magnetic material like ferric oxide to
give it magnetic properties and then data
is stored magnetically which can hold the
data for a longer period.
7.2.2. Hard drives / Magnetic
Disks
Hard drives are traditional magnetic storage
devices that use spinning platters to store data.
They are relatively slow but offer large storage
capacities at low cost.
7.2.3. Solid-state drives (SSDs)
SSDs are newer storage devices that use flash
memory to store data. They are significantly faster than
hard drives but are also more expensive.
7.2.4. Optical drives
Optical drives use
lasers to read and write data on
optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and
Blu-ray discs. They are primarily used
for storing large amounts of data, such
as movies and music.
The type of storage device used
for a particular purpose depends on the
specific needs of the application. For example, primary storage is

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Computer Storage Devices 16

typically used for storing data that needs to be accessed quickly, such
as the operating system and currently running applications. Secondary
storage is typically used for storing data that does not need to be
accessed as frequently, such as personal files and backups.

7.3. STORAGE UNITS

The smallest unit of memory is a Bit (Binary Digit). A bit is a
memory location that can store either a 1 or a 0 at a given time. We denote
a bit by the small letter ‘b’.

Unit Symbol Storage Capacity

Bit b 1 or 0 at one time
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 B
Megabyte MB 1024 KB
Gigabyte GB 1024 MB
Terabyte TB 1024 GB
Petabyte PT 1024 TB

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Central Processing Unit 17

8. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

8.1. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
(CPU)
Also referred to as a processor, central
processor, or microprocessor. It is the brain
of a computer responsible for carrying out all
the instructions and controlling and
coordinating functions of the hardware. It
receives instructions using software and
directs hardware based on the instruction to
perform operations on the provided data.

The central processing unit consists of the following

components
8.1.1. Control Unit (CU)
• Fetches, decodes, executes instructions and write back
the result
• Issues signal to hardware components within and outside
of the CPU
• Transfers data and instructions around the system.

8.1.2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• Arithmetic Operations
+, -, /, *, %
• Logic Operation
AND, OR, NOT
• It acts as a gateway when transferring data between
primary and secondary storage as it passes through the
ALU

8.1.3. Registers
Registers are small memory high-speed memory locations
contained within the CPU. Registers are used by the CPU to hold
data when the instruction is being processed/executed. Some of the
functions of registers are
• Address of the instruction currently being executed
• Address of the next instruction to be fetched
• Results of calculation being carried out

8.1.4. Cache
A cache is a small memory location like RAM, but very high-
speed memory located within or right next to the CPU, cache behaves
like RAM by providing random access to the CPU. It stores
instructions that are frequently executed or predicted to be fetched

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Central Processing Unit 18

in near future. This helps reduce the memory access time for the
CPU by providing the necessary instructions.
8.1.5. Clock
Just like we measure our performance or duration of work in
time, the CPU uses the same concept with the use of an internal
clock. Instead of seconds, it uses ticks to mark the duration of
time, because the CPU is a high-speed component, a clock tick is
way smaller than a second. The clock helps various components of
the CPU and the computer system synchronize their tasks.
Intel Pentium used a CPU frequency of 333Hz, Pentium 2 used
666Hz while modern computer CPU ranges from 1.6MHz to 3.8MHz
8.1.6. Bus
A bus is a high-speed
internal connection between
various components of the CPU
and other peripheral devices.
These electronic pathways are
used by various components to
send control and data signals
between them.
Address Bus this bus
carries the memory address
format of the processor to other
components like primary storage
and input/output devices. The
unidirectional bus sends the
address from the CPU to other
components only.
Data Bus carries data
between the processor and other
components and is bidirectional
as data travel in both
directions
Control Bus as the name suggests carries control signals and
clock pulses to control the functioning of various components. It
has a unidirectional flow from the CPU to the components.

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Motherboard 19

9. MOTHERBOARD
A computer motherboard is an electronic circuit board, which
acts as the central point where all the input, storage,
processing, and output devices are connected via one of the two
types of connectors, either a port or a slot.

9.1. PORT
A Port is a physical connection between a hardware component
(peripheral device) and a motherboard where the device is not
directly connected to the motherboard by using wire or ribbon.
Serial Port data travel bit by bit, using a single pen, the
rest of the pins carry control signals
The parallel port has more than one pin for data traveling
thus data travels in a word size or blocks
passion
Examples
PS/2, deprecated connectors used to connect
a mouse and a keyboard, these are replaced by USB
connectors. 6 pin connector serial connector.
VGA Port, Visual graphics adapter is an analog
port, used to connect graphics output devices.
A 15-pin parallel connector arranged in 3 rows

DVI (Digital Video Interface) is just

like VGA, but it uses digital signals
instead of analog data transmission. It
is 32 pin
parallel port
Display port is an advanced technology
used to transmit video and audio data
to output devices, 20 pin connector is
better than all its predecessors.

HDMI (High-Definition Media Interface)

is a high-definition interface for
digital cameras, gaming consoles, and
high-speed video processing.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) a

four-pen connector is very common in
use today, with versions 1.1, 2.0, 3.0, and 3.1 which can carry up
to 400 MBps

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Motherboard 20

RJ-45 and RJ-11

connector is used to
connect two devices on a
local area network (LAN)

A 3.5mm Audio jack

means a 3.5mm in diameter pin that is used to transmit voice data
between devices, another variation of the audio jack is a 2.5mm

9.2. SLOTS OR SOCKETS

These are connectors used to extend the functionality of a
computer by connecting devices directly to a motherboard.

Processor Slot RAM Slot

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10. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer software can be broadly categorized into two main types:
system software and application software.

10.1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is the foundation that allows a computer system to
operate effectively. It manages the hardware resources of the computer and
provides a platform for application software to run. System software
includes:
• Operating System (OS): The core of system software, responsible
for managing hardware resources, providing a user interface, and
handling basic system tasks. Examples include Windows, macOS, and
Linux.
• Device Drivers: Software programs that allow the operating system
to communicate with specific hardware devices, such as printers,
scanners, and network adapters.
• Utilities: Programs that perform various maintenance and support
tasks, such as disk formatting, file management, and backup tools.
• Translators: These programs convert high level human readable
languages to machine code, for computers to follow the
instructions. Interpreter (line-by-line translation and execution)
and Compiler (translate program as a whole and run)

10.2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software is designed to perform specific tasks or provide
specific services for users. It runs on top of the operating system and
interacts with the user through graphical interfaces or command lines.
Application software includes:
• Word Processors: Programs used to create and edit text-based
documents, such as Microsoft Word, LibreOffice Writer, and Google
Docs.
• Spreadsheets: Programs used to organize, analyze, and manipulate
numerical data in tabular form, such as Microsoft Excel, LibreOffice
Calc, and Google Sheets.
• Presentation Software: Programs used to create and deliver
presentations with slides, images, and multimedia content, such as
Microsoft PowerPoint, LibreOffice Impress, and Google Slides.
• Web Browsers: Programs used to access and navigate websites on the
internet, such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari.

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• Media Players: Programs used to play audio and video files, such
as VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player, and iTunes.
• Games: Programs designed for entertainment and recreation, ranging
from simple puzzle games to complex action-adventure games.
The choice of application software depends on the specific needs and
preferences of the user.

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operating system (OS) and its basic 23
functions

11. OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) AND ITS BASIC

FUNCTIONS
11.1. WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?
An operating system (OS) is the core software that manages a
computer's hardware and software resources, providing a platform for
running applications and enabling users to interact with the computer. It
acts as an intermediary between the hardware and the user, handling tasks
such as:
1. Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and executing processes,
the fundamental units of work in a computer system.
2. Memory Management: Allocating and deallocating memory for
processes, ensuring efficient utilization of RAM.
3. Device Management: Handling input and output devices, such as
keyboards, mice, printers, and disks, enabling communication with
the hardware.
4. File Management: Organizing, managing, and providing access to
files and directories, the building blocks of data storage.
5. System Services: Providing fundamental services like timekeeping,
networking, and security, ensuring the smooth operation of the
computer system.

11.2. BASIC FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

A modern operating system performs a wide range of essential functions,
including:
1. Boot Process: Initiating the computer system, loading the
necessary software, and preparing the hardware for use.
2. Resource Management: Managing and allocating hardware resources
like CPU, memory, and I/O devices to running processes, ensuring
efficient utilization.
3. Process Scheduling: Determining the order in which processes
should be executed, ensuring fair and efficient resource allocation.
4. Memory Protection: Preventing processes from accessing each
other's memory, protecting data integrity and preventing security
breaches.
5. File System Management: Providing a structured and organized way
to store, access, and manipulate files and directories.
6. Device Management: Handling input and output devices, providing a
standardized interface for applications to interact with hardware.

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operating system (OS) and its basic 24
functions

7. Error Handling: Detecting and responding to errors, preventing

system crashes and data loss.
8. Security Management: Enforcing security policies, protecting data
and system integrity from unauthorized access and malicious attacks.
9. User Interface Management: Providing a user interface, such as a
graphical user interface (GUI) or command-line interface (CLI), for
users to interact with the computer system.
10. Networking Management: Enabling communication with other
computers and devices on a network, facilitating file sharing, data
transfer, and resource sharing.
Operating systems play a crucial role in the functioning of computers,
providing a foundation for running applications and enabling users to
interact with the system efficiently. They are continuously evolving,
incorporating new features, enhancing security, and adapting to
advancements in hardware technology.

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Introduction to networking 25

12. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

12.1. WHAT IS NETWORKING?
Networking refers to the interconnection of computers and other
devices to form a communication network. This enables the exchange of
information, data, and resources among connected devices. Networking has
revolutionized communication, enabling instant global connectivity, data
sharing, and collaboration.

12.2. NETWORK ELEMENTS

Sure, here is a simplified explanation of the elements of data
communication:
1. Sender: The sender is the entity that initiates the data
communication process. It is typically a computer, network device,
or software application that generates or has access to the data
that needs to be transmitted.
2. Message: The message is the actual data being transmitted. It can
be any form of information, such as text, images, audio, video, or
even control signals. The message is typically encoded into a format
suitable for transmission over the chosen communication medium.
3. Medium: The medium is the physical channel through which the data
is transmitted. It can be a physical cable, such as a copper wire or
fiber optic cable, or it can be a wireless channel, such as radio
waves or infrared waves. The medium must support the specific type
of data being transmitted and the desired transmission speed.
4. Receiver: The receiver is the entity that receives the transmitted
data. It is typically another computer, network device, or software
application that is expecting to receive the data. The receiver
decodes the message from the transmission format back into its
original form.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that govern
how data is transmitted and received. It defines the format of the
data, the timing of the transmission, error detection and correction
mechanisms, and other aspects of the communication process.
Protocols ensure that the sender and receiver can communicate
effectively and efficiently.
These five elements are fundamental to understanding and analyzing data
communication systems. They represent the core components that enable the
exchange of information between various entities in a network.

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12.3. TYPES OF NETWORKS

Networks can be classified based on their size, scope, and purpose.
Common types include:
1. LAN (Local Area Network): A small-scale network connecting devices
within a limited area, such as a home, office, or school.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network): A large-scale network spanning a broader
geographical area, connecting devices over long distances using
technologies like fiber optic cables or satellite links.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A network connecting devices
within a metropolitan area, such as a city or a large campus.
4. WLAN (Wireless LAN): A network that uses wireless technologies
like Wi-Fi to connect devices without physical cables.
5. Internet: A global network of interconnected networks, enabling
communication between computers worldwide.
6. VPN (Virtual Private Network): A secure network connection over
the internet, allowing remote users to access a private network as
if they were physically connected.
These various types of networks serve different purposes and provide
communication solutions for diverse scenarios, ranging from personal
connections to large-scale enterprise networks.
The World Wide Web (WWW) and email are two of the most fundamental and
widely used internet applications. They have revolutionized communication,
information access, and global connectivity.

12.4. THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

The World Wide Web, often simply referred to as the "web," is a
global information system that provides access to interconnected hypertext
documents and other resources. It is built upon the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which allow for the
creation and linking of web pages.

12.5. KEY FEATURES OF THE WWW

• Hyperlinked Documents: Web pages are linked together through
hyperlinks, allowing users to easily navigate between related
content.
• Multimedia Content: Web pages can include text, images, audio,
video, and other multimedia elements.

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• Global Access: The WWW is accessible to anyone with an internet

connection, making it a powerful tool for information sharing and
communication.

12.6. COMMON WEB APPLICATIONS

• Web Browsing: Web browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, and Safari,
are used to access and interact with web pages.
• Search Engines: Search engines, such as Google, Bing, and Yahoo,
help users find relevant information on the web.
• Social Media: Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram, enable users to connect and share information with
others.
• E-commerce: Online shopping platforms, such as Amazon, eBay, and
Alibaba, allow users to purchase goods and services electronically.

12.7. EMAIL
Email, short for electronic mail, is a method of exchanging
messages between users over a computer network. It has become an
essential communication tool for personal and professional use.
12.7.1. Key Features of Email:
• Asynchronous Communication: Email allows for asynchronous
communication, meaning users can send and receive messages at their
own convenience.
• File Attachments: Email allows users to attach files, such as
documents, images, and videos, to their messages.
• Spam Filtering: Email filters help users identify and manage
unwanted or unsolicited emails, commonly known as spam.

12.8. COMMON EMAIL APPLICATIONS:

• Webmail: Webmail services, such as Gmail, Outlook.com, and Yahoo
Mail, allow users to access and manage their email accounts from any
web browser.
• Email Clients: Email clients, such as Thunderbird, Outlook, and
Apple Mail, are software programs that allow users to manage their
email accounts from their computers.
• Mobile Email Apps: Mobile email apps, such as Gmail, Outlook, and
Yahoo Mail, allow users to access and manage their email accounts
from their mobile devices.

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12.9. IMPACT OF THE WWW AND EMAIL

The WWW and email have had a profound impact on society, transforming
communication, information access, and global connectivity. They have:
• Enhanced Communication: The WWW and email have made communication
more efficient, instantaneous, and accessible, enabling people to
connect across geographical boundaries.
• Facilitated Information Sharing: The WWW has become a vast
repository of information, providing access to a wide range of
knowledge and resources.
• Empowered Global Collaboration: The WWW and email have fostered
global collaboration, enabling people to work together on projects
and share ideas regardless of location.
• Reshaped Businesses and Industries: The WWW has revolutionized
business models and transformed industries, such as e-commerce,
media, and entertainment.
• Democratized Access to Information: The WWW has empowered
individuals to access information and knowledge, promoting education
and informed decision-making.

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Introduction to databases 29

13. INTRODUCTION TO DATABASES

13.1. WHAT IS A DATABASE?
A database is an organized collection of data, typically stored on
a computer system, that is designed to be accessed, managed, and updated.
It provides a structured way to store, retrieve, and manipulate data
efficiently. Databases are essential for managing large amounts of
information, and they are used in a wide variety of applications, including
business, science, education, and government.

13.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATIONAL DATABASES

The relational database model is the most widely used data model,
and it is characterized by several key features:
• Structure: Relational databases store data in tables, which consist
of rows and columns. Each row represents a record, and each column
represents an attribute of the record.
• Data Integrity: Relational databases enforce data integrity through
constraints, which ensure that data is accurate and consistent. These
constraints include primary keys, foreign keys, and entity integrity
constraints.
• Normalization: Relational databases are normalized to reduce
redundancy and improve data integrity. Normalization involves
dividing tables into smaller tables based on relationships between
data elements.
• Data Manipulation Language (DML): Relational databases provide a
data manipulation language (DML), such as SQL (Structured Query
Language), for querying and manipulating data. DML allows users to
create, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database.

13.3. ADVANTAGES OF RELATIONAL DATABASES

Relational databases offer several advantages, including:
• Data Integrity: Relational databases ensure data integrity through
constraints and normalization.
• Data Consistency: Relational databases maintain data consistency
across multiple tables.
• Data Redundancy Reduction: Normalization reduces data redundancy,
minimizing storage requirements and maintaining data accuracy.
• Flexibility: Relational databases can accommodate diverse data
types and relationships.

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• Ease of Use: DML languages like SQL provide a standardized way to

query and manipulate data.

13.4. APPLICATIONS OF RELATIONAL DATABASES

Relational databases are used in a wide range of applications,
including:
• Business Applications: Relational databases are widely used in
business applications, such as customer relationship management
(CRM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), and supply chain
management.
• Scientific Research: Relational databases are used to store and
manage research data in various fields, including biology,
chemistry, and physics.
• Education: Relational databases are used to store student records,
track academic progress, and manage administrative data.
• Government: Relational databases are used to manage citizen
records, track government programs, and maintain financial records.

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14. COMPUTER SECURITY

14.1. COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security is the practice of protecting computer systems and
networks from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption,
modification, or destruction. It encompasses a wide range of measures,
including:
• Access Control: Limiting who can access computer systems and
resources.
• Data Security: Protecting data from unauthorized access,
modification, or deletion.
• Network Security: Protecting networks from unauthorized access,
attacks, and malicious traffic.
• Software Security: Ensuring that software is free from
vulnerabilities and malware.

14.2. THREATS TO COMPUTER SECURITY

Computer systems are constantly under threat from various attacks and
malicious activities. Some of the most common threats include:
• Malware: Malicious software designed to harm computer systems, such
as viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, and spyware.
• Phishing: Attempts to trick users into revealing personal
information, such as passwords or financial details, through
fraudulent emails, websites, or messages.
• Social Engineering: Manipulating users into performing actions or
divulging confidential information through social interactions or
psychological tricks.
• Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks: Overwhelming a computer system
or network with traffic to make it unavailable to legitimate users.
• Zero-Day Attacks: Exploiting vulnerabilities in software that are
unknown to the software vendor, leaving them with no time to patch
the flaw before it is exploited.

14.3. VIRUSES AND WORMS

Viruses and worms are types of malware that can spread and infect
computers without user intervention.
• Viruses: Viruses attach themselves to legitimate files and execute
their malicious code when the file is opened or executed. They can
replicate and spread to other files, causing damage or stealing data.

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• Worms: Worms are self-replicating programs that spread through

networks or via removable media. They do not require a host file to
execute and can quickly spread across large networks, consuming
resources and disrupting operations.

14.4. PROTECTING AGAINST COMPUTER THREATS

There are several steps individuals and organizations can take to
protect themselves from computer threats:
• Install and maintain security software: Use antivirus, anti-
malware, and firewall software to detect and block malicious
software.
• Keep software up to date: Regularly update operating systems,
applications, and software drivers to patch vulnerabilities and
protect against known attacks.
• Be cautious with email attachments: Do not open attachments from
unknown senders or click on suspicious links in emails.
• Practice strong password hygiene: Use strong, unique passwords
for all accounts and enable two-factor authentication whenever
possible.
• Be mindful of social engineering tactics: Be wary of unsolicited
messages, calls, or pop-ups that ask for personal information or
financial details.
• Educate and train employees: Provide security awareness training
for employees to recognize and avoid common threats.
• Implement data backup and recovery plans: Regularly back up
important data and have a plan in place to recover from data loss or
cyberattacks.
By following these measures, individuals and organizations can
significantly reduce their risk of falling victim to computer threats and
protect their valuable data and systems.

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Number Systems 33

15. NUMBER SYSTEMS

Number systems are different ways of representing numbers. The

most common number systems are binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal.

Number System Base Numbers Example

Binary 2 0,1 1010
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 777
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 255
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F FF
Converting between number systems can be done by hand, but it is
often easier to use a calculator or computer program.

15.1. CONVERTING BINARY TO DECIMAL

• Identify the place value
of each digit in the
binary number (e.g., 25,
24, 23, 22, 21, and 20).
• Multiply each digit by its
corresponding place value.
• Add the products of each
digit to obtain the
decimal equivalent.

15.2. CONVERTING DECIMAL TO BINARY

1. Repeatedly divide the decimal number
by 2, recording the remainder (0 or
1) after each division.
2. The remainders, read in reverse
order, will be the binary equivalent.

15.3. CONVERTING OCTAL TO

DECIMAL
• Identify the place value of each
digit in the octal number (e.g., 85,
84, 83, 82, 81, and 80).
• Multiply each digit by its
corresponding place value.
• Add the products of each digit to obtain the decimal equivalent.

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Number Systems 34

15.4. CONVERTING DECIMAL TO OCTAL

• Repeatedly divide the decimal
number by 2, recording the remainder (0
or 1) after each division.
• The remainders, read in reverse
order, will be the binary equivalent.

15.5. CONVERTING HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL

• Identify the place value of each digit
in the hexadecimal number (e.g., 165,
164, 163, 162, 161, and 160).
• Multiply each digit by its
corresponding place value.
• Add the products of each digit to
obtain the decimal equivalent.

15.6. CONVERTING DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

• Repeatedly divide the decimal
number by 2, recording the
remainder (0 or 1) after each
division.
• The remainders, read in reverse
order, will be the binary
equivalent.

15.7. CONVERTING BINARY TO OCTAL

Converting binary to octal involves grouping Binary Octal
binary digits (bits) into sets of three and replacing
000 0
each set of three bits with a single octal digit.
001 1
Here's the step-by-step process:
010 2
Start by grouping the binary digits into sets of
011 3
three, starting from the rightmost bit. If there are
100 4
not enough bits to form a complete group of three, add
101 5
leading zeros to the left.
110 6
Replace each group of three binary digits with
111 7
its corresponding octal digit. Refer to the binary-to-
octal conversion table for the appropriate octal digit.
The resulting string of octal digits represents the octal
equivalent of the original binary number.
Example: Convert the binary number 10101101 to octal.

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Number Systems 35

Group the binary digits into sets of three starting from right side: 10
101 101
Replace each group with its corresponding octal digit: 010 101 101
5 3 5
The octal equivalent of 10101101 is 535.

15.8. CONVERTING BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL

Converting binary to hexadecimal involves grouping Binary Hexadecimal
binary digits into sets of four and replacing each 0000 0
set of four bits with a single hexadecimal digit. 0001 1
0010 2
Here's the step-by-step process:
0011 3
1. Start by grouping the binary digits into
0100 4
sets of four, starting from the rightmost 0101 5
bit. If there are not enough bits to form a 0110 6
complete group of four, add leading zeros to 0111 7
the left. 1000 8
1001 9
2. Replace each group of four binary digits
1010 A
with its corresponding hexadecimal digit.
1011 B
Refer to the binary-to-hexadecimal 1100 C
conversion table for the appropriate 1101 D
hexadecimal digit. 1110 E
3. The resulting string of hexadecimal digits 1111 F

represents the hexadecimal equivalent of the original binary

number.
Example: Convert the binary number 1010110101 to hexadecimal.
1. Group the binary digits into sets of four: 1010 1101 01
2. Replace each group with its corresponding hexadecimal digit: A D 5
3. The hexadecimal equivalent of 1010110101 is AD5.

15.9. CONVERTING OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL

There is no direct method of converting octal to hexadecimal, we
will first convert octal number to binary as done in section 15.7 and then
converting the binary number into hexadecimal as done in section 15.8.

15.10. CONVERTING HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL

There is no direct method of converting hexadecimal to octal, we
will first convert hexadecimal number to binary as done in section 13.8
and then converting the binary number into octal as done in section
15.715.8.

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CS-110 – Information and Communication Technologies