MME 324 _ PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS UNITS 3

Definition of Matter

Matter is defined as anything that takes up space and has mass. Everything
around you, is made up of matter. Matter is a generic term for the "stuff"
around you.
Taking up space means that an object has a measurable size or volume.
Mass is a property of matter that is a measure of its resistance to acceleration.
Another property of matter is that it has a gravitational force, such that
objects attract each other with a weak force. There are also various particles
of matter.

Questions you may have include:

• How does matter take up space?

• What is mass?
• What are the particles of matter?

This lesson will answer those questions.

Matter takes up space

Particles of matter have size and take up space. At the very least, all matter
has three dimensions: length, width and height. This is somewhat obvious
when you look at various objects around you. They all take up space.
Note: There are theories that matter may consist of many more than three
dimensions. Since we consist of matter, and we are also 3-dimensional
objects, we cannot experience or measure other dimensions except through
mathematical theories.
Measurements have been made of the diameter of various atoms and the
space they take up. It is assumed that the various subatomic particles also
have a physical size and take up space.

Matter has mass

When an object is accelerated, its inertia resists that acceleration according

to the mass of the object. Thus, mass is a property of matter that indicates
its resistance to acceleration.
Attraction
Objects or quantities of matter will attract each other through a gravitation
force related to the amount of mass in the objects.
Density
The amount of mass per unit volume of an object or material is called its
density. That is how much mass is stuffed into a given volume.

Particles of matter

There are various particles of matter that make up atoms.

Classical particles: Classical particles are the proton, neutron, and electron,
as well as their anti-particles. These can be subdivided into Leptons and
Quarks.
(See Fundamental Particles of Matter for more information.)
There are types of matter different than the ordinary forms.

Dark matter: Another variation of matter, called dark matter, is still a theory.
Astronomical measurements indicate that some galaxies have more mass than
is observed. The theory is that there exists some sort of "dark matter" that
cannot be seen but that has an influence on the gravity of those galaxies.

Summary

Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Taking up space means
that an object has a measurable volume. Mass indicates how much force is
required to move the object. Variations of matter include classical matter and
dark matter.

What is Condensed Matter Physics

According to Wikipedia:
Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the
macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In
particular, it is concerned with the “condensed” phases that appear
whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and
the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar
examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from
the electromagnetic forces between atoms.
The use of the term “Condensed Matter” being more general than just solid
state was coined and promoted by Nobel-Laureate Philip W. Anderson.

Why Do We Study Condensed Matter Physics?

There are several very good answers to this question
1. Because it is the world around us!
Almost all of the physical world that we see is in fact condensed matter.
Questions such as
 • why are metals shiny and why do they feel cold?
• why is glass transparent?
• why is water a fluid, and why does fluid feel wet?
• why is rubber soft and stretchy?
These questions are all in the domain of condensed matter physics. In
fact almost every question you might ask about the world around you,
short of asking about the sun or stars, is probably related to condensed
matter physics in some way.
2. Because it is useful
Over the last century our command of condensed matter physics has
enabled us humans to do remarkable things. We have used our
knowledge of physics to engineer new materials and exploit their
properties to change our world and our society completely. Perhaps the
most remarkable example is how our understanding of solid state
physics enabled new inventions exploiting semiconductor technology,
which enabled the electronics industry, to innovate computers, iPhones,
and everything else we now take for granted.
3. Because it is deep
The questions that arise in condensed matter physics are as deep as
those you might find anywhere. In fact, many of the ideas that are now
used in other fields of physics can trace their origins to condensed
matter physics.
A few examples for fun:
• The famous Higgs boson, which the LHC is searching for, is no different
from a phenomenon that occurs in superconductors (the domain of
condensed matter physicists).
The Higgs mechanism, which gives mass to elementary particles is
frequently called the “Anderson-Higgs” mechanism, after the condensed
matter physicist Phil Anderson (the same guy who coined the term
“condensed matter”) who described much of the same physics before
Peter Higgs, the high energy theorist.
• The ideas of the renormalization group (Nobel prize to Kenneth Wilson
in 1982) was developed simultaneously in both high-energy and
condensed matter physics.
• The ideas of topological quantum field theories, while invented by
string theorists as theories of quantum gravity, have been discovered in
the laboratory by condensed matter physicists!
• In the last few years there has been a mass exodus of string theorists
applying blackhole physics (in N-dimensions!) to phase transitions in
real materials. The very same structures exist in the lab that are
(maybe!) somewhere out in the cosmos!
That this type of physics is deep is not just my opinion. The Nobel
committee agrees with
 me. During this course we will discuss the work of no fewer than 50
Nobel laureates! (See the index of scientists at the end of this set of
notes).
4. Because reductionism doesn’t work
People frequently have the feeling that if you continually ask “what is it
made of” you learn more about something. This approach to knowledge
is known as reductionism.
For example, asking what water is made of, someone may tell you it is
made from molecules, then molecules are made of atoms, atoms of
electrons and protons, protons of quarks, and quarks are made of who-
knows-what. But none of this information tells you anything about why
water is wet, about why protons and neutrons bind to form nuclei, why
the atoms bind to form water, and so forth. Understanding physics
inevitably involves understanding how many objects all interact with
each other. And this is where things get difficult very quickly.
We understand the Schroedinger equation extremely well for one
particle, but the Schroedinger equations for four or more particles, while
in principle solvable, in practice are never solved because they are too
difficult — even for the world’s biggest computers. Physics involves
figuring out what to do then.

How are we to understand how many quarks form a nucleus, or how

many electrons and protons form an atom if we cannot solve the many
particle Schroedinger equation?

Even more interesting is the possibility that we understand very well the
microscopic theory of a system, but then we discover that
macroscopic properties emerge from the system that we did not
expect.
1 Reductionism would never uncover this—it misses the point
completely.
5. Because it is a Laboratory
Condensed matter physics is perhaps the best laboratory we have for
studying quantum physics and statistical physics. Those of us who are
fascinated by what quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics can
 do often end up studying condensed matter physics which is deeply
grounded in both of these topics. Condensed matter is an infinitely
varied playground for physicists to test strange quantum and statistical
effects.

Physical Properties of Matter

The physical properties of matter can be viewed from either the macroscopic
and microscopic level. The macroscopic level includes anything seen with the
naked eye and the microscopic level includes atoms and molecules, things not
seen with the naked eye. Both levels describe matter. Matter is anything that
occupies space and has mass and can be in three states: Solid, Liquid, or Gas.

States of Matter

All of the matter that we encounter in our everyday lives is found in one of
the three phases: solid, liquid, or gas. They are important in multiple ways.
From simply understanding why an ice cube melts, to understanding how
our refrigerator works, phase transitions are crucial to understand in
chemistry. In this section it is vital to gain better knowledge of what phase
transitions actually are and why these everyday events occur.

• A gas has NEITHER a definite volume NOR shape. At the microscopic

level, gaseous particles are very far apart. These particles move fast
and independently of each other.
• A solid has a definite shape and definite volume. At the microscopic
level, solids particles are very close to each other.
• A liquid has a definite volume but NOT a definite shape. In other words,
a liquid can conform to the shape of its container.

Microscopic and macroscopic properties of matter

There are two contrasting views we can take of matter. At the most
fundamental level is the microscopic view in which we regard matter as a
collection of atoms and molecules. This is essential for understanding the
chemical changes a substance is able to undergo, but it is not usually what we
consider when we look at the material world in which we live. What we
experience with our senses is the macroscopic view associated the bulk
properties of matter such as its density, color, mechanical- and electrical
properties.
It is these properties that are generally of immediate practical interest, but a
bit of reflection will convince you that the macroscopic properties must
ultimately be governed by what happens at the atomic and molecular levels.
A major purpose of this unit is to help you understand the connections
between these two contrasting views.

What distinguishes solids, liquids, and gases– the so-called

states of matter-, from each other?
Let us begin at the microscopic level, by reviewing what we know about gases,
the simplest state in which matter can exist. At ordinary pressures, the
molecules of a gas are so far apart that intermolecular forces have an
insignificant effect on the random thermal motions of the individual particles.
As the temperature decreases and the pressure increases, intermolecular
attractions become more important, and there will be an increasing tendency
for molecules to form temporary clusters. These are so short-lived, however,
that even under extreme conditions, gases cannot be said to possess
“structure” in the usual sense.
The contrast at the microscopic level between solids, liquids and gases is
most clearly seen in the simplified schematic views in Fig. 1.

The molecular units of solids tend to be highly ordered, with each unit
occupying a fixed position with respect to the others.
In liquids, the molecules are able to slip around each other, introducing an
element of disorder and creating some void spaces that decrease the density.
Gases present a picture of almost total disorder, with practically no restrictions
on where any one molecule can be.
Fig. 1 provides a simplified 2-dimensional microscopic view of the distinctions
between the three states of matter.

1.1 Solids, liquids and gases: how to tell them apart

Having lived our lives in a world composed of solids, liquids, and gases, few
of us ever have any difficulty deciding into which of these categories a given
sample of matter falls. Our decision is most commonly based on purely visual
cues: a gas is transparent and has no definite boundaries other than those
that might be imposed by the walls of a confining vessel. Liquids and solids
possess clearly defined phase boundaries that give solids their definite shapes
and whose light-reflecting properties enable us to distinguish one phase from
another. Solids can have any conceivable shape, and their surfaces are usually
too irregular to show specular (mirror-like) reflection of light. Liquids, on the
other hand, are mobile; except when suspended as droplets, liquids have no
inherent shape of their own, but assume the shape of their container and show
an approximately flat upper surface.
Our experience also tells us that these categories are quite distinct; a phase,
which you will recall is a region of matter having uniform intensive properties,
is either a gas, a liquid, or a solid. Thus, the three states of matter are not
simply three points on a continuum; when a solid melts to a liquid, it usually
does so at a definite temperature, without apparently passing through any
states that are intermediate between a solid and a liquid.
Although these common-sense perceptions are usually correct, they are not
infallible, and in fact there are gases that are not transparent, there are solids
such as glasses and many plastics that undergo a gradual transition from solid
to liquid known as softening, and when subject to enough pressure, solids can
exhibit something of the flow properties of liquids (glacial ice, for example).
A more scientific approach would be to compare the macroscopic physical
properties of the three states of matter, but even here we run into difficulty.
It is true, for example, that the density of a gas is usually about a thousandth
of that of the liquid or solid at the same temperature and pressure; thus one
gram of water vapor at 100 ◦C and 1 atm pressure occupies a volume of 1671
mL; when it condenses to liquid water at the same temperature, it occupies
only 1.043 mL. It is this extreme contrast with the gaseous states that leads
to the appellation “condensed states of matter” for liquids and solids.
However, gases at very high pressures can have densities that exceed those
of other solid and liquid substances, so density alone is not a sufficiently
comprehensive criterion for distinguishing between the gaseous and
condensed states of matter.

Problem Example 1
Compare the density of gaseous xenon (131 g/mol) at 100 atm and 0 ◦C with
that of a hydrocarbon liquid for which ρ = 0.104g/ml at the same temperature.

Similarly, the density of a solid is usually greater than that of the

corresponding liquid at the same temperature and pressure, but not always:
you have certainly seen ice floating on water.
Other physical properties, such as the compressibility, surface tension,
and viscosity, are somewhat more useful for distinguishing between the
different states of matter. These, however, provide no well-defined dividing
lines between the various states.
Rather than try to develop a strict scheme for classifying the three states of
matter, it will be more useful to simply present a few generalizations (Table
1, below)

property gas liquid solid

density small large large
thermal expansion coefficient large (= R ÷ P ) small small
cohesiveness nil small large
surface tension nil medium very large
viscosity small medium very large
kinetic energy per molecule large small smaller
disorder very large medium small

Table 1: Relative magnitudes of some properties of the three states of matter

Some of these deal with macroscopic properties (that is, properties such as
the density that relate to bulk matter), and others with microscopic properties
that refer to the individual molecular units.

2 Condensed matter and structure

Even the most casual inspection of Fig. 1 shows that solids and liquids possess
an important commonality that distinguishes them from gases: in solids and
liquids, the molecules are in contact with their neighbors.
As a consequence, these condensed states of matter possess much higher
densities than gases.
Structure of liquids
You can think of a simple liquid such as argon or methane as a collection of
loosely-packed marbles that can assume various shapes. Although the overall
arrangement of the individual molecular units is entirely random, there is a
certain amount of short-range order: the presence of one molecule at a given
spot means that the neighboring molecules must be at least as far away as
the sum of the two radii, and this in turn affects the possible locations of more
distant concentric shells of molecules.
An important consequence of the disordered arrangement of molecules in a
liquid is the presence of void spaces. These, together with the increased
kinetic energy of colliding molecules which helps push them apart, are
responsible for the approximately 15-percent decrease in density that is
observed when solids based on simple spherical molecules such as neon, Ne
and mercury, Hg melt into liquids. These void spaces are believed to be the
key to the flow properties of liquids; the more “holes” there are in the liquid,
the more easily the molecules can slip and slide over one another.
As the temperature rises, thermal motions of the molecules increase and the
local structure begins to deteriorate, as shown in Fig. 2.
There is very little experimental information on the structure of liquids,
other than the X-ray diffraction studies that yield plots such as in Fig. 2. It
is very difficult to design experiments that yield the kind of information
required to define the microscopic arrangement of molecules in the liquid
state.
Many of our current ideas on the subject come from computer
simulations based on hypothetical models. In a typical experiment, the
paths of about 1000 molecules in a volume of space are calculated.
The molecules are initially given random kinetic energies whose
distribution is consistent with the Boltzmann distribution for a given
temperature. The trajectories of all the molecules are followed as they
change with time due to collisions and other interactions; these
interactions must be calculated according to an assumed potential
energy-vs.-distance function that is part of the particular model being
investigated.

Relative probability of finding a

mercury atom at various distances
from another atom in liquid mercury
at three different temperatures.
 successive circles of a bullseye centered
on any one molecule are less likely to
pass near the centers of more distant
molecules.

Figure 2: Short-range structure in liquids.

These computer experiments suggest that whatever structure simple

liquids do possess is determined mainly by the repulsive forces between
the molecules; the attractive forces act in a rather nondirectional,
general way to hold the liquid together. It is also found that if spherical
molecules are packed together as closely as geometry allows (in which
each molecule would be in contact with twelve nearest neighbors), the
collection will have a long-range order characteristic of a solid until the
density is decreased by about ten percent, at which point the molecules
can slide around and move past one another, thus preserving only short-
range order.
In recent years, experimental studies based on ultra-short laser flashes
have revealed that local structures in liquids have extremely short
lifetimes, of the order of picoseconds to nanoseconds.

The volume of a liquid, unlike that of a gas, is hardly affected at all by an

increase in the pressure; we say that the compressibility (1/V*dV/dP) is very
small. The obvious interpretation of this fact is that the molecules of a liquid
must be in “direct contact” with one another, so that any attempt to squeeze
them even closer is strongly opposed by the repulsive forces between the
electron clouds of neighboring molecules. This ability of a liquid to transmit a
force is the basis of the hydraulically operated brake system in your car:
the pressure of your foot on the brake pedal is instantly transmitted to the
cylinders that operate mechanical brakes on each of the wheels.

Structure of water
Many liquids are composed of molecules that exert specific and often highly
directional forces on each other. The most notable example of such a liquid is
water, in which a hydrogen atom of one H2O molecule is attracted to the
oxygen atom of another molecule. This effect known as hydrogen bonding;
hydrogen bonds are weaker than ordinary chemical bonds, so in liquid water
they are continually being broken by thermal motions and then reformed in a
slightly different configuration. Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the so-
called anomalous properties of water that make it an unusual and unique
substance.
The most energetically favorable configuration of H2O molecules is one in
which each molecule is hydrogen-bonded to three neighboring molecules.
Owing to the thermal motions described above, this ideal is never achieved in
the liquid, but when water freezes to ice, the molecules settle into exactly this
kind of an arrangement in the ice crystal. This arrangement requires that the
molecules be somewhat farther apart then would otherwise be the case; as a
consequence, ice, in which hydrogen bonding is at its maximum, has a more
open structure, and thus a lower density than water.
When ice melts, the more vigorous thermal motion disrupts much of the
hydrogen-bonded structure, allowing the molecules to pack more closely.
Water is thus one of the very few substances whose solid form has a lower
density than the liquid at the freezing point.

Localized clusters of hydrogen bonds still remain, however; these are

continually breaking and reforming as the thermal motions agitate and shove
the individual molecules. As the temperature of the water is raised above
freezing, the extent and lifetimes of these clusters diminish, so the density of
the water increases.
At higher temperatures, another effect, common to all substances, begins
to dominate: as the temperature increases, so does the amplitude of thermal
motions. This more vigorous jostling causes the average distance between the
molecules to increase, reducing the density of the liquid; this is ordinary
thermal expansion.
Because the two competing effects (hydrogen bonding at low temperatures
and thermal expansion at higher temperatures) both lead to a decrease in
density, it follows that there must be some temperature at which the density
of water passes through a maximum. This temperature is 4 ◦C; this is the
temperature of the water you will find at the bottom of an ice-covered lake in
which this most dense of all water has displaced the colder water and pushed
it nearer to the surface.

Water: thermal motions

Ice: optimum hydrogen disrupt hydrogen bonding,
bonding produces a allowing closer encounters
more open structure between H2O molecules.

Figure 4: Schematic structures of ice and water.

Structure of solids
The solid state, being the form of any substance that prevails at lower
temperatures, is one in which thermal motion plays an even smaller role than
in liquids. The thermal kinetic energy that the individual molecular units do
have allows them to oscillate around a fixed center whose location is
determined by the balance between local forces of attraction and repulsion
due to neighboring units, but only very rarely will a molecule jump out of the
fixed space allotted to it in the lattice. Thus solids, unlike liquids, exhibit
cohesiveness and rigidity, and possess definite shapes.
Crystalline solids
In a solid comprised of identical molecular units, the most favored (lowest
potential energy) locations occur at regular intervals in space. If each of these
locations is actually occupied, the solid is known as a perfect crystal.
What really defines a crystalline solid is that its structure is composed of rep
eating unit cells each containing a small number of molecular units bearing a
fixed geometric relation to one another. The resulting long-range order defines
a three-dimensional geometric framework known as a lattice. A typical lattice
arrangement is shown in Fig. below.

Figure: The sodium chloride crystal lattice.

Geometric theory shows that only fourteen different types of lattices are
possible in three dimensions, and that just six different unit cell arrangements
can generate these lattices. The regularity of the external faces of crystals,
which in fact correspond to lattice planes, reflects the long-range order
inherent in the underlying structure.
 Space
Crystal Lattice Ty Edge
System pe Diagram Lengths Angles Examples

a b
Simple
Polonium
1 Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°
(Po)
primitive c
 Iron (Fe),

Rubidium
(Rb),

Sodium
(Na),

Body Titanium
2 Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°
centred (Ti),

Tungsten
(W),

Uranium (U),

Zirconium
(Zr)

Copper (Cu),

Aluminium
(Al),

Face Nickel (Ni),

3 Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°
centred
Gold (Au),

Silver (Ag),

Platinum (Pt)

Simple

4 Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90°

SnO2
primitive
 Body
5 Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90° Ti, O2,
centred
CaSO4

Simple
Orthorhombi Rhombic
6 a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90°
c sulphur
primitive

Orthorhombi Body
7 a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90°
c centred KNO3

Orthorhombi Face
8 a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90°
c centred BaSO4
 Orthorhombi End
9 a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° MgSO4,
c centred
7H2O

simple
α =γ = 90° Monoclinic
10 Monoclinic a≠b≠c
and β ≠ 90° sulphur
primitive

End α =γ = 90°
11 Monoclinic a≠b≠c Na2SO4.
centred and β ≠ 90
10H2O
 simple
α =γ = 90°
12 Triclinic a≠b≠c K2Cr2O7,
and β ≠ 90°
H3BO3
primitive

ZnO,
α = β = 90°
Simple

13 Hexagonal a=b≠c BeO,

and
primitive CoS,
γ = 120°
SnS

Simple
Calcite,
Rhombohedr α=
14 a≠b≠c NaNO3,
al β = γ ≠ 90°
FeCO3
primitive
•Based on the symmetry operations, the minimal requirements for the 7
crystal systems in 3-D are:
1. Triclinic, all cases not satisfying the requirements of any other system; thus
there is no symmetry other than translational symmetry, or inversion (1) or
identity (1) in 3-D.
2. Monoclinic, requires either 1 two-fold axis of rotation (180°), or 1 mirror
(m) plane, or 1 combined 2/m operation.
3. Orthorhombic, requires either 3 two-fold axes of rotation (180°), or 1 two
fold axis of rotation (180°) and two mirror (m) planes, or combination of 3
total two-fold rotation(s) & mirror(s).
4. Tetragonal, requires 1 four-fold axis of rotation (90°).
5. Rhombohedral (trigonal), requires 1 three-fold axis of rotation (120°) along
one body diagonal.
6. Hexagonal, requires 1 six-fold axis of rotation (60°).
7. Cubic, requires 4 three-fold axes of rotation (120°) along all 4 body
diagonals.

Perfection is no more attainable in a crystal than in anything else; real crystals

contain defects of various kinds, such as lattice positions that are either
vacant or occupied by impurities, or by abrupt displacements or dislocations
of the lattice structure.
Amorphous solids
In some solids there is so much disorder that the substance cannot be
considered crystalline at all; such a solid is said to be amorphous. Amorphous
solids possess short-range order but are devoid of any organized structure
over longer distances; in this respect they resemble liquids. However, their
rigidity and cohesiveness allow them to retain a definite shape, so for most
practical purposes they can be considered to be solids.
Glasses and most plastics are common examples of amorphous solids.
Ordinary glass is composed mostly of SiO2, which usually exists in nature in a
crystalline form known as quartz. In the manufacture of glass, quartz (in the
form of sand) is melted and allowed to cool. As the liquid SiO 2 cools, it
becomes so viscous that the molecules are unable to move to the low potential
energy positions they would occupy in the crystal lattice, so that the disorder
present in the liquid gets “frozen into” the solid. In this sense, glass can be
regarded as a supercooled liquid. Glasses are transparent because the
distances over which disorder appears are small compared to the wavelength
of visible light.
Plastics and natural materials such as rubber or cellulose are composed of
very large molecules called polymers. Owing to their great length, these
molecules tend to become entangled in the liquid state, and are unable to
separate to form a crystal lattice on cooling. In general, it is very difficult to
get such substances to form anything other than amorphous solids.

The melting of a crystalline compound corresponds to a sudden loss of long-

range order; this is the fundamental reason that such solids exhibit definite
melting points, and it is why there is no intermediate form between the liquid
and the solid states.

In amorphous solids there is no long-range order, so there is no melting point

in the usual sense. Such solids simply become less and less viscous as the
temperature is raised. In some polymers (known as thermoplastics) there
is a fairly definite softening point that is observed when the thermal kinetic
energy becomes high enough to allow internal rotation to occur within the
bonds of the individual polymer molecules, thus rendering them more flexible
and deformable.

Figure : Schematic structures of crystalline and amorphous SiO2

Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

Fundamental Concepts
Every matter is composed, at a small scale, of a collection of atoms joined
together somehow.
Each atom is itself composed of tinier objects: a nucleus (made up of proton
and neutrons) which is surrounded or encircled by electrons.
Electrons are negatively charged: -1.6E-19 C/electron
Protons are positively charged: +1.6E-19 C/proton
Proton mass = 1.67E-27 kg
Electron mass = 9.11E-31 kg

Each element in nature (e.g. Hydrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Aluminum, etc.)

has:
- An atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus
- Neutron number (N) = number of neutrons for an element (can vary
from the number of protons. This is called isotopes)
- The atomic mass (A) = Z+N, Question: why not consider the electron
mass as well?
A unit of mass for atoms is called an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1/12 of
the Carbon 12 (12C) isotope which is the most common isotope of
carbon. Here A=12.00000.
As it turns out, 1 amu/atom (or molecule; a molecule being a collection
of bonded atoms) = 1 g/mol, where one mole of substance = 6.023E23
atoms or molecules (this is Avogadro’s number).
Atomic Models
The set of laws that govern atomic and subatomic entities (like electrons, for
example) are called Quantum Mechanics.
Bohr Atomic Model: electrons revolve in discrete circular orbitals around the
atomic nucleus.
The orbits are also called shells. Each orbit represents a fixed amount of
energy that the one orbit to another. An electron can move to a higher orbit
or state of energy by absorbing energy, or down to a lower orbit or state of
energy by emitting energy.
The first shell or state of energy can take up to 2 atoms, the second one up
to 8, the third one up to 18 and the fourth one up to 32.
The simplest atomic model is that for Hydrogen which has only one electron.
This electron prefers to stay in the lowest energy state or orbit close to the
nucleus (this is called “ground state” for an atom). However, if excited by
gaining energy, it can make discrete jumps to one of the higher orbits or states
(this is called “excited atomic state”).

Another well-known atomic model is called the “wave-mechanical model”

which is more complex than Bohr’s model and basically assumes that an
electron does not have a welldefined orbit around the nucleus and instead
could probably exists at any position on, below or above this orbit. We are not
going to discuss this model further.

“Valence electrons” are those in the outermost nonempty shell of an atom.

These electrons are important since they participate in bonding between
different atoms to form atomic and molecular aggregates.
The best example is hydrogen, which is found in nature as H2 (two Hydrogen
atoms making one molecule. This is attained by sharing their valence
electrons).
 Elements are arranged in the “Periodic Table” in rows according to their atomic
number and in columns according to the number of valence electrons they
have (which dictates also their chemical and physical properties). The ones
that have relatively very few atoms in their outer most shell is in the left
columns (e.g. Na, Li, Mg, etc.). Those with a relatively large number of atoms
are in the right columns (e.g. F, Cl).
Elements with completely filled outer electron shells are inert or non-reactive
(e.g. Ar, Kr, He). Those are in the right-most column.
An ion is simply an atom that has gained one or more electrons (called Anion
and is negatively charged) or lost one or more (called cation or positively
charged).

Putting Materials Together: Chemical Bonding

Type of Typical of which

Bonding Description compounds Typical Properties
Ionic Electron is transferred Binary compounds made of •Hard, Very Brittle
from one atom to an- constituents with very •High Melting Temperature
other, and the resulting different electronegativity: •Electrical Insulator
ions attract each other Ex, group I-VII compounds •Water Soluble
such as NaCl.
Covalent Electron is shared Compounds made of •Very Hard (Brittle)
equally between two constituents with similar •High Melting Temperature
atoms forming a bond. electronegativities (ex, III-V •Electrical Insulators or
Energy lowered by compounds such as GaAs), or Semiconductors
delocalization of wave- solids made of one element
function only such as
diamond (C)
Metallic Bonds Electrons delocalized Metals. Left and Middle of •Ductile, Malleable
throughout the solid Periodic Table (due to non-directional nature
forming a glue between of bond.
positive ions. Can be hardened by preventing
dislocation motion with
impurities)
•Lower Melting Temperature
•Good electrical and
thermal conductors.
Molecular No transfer of electrons. Noble Gas Solids, Solids •Soft, Weak
(van der Waals Dipole moments on made of Non-Polar (or •Low Melting Temperature
or constituents align to slightly polar) Molecules •Electrical Insulators
Fluctuating cause attraction. Binding to Each Other (Wax)
Dipole) Bonding strength
increases with size of
 molecule or polarity of
constituent.
Hydrogen Involves Hydrogen ion Important in organic and •Weak Bond (stronger than
bound to one atom but biological materials VdW though)
still attracted to another. •Important for maintaining
Special case because H is shape of DNA and proteins
so small.

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Atomic interaction

When two neutral atoms are brought close to each other, they experience
attractive and or repulsive force.
Attractive force is due to electrostatic attraction between electrons of one
atom and the nucleus of the other.
Repulsive force arises due to repulsion between electrons and nuclei of the
atoms.
The net force, FN (Fig. above), acting on the atoms is the summation of
attractive and repulsive forces.
The distance, at which the attraction and repulsion forces are equal and the
net force is zero, is the equilibrium interatomic distance, ro. The atoms have
lowest energy at this position.
Attraction is predominant above ro and repulsion is dominant below ro.

Bonding Forces and Energies

Consider a molecule made up of two atoms separated by an equilibrium
distance ro. If one tries to pull these atoms apart the atoms will feel an
attraction (an attractive force) that wants to pull them back to where they
were (in proximity to one another). Left alone the two atoms will go back to
their initial configuration (i.e. experience an attractive force, F). This is
because of the “bond” that these atoms have, which can be thought of as a
spring attached between the atoms such that it is unstretched in the original
configuration before the pull. If one tries to push the atoms closer to one
another, a repulsive force (F) will be felt which wants to keep the two atoms
apart (so as not to keep them compressed against one another) again back to
where they were.

The work done in separating or pushing the atoms closer is (from mechanics)
given by:
Work = Potential Energy, E = ∫Fdr, where F is the bonding force resisting the
change in r. The work is stored here as potential energy (remember the spring
analogy).
Assuming a force F vs. r curve as below, the E vs. r curve will then look as
given below the force curve.
The energy corresponding to ro, Eo, is the minimum energy state and is called
the “bonding energy”
There are few implications of the bonding energy as one might anticipate. For
example, materials with strong bonding energies exhibit high melting points
or temperatures. Also, at room temperatures, these materials are in a solid
state. If the bonds were weak, the material is typically a gas. If it is
intermediate, then it is typically a liquid.
Types of atomic bonds: primary (or chemical) bonds and secondary (van der
Waals or physical) bonds.
Primary bonds are: Ionic, covalent, and metallic.