Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. CMT-A

SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
YEAR LEVEL 2 TIME FRAME 10 hr WK NO. 10-11 IM NO. 4

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

IRON AND STEEL

II. LESSON TITLE

 Structure and composition
 Production of ferrous metals
 Iron
 Steel
 Steel tensile test
 Steel protection
 Structural steel
 Structural connections
 Reinforcing steel

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

V. LESSON CONTENT

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Iron in its various forms, including steel, is by far the most important of the metals used in the construction industry. The
term ferrous metals includes all forms of iron and steel. They are manufactured to meet a wide variety of specifications for
various uses. Chemical composition and internal structure of ferrous metals are closely controlled during manufacturing.
Therefore, strength and other mechanical properties can be determined with a high degree of reliability. Ferrous products
are fabricated in shops to desired size and shape. The finished products are ordinarily delivered to a construction site
ready to be installed, with inspection and testing completed. Ferrous metals are seldom damaged during transportation
because of their strength and hardness. Therefore, people in the construction field have little opportunity to control the
quality of iron or steel. Compared to aggregates, asphalt concrete, or portland cement concrete, all of which are partially
“manufactured” during installation at the construction site, there is little that can be done to improve or harm a ferrous
metal product once it leaves the fabrication shop. Iron and steel appear to be smooth and uniform, yet they consist of
particles called grains or crystals that can be distinguished under a microscope. The grains are formed as the metal
passes from the liquid to the solid state. This internal crystalline structure called the constitution determines to a great
extent what mechanical properties the metal will have. Each grain consists of a symmetrical pattern of atoms which is the
same in all types of iron and steel. The grains are not all similar because they press on each other as they form, causing
variations in size, shape, and arrangement, and this accounts for many of the differences in the behavior of various irons
and steels. The strength of the metal depends on the cohesion of the atoms in each crystal and the cohesion between
adjacent crystals. In this respect, the structure is somewhat like that of aggregate surrounded by adhesive to make
concrete. Instead of adhesion holding the crystals or grains together, an atomic bond which is much stronger holds them.
Iron and steel therefore have a higher tensile strength than any aggregate– adhesive combination. The final temperature
and rate of heating do not affect the internal structure at the time materials are melted to make pig iron or when pig iron
is melted to make iron or steel. However, the rate of cooling is important. Rapid cooling causes large crystals. Metal with
large crystals is more brittle and does not have the strength, ductility, or shock resistance of metal with the smaller
crystals caused by slower cooling. However, large crystals produce better machinability. No ferrous metal is pure iron. All
include the elements shown in Table 5–1, which have great effect on the properties of the metal, even if present in very
small amounts. The chemical content of the metal is determined by the composition of the iron ore, the way in which the
metal is heated, and the elements added to it at different stages. Iron ore contains varying percentages of manganese,
silicon, and sulfur, and may or may not contain some phosphorus. Carbon comes from the burning coke, and additional
carbon may be added to the molten metal. Excess sulfur may be removed by the addition of manganese. Generally
speaking, longer or hotter treatment in a furnace decreases the percentages of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, silicon,
and sulfur. Increases are made by adding the desired element to the liquid metal. Other elements also may be added to
the liquid metal (refer to Table 5–3).
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PRODUCTION OF FERROUS METALS

The first step in the manufacture of iron or steel is to produce a low grade of iron in a continuously operating furnace
called a blast furnace. These furnaces are about 200 ft high and about 50 ft in diameter (Figure 5–1). Iron ore, coke, and
limestone are loaded continuously at the top. Iron ore is an oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil called
gangue. Coke is produced by heating coal to drive the impurities out. It then burns with greater heat than coal. Limestone
is a type of rock that occurs in nature. Burning the coke and supporting the combustion with a strong blast of hot air melt
the iron ore and limestone at a temperature of about 1500°F (815°C). The heat melts the iron, frees it of oxygen, and
forms carbon monoxide gas, which imparts carbon to the liquid iron. The iron flows into molds and is allowed to solidify
into shapes called pigs, or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into steel or a better grade of iron. In either
case, the product of the blast furnace is called pig iron. Pig iron is not useful for construction because it is weak and
brittle, although it is very hard. The general term iron refers to a ferrous metal that is of a higher quality than pig iron. To
produce useful iron or steel, a second melting is needed for further purification.

 IRON

It is possible to refine pig iron until it is nearly pure iron containing little more than traces of impurities. In this form, iron
is suitable for construction. It is highly resistant to corrosion, highly ductile, and readily machined. It is drawn into wires
and rolled into sheets for roofing, siding, and corrugated pipe. Vitreous enamel coatings adhere well to this type of iron.
The types of iron more common to the construction industry are gray and white cast iron, malleable cast iron, and wrought
iron.
 Cast iron is a general term denoting ferrous metals composed primarily of iron, carbon, and silicon, and
shaped by being cast in a mold. They are too brittle to be shaped any other way. The brittleness is caused by the large
amount of carbon present, which also increases strength. Wrought iron is highly refined iron with slag deliberately
incorporated but not in chemical union with the iron. The slag forms one-directional fibers uniformly distributed throughout
the metal. Chemical compositions of various types of iron are shown with cast steel in Table 5–2. Pig iron is remelted in
small furnaces to make the cast metals. Chemical composition is controlled by the addition of scrap iron or steel of various
kinds and of silicon and manganese as needed. The molten metal flows from the furnace to a ladle from which it is poured
into molds to be formed into useful shapes. This operation is called casting. The materials of which molds are made are
listed below:
 molding sand: a cohesive mixture of sand and clay.
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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 loam: a cohesive mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
 shell mold: a mold consisting of a mixture of sand and resin that hardens when heated prior to the
casting.
 metal dies: molds machined to the proper mold shape.

The first three types of mold are used once and broken to remove the casting. The dies may be used thousands of times.
The first two types are formed around a pattern, which is usually made of wood. For a shell mold the pattern is made of
metal which is heated to solidify the mold material. The size of the pattern in all cases must allow for cooling shrinkage of
the casting. Patterns may be reused, whether wood or metal. Gray cast iron, the most widely used type of iron, has a high
carbon content and contains large numbers of graphite flakes. The flakes give a gray appearance to a fractured surface.
Properties of gray iron include low viscosity when molten (so that fairly intricate castings can be made), excellent
machinability, high resistance to abrasion, and rather poor ductility and toughness. ASTM A48, Gray Iron Castings,
contains specifications for gray cast iron. White cast iron contains its carbon completely combined with the iron. A
fractured surface appears bright white. The advantages of white iron over gray iron are that it is harder and more resistant
to wear from abrasion. However, it is more difficult to machine, less resistant to corrosion, more brittle, and more difficult
to cast. By controlling chemical composition and cooling rate, castings with cores of gray iron and surfaces of white iron
can be made. These are called chilled iron castings. White iron is used in machinery such as crushers, grinders, chutes,
and mixers where resistance to abrasion is critical. Cast iron with the carbon reformed from flakes into tiny spheroids by
the addition of magnesium to the molten iron is known as ductile iron. Malleable cast iron consists of white iron made
tough and ductile by annealing, which consists of heating to about 1600°F (870°C), holding that temperature for a time,
and cooling very slowly to about 1275°F (710°C). This process requires several days. During the entire process, carbon
is precipitated from the solution as small lumps in the metal until there is no combined carbon. Some carbon may be
allowed to remain combined to increase hardness, strength, and resistance to abrasion. There is then a loss of ductility
and toughness. Brittleness is eliminated by removal of carbon from solution, and machinability is improved by the carbon
lumps. Malleable iron is used for pipe fittings, guardrail fittings, and other items which require machining and which are
subject to shock loads. Wrought iron is made by refining pig iron in a furnace in a manner similar to the refining of steel.
The iron silicate slag is melted, and the relatively pure molten iron is poured into the slag. A pasty mixture of the two is
formed, with the slag evenly distributed as individual particles. The mixture forms a semisolid ball, which is dumped out and
pressed into a rectangular block, squeezing the excess slag out in the process. The block is rolled to the desired shape,
aligning the slag as strings or ribbons in the direction of rolling. It is then readily shaped further by drawing, bending, or
forging, and can be made into thin, intricate shapes. It is easily welded and machined. Wrought iron has excellent corrosion
resistance which is greater on faces that have been rolled than on sheared or machined faces. Wrought iron pipe is used
extensively where corrosion resistance is needed. This type of pipe has threaded joints because wrought iron is easily
machined.

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 STEEL

Pig iron is further oxidized in another furnace at about 3000°F (1650°C) to produce steel. Most steel is made by the
basic oxygen process, electric-arc process, open-hearth process, or vacuum process. Each has unique features, but in
all cases, pig iron, scrap steel, and sometimes iron ore are melted together with a flux of limestone or lime. The process
is a repetition of the blast-furnace operation with variations. The purpose is the same—to remove impurities. Impurities
are removed as gases and in the slag. Phosphorus and sulfur are reduced to less than 0.05 percent of the steel.
Manganese content is reduced to an amount from 0.2 to 2.0 percent; silicon from 0.01 to 0.35 percent. The final
amounts depend on the specifications for the steel. Carbon is the key element in controlling the properties of ordinary
steel called carbon steel. Strength and hardness increase with an increase in carbon up to about 1.2 percent. Brittleness
increases and ductility decreases as carbon increases. Usually an amount less than 1.2 percent is specified in order to
obtain a product satisfactory in all respects. Carbon in an amount up to 2 percent is completely soluble in molten iron, and
when cooled, the mixture forms a solid chemical solution. Carbon in greater amounts forms separate grains of graphite or
iron carbide throughout the metal. Steel is defined as a chemical union of iron and carbon (carbon is, therefore, less than
2 percent by weight) plus other elements. This definition does not exclude every kind of iron. However, almost all kinds of
iron contain carbon in excess of 2 percent and steel usually contains less than 1.2 percent carbon. Therefore, it is usually
obvious whether a ferrous metal is iron or steel. Customary terminology should be used for borderline cases. The term
iron is used to refer to cast iron, malleable cast iron, ductile iron, wrought iron, or pure iron. As can be seen in Table 5–2,
some of these metals may have less than 2 percent carbon. Any added element is considered an alloying element, but
when only the aforementioned five elements are involved, the steel is not considered an alloy steel. Other elements
may be added to impart certain properties to steel. These are also called alloying elements, and the steel that results is
called alloy steel. Table 5–3 shows the effects of alloying elements. Steels are identified according to a classification
system of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Each type of steel is designated by a group of numbers. The first
digit indicates the class of steel. For example, carbon steel is designated by No. 1 and nickel steel by No. 2. The next
one or two digits indicate the approximate percentage of the major alloying element for alloy steels. The last two or three
digits indicate the carbon content in hundredths of a percent. The classification system is outlined in Table 5–4. Besides
the key information shown directly by the classification number, percentage ranges for all impurities and alloying elements
are also designated indirectly when the system is used. The system provides a simplified way to specify steel. For
example, a 1018 steel is a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.20 percent carbon, 0.60 to 0.90 percent manganese,
0.040 maximum percent phosphorus, and 0.050 maximum percent sulfur; and 4320 steel is a molybdenum steel
containing 0.17 to 0.22 percent carbon, 0.45 to 0.65 percent manganese, 0.040 percent phosphorus, 0.040 percent
sulfur, 0.20 to 0.35 percent silicon, 1.65 to 2 percent nickel, 0.40 to 0.60 percent chromium, and 0.20 to 0.30
percent molybdenum. Table 5–5 shows the American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC) system of designating
structural steel. Each steel is known by the number of the ASTM standard that describes it. However, manufacturers may
call them by trade names. The figure shows which rolled plates, bars, and shapes are made of each type of steel. For
example, it can be seen that A529 Gr. 50 steel is carbon steel with a yield stress of 50 Ksi or more and ultimate tensile
stress of 65–100 Ksi, and that only shapes listed in group 1, table A of ASTM A6 and plates and bars up to 1⁄2 in.
thickness are manufactured. ASTM A529 specifies manufacturing methods, chemical content, and mechanical properties
required of steel to be supplied when A529 steel is specified. The chemical composition of steel is determined by the
composition of the materials used, the temperature, the length of time in the furnace, the medium surrounding the steel
(whether air, oxygen, or vacuum), and whether open flame or heat. The surrounding medium depends on the process used,
and the other variables can be controlled for each process. The steel is tested at intervals during the process, and
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adjustments are made. Steel castings are made the same way and used for the same purposes as iron castings. Steel is
stronger and tougher, but more expensive. Steel properties are influenced to a great extent by the mechanical operations
that change an ingot of steel into a useful shape. The operations are rolling, extruding, drawing, forging, and casting. All
except casting may be performed while the steel is in a plastic condition at a temperature of about 2000°F (1090°C), or
as low as room temperature. The operations are called hot working or cold working. Extrusion consists of forcing a billet of
hot, plastic steel through a die of the desired shape to produce a continuous length of material of reduced cross section
in the shape of the die. The resulting product has the shape of a rolled product; that is, it is long with a constant cross
section.
Drawing consists of pulling steel through a small die to form wire or a small rod of round, square, oval, or other
cross section. Steel is hot rolled to form a rod of a size not much larger than the shape to be drawn. It is then finished
by cold drawing. Seamless steel pipe may also be finished by cold drawing over a round, bullet-shaped mandrel to form a
hollow center and through a die to form the outside. The advantages of cold drawing are a smoother finish, more accurate
size, more strength, and better machinability.
Forging consists of deforming steel by pressure or blows into a desired shape. The forging may be made from an
ingot or from a rolled shape. The steel is usually heated to a semisolid state at a temperature over 2000°F (1090°C). In
some cases it is forged cold. It is forced to fill the shape between dies by pressure or blows of the upper die upon the
lower one. After steel cools and is given its final shape, further heating and cooling processes can change the internal
structure and thereby impart certain properties. Heat treatment consists of heating, holding the metal at the high
temperature, and cooling. Even here the rate of heating is not important, except for high-carbon alloyed steels. The metal
is held at the upper temperature so that it can be heated to a uniform temperature throughout. The rate of cooling is very
important.
Normalizing consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about 1500°F (815°C) or higher, depending on the
type of metal, and cooling several hundred degrees slowly in air. This process increases uniformity of structure. Annealing
consists of heating the steel to a temperature slightly lower than for normalizing and cooling it several hundred degrees
very slowly, usually in a furnace. Methods vary somewhat depending on the purpose, which may be to soften the metal,
produce a special structure, facilitate machining and cold shaping, or reduce stresses. Quenching consists of cooling steel
very rapidly in oil, water, or brine from a temperature of about 1500°F (815°C). Quenching increases hardness and
strength, but reduces ductility and toughness. Residual stresses are introduced by quenching and should be relieved by
tempering.
Tempering consists of reheating the quenched steel to a
temperature of 300 to 1200°F (150 to 650°C) and cooling in air to reduce the residual stresses and increase ductility.
Heating to the lower temperature range produces greater hardness, strength, and wear resistance, whereas higher heat
produces greater toughness.

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STEEL TENSILE TEST

Mechanical tests for steel include tension, bending, hardness, and impact. For structural steel the tension, or tensile,
test is the most important (Figure 5–7). The purchaser may specify that the test be performed on steel from the furnace,
after rolling, or after fabrication. Specimens for testing are poured separately as an ingot is being made or are cut from
the waste material of a rolled member. Specimens may be of various sizes. The typical tensile test specimen is a 0.500-
in.-diameter cylinder machined to a smooth, accurate circular cross section. The specimen is clamped at each end or
threaded into a testing machine that applies an axial pull at a uniformly increasing rate until the specimen breaks.As the
pulling proceeds, the force is constantly indicated in digits or by a dial on the machine. Tensile stress is calculated by
dividing the force by the original cross-sectional area. Before the force is applied, two marks are made on the specimen 2
in. apart in the direction of the applied force. The two marks are drawn farther apart as the specimen deforms under the
tension. Strain is calculated by dividing the increase in distance between the marks by the original 2-in. distance. Stress
and strain are determined at regular intervals from readings of force and the measured increase in distance between the
marks. A curve of stress versus strain is plotted to determine whatever information is desired. The yield stress and
rupture stress are often specified as lower limits for acceptance of steel. (Refer to Figure 1-3a for a typical stress–strain
diagram for steel.) In many cases, a complete stress–strain curve is plotted by an automatic recorder as the test
proceeds. Automatic devices are available to determine yield strength by noting the strength at the correct plastic
(permanent) deformation as the sample is being tested without plotting a stress–strain curve.

STEEL PROTECTION

Rusting is oxidation or combining of the iron with oxygen, which occurs in the presence of moisture. It proceeds more
rapidly where there is noticeable dampness, but it occurs in any air with a relative humidity higher than 70 percent. It
progresses more rapidly in salt air and in an industrial atmosphere. The thickness of metal lost by rusting is 1⁄2 mil (a mil is
0.001 in.) or less per year in average conditions. It may be much higher in the presence of industrial air pollution. The rust
is formed from the solid metal, reducing its size so that the member becomes weaker and loses any decorative finish it
might have. The rust penetrates deeper as time goes on. Painting the steel prevents rust. However, painting is expensive
and paint must be replaced periodically at additional cost. Carbon steel may be made more rust resistant by the addition
of copper as an alloying element. Ordinary steel cannot be used where it is exposed to high temperatures. At a very high
temperature it melts to the liquid state, and it begins the process of liquifying at moderately high temperatures. Steel
weakens at 800 to 900°F(430 to 480°C) and cannot support any load at 1200°F (650°C). Steel may be used
economically for structural support of industrial furnaces, incinerators, and other heatproducing devices, but it must be
insulated from the heat. Structural steel that is ordinarily subjected to normal temperatures may be subjected to great
heat during an accidental fire. The steel will then melt or at least become soft from the heat unless protected by rated
insulation. Most steel-framed buildings constructed before 1950 encased structural steel in concrete. While this was an
effective means of fireproofing, it added greatly to the structural dead load. Fireproofing materials containing asbestos
were also used, but these materials proved to be a significant health hazard to occupants and have been removed from
most buildingsToday, lightweight, cementitious based sprayed on fireproofing is most often used for structural steel
applications. These materials typically contain a mixture of gypsum, treated cellulose, and an agent that facilitates drying
once the material is applied. Lightweight fiberboard fireproofing systems are also available for spaces where steel
components are articulated as an element of the building design. Steel members may be exposed in highway and railroad
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bridges, and in buildings where the occupancy does not require specific fire ratings of structural elements. Another type
of protection commonly used is galvanizing, or coating with zinc or with zinc-pigmented paints. Zinc adheres readily to iron
or steel to form a tight seal against the atmosphere. It prolongs the life of iron and steelbecause it corrodes much more
slowly than they do. Zinc continues to protect the iron or steel even after it has been eaten through in spots, because
corrosion will take place in the zinc in preference to the ferrous metal. The zinc coating has a shiny, silvery appearance
which is not suitable for all uses. The protection of ordinary steel in a moderately corrosive atmosphere requires thorough
cleansing of the steel followed by the application of three coats of various types of oil-based paint with a total thickness
of 4 mils (0.004 in.). The prevention of rust can be made easier by careful design to avoid pockets or crevices that hold
water, spots that are inaccessible for repainting, and sharp edges that are difficult to coat with the required thickness of
paint. Bituminous coatings are used to protect iron and steel from the effects of atmosphere, water, or soil. The
appearance and odor of bitumens make them unsuitable for many applications. Stainless steels, which are known as high-
alloy steels, have chromium and nickel as their chief alloying elements. They contain 16 to 28 percent chromium and may
contain up to 22 percent nickel. Chromium may be used alone or in combination with nickel. Adding manganese increases
the ductility and acid resistance of the steel. Stainless steels have high resistance to corrosion, and their wide variety of
finishes, from dull to mirrorlike, last indefinitely. They are used where appearance or sanitation is important, such as in
kitchens, laboratories, and exterior building trim. They are also used for mechanisms in wet or corrosive atmospheres, such
as rockers and rocker plates for bridges, water valves and gates, and smokestack controls. Corrosion resistance of
stainless steels is due to the forming of a thin, transparent coating of chromium oxide over the surface. Stainless steel
may be made harder at the cost of some of the corrosion resistance. Stainless steels are available with various
characteristics, such as good corrosion resistance at high temperatures, no magnetic property, good weldability, and a
low coefficient of thermal expansion. For some kinds of stainless steel, the tendency toward galvanic corrosion when in
contact with other metals and a higher-than-normal coefficient of thermal expansion can lead to trouble unless precautions
are taken in design. Heat-resisting steel contains chromium as the primary alloying element. This steel does not lose a
significant amount of strength at temperatures up to 1100°F (590°C). It can be hardened by heat treatment.

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural steel includes rolled shapes and plates used in structural frames, connectors, plates, or bracing needed to
hold the frame in place, and most other steel attached directly to the frame. Exceptions are grating and metal deck,
open-web steel joists, ornamental metal, stacks, tanks, and steel required for assembly or erection of materials supplied
by trades other than structural steel fabricators or erectors. Figure 5–8 shows a typical structural steel frame building
under construction. Steel erection consists of connecting precut pieces of rolled sections (see Figure 5–5) together as
shown on construction drawings to form a structure. Yield stress (see Figure 1-3a for explanation) is used as a basis for
the design of all steel structures. It is the yield point for all structural steels that produce a yield point on their stress-
strain curves. This includes most structural steels. It is the yield strength
determined at a plastic (permanent) strain
of 0.002 (0.2 percent) for steels having no yield point. Of the steels
listed in Table 5–5, only A514 is of this type. Yield stresses range from
24 to 100 Ksi for structural steels. Structural steels designated as
carbon steel in Table 5–5 are mild-carbon steels containing 0.29 maximum
percent carbon, 1.20 maximum percent manganese, 0.04 maximum
percent phosphorus, and 0.05 maximum percent sulfur. Silicon is required
only for plates at 0.15 to 0.40 percent. These steels have yield stresses
from 32 to 42 Ksi. Strength of these steels is closely related to carbon
content. Their corrosion resistance may be doubled by adding copper.
A36 is an all-purpose steel, widely used for buildings and bridges.
Those designated as high-strength, low-alloy steel in Table 5–5 have the
carbon content of mild-carbon steel with columbium, vanadium, nitrogen, or
copper, or combinations of them added as alloys in small amounts.
Maximum percentages of the alloying elements are as follows: carbon,
0.26; manganese, 1.65; phosphorus, 0.04; sulfur, 0.05; and silicon,
0.40. These steels have yield stresses from 40 to 65 Ksi. Strength is
increased beyond that of ordinary carbon steel by means of a finer
structure. Those designated as corrosion-resistant, high-strength, low-
alloy steels in Table 5–5 have four times the corrosion resistance of
carbon structural steel or two times that of carbon structural steel with
copper and are also known as weathering steels. Exposure to the
atmosphere forms a thin, rust colored, protective coating of iron oxide,
which eventually becomes blue-gray and which prevents any further
corrosion. Two or three years are required for the coating to form
completely. The coating does not protect against corrosion from
concentrated, corrosive industrial fumes, from wetting with salt water, or
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from being submerged in water or buried in the ground. Those designated as quenched and tempered alloy steel in Table
5–5 are available only as plates. They also have the carbon content of mild-carbon steel or low-carbon steel and alloys of
silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, zirconium, copper, and boron. These steels have yield stresses
of 90 or 100 Ksi. These steels are intended for use in welded structures, and special precautions must be taken to weld
them. The steel is fully killed and fine grained. It must be heated to at least 1650°F, then quenched and tempered by
reheating to not less than 1150°F, and allowed to cool slowly. Quenching produces martensite causing great strength
and hardness along with brittleness. Tempering greatly improves ductility and toughness, but at the cost of some
reduction in strength and hardness. The curve or camber is a smooth curve, roughly part of a circle, and may be applied
over almost the entire length of the beam or between any two points specified, depending on how the beam is expected
to deflect in use. The designer specifies the curvature by designating the ordinate (also called camber) at the middle of
the curve. Usually sufficient camber is induced to balance the expected dead load deflection so that in use the beam will
be straight except when deflected by live load. Camber is induced by bending the beam while the steel is cold
.Approximately a quarter of the mill-induced camber is lost before the beam reaches the construction site; the remainder is
permanent. Paint thickness may be measured with a dial comparator, dial indicator, or micrometer by measuring the
thickness of painted metal, removing a small portion of paint, and measuring the thickness of bare metal; the difference is
the paint thickness.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

Steel members must be connected to form a structure. They may be connected by riveting, welding, or bolting. A
connection is not designed on a purely rational basis as the structural members are. Stresses at connections are so
complex that the connections are designed according to empirical methods based on successful experience. A connection
includes a group of rivets or bolts or a predetermined length of weld.

 RIVETING

Riveting was once the most common method of making connections. It is now used only for shop connections, and
that too only rarely. Holes are punched or drilled through the members to be connected, and a steel rivet (Figure 5–10)
slightly smaller than the holes is heated to a cherry red color(1000 to 1950°F) and inserted through the holes. The head
is braced and the shank end is hammered until it flattens to a head, compressing the members between the two rivet
heads, as shown in the figure. Cooling of the rivet causes it to shorten, compressing the members still further.

 WELDING

A welded connection is neat in appearance, and the metal of a weld is stronger than the metal being connected. Weld
metal is manufactured to more demanding specifications than structural steel and is protected from the atmosphere while
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
cooling. The weld metal also benefits somewhat by combining with constituents of the welding rod coating. The result is a
steel with better crystalline structure and higher mechanical properties.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

Figure 5–11 shows typical welding arrow symbols used to describe required weld properties. Chemical and mechanical
properties of weld metal must be matched to the metal being welded. Therefore, a wide variety of welding electrodes
is available. The American Welding Society and ASTM have established a numbering system for electrodes. All designations
begin with the letter E, which is followed by a four- or five-digit number. The first two or three digits indicate the minimum
tensile strength in Kips per square inch. The next digit indicates the recommended welding positions. Digit 3 is for flat
only; 2 is for flat and horizontal; and 1 is for all positions including vertical and overhead. The next digit indicates current
supply and recommended welding techniques. The four welding positions are shown in Figure 5–12. Welding consists of
heating the two pieces to be joined until they melt enough to fuse. The heat comes from an electric arc that is formed
between a welding rod and the two pieces to be welded. A portable electric generator is connected to the structural
steel and to the welding rod, and either an alternating or a direct current is passed through the rod and the structural
members when the rod touches or nearly touches the members. The tip of the rod and some depth of the base metal,
called penetration, are melted. The two metals combine and harden upon cooling. The liquid metal rapidly absorbs oxygen
and nitrogen,which causes it to be brittle and lose its resistance to corrosion unless it is protected from the atmosphere.
Four welding methods are allowed by the AISC for structural work. In the shielded metal-arc method, the metal welding
rod is coated with a flux, which melts as the weld metal melts and covers the molten metal, shielding it from the
atmosphere. The flux is partially converted to gas, which surrounds the working area, helping to protect the weld from
oxygen and nitrogen. Shielded metal-arc welding is a manual method suited for field use. The three other methods
discussed in the following section are suitable for semiautomatic or automatic use. In the submerged-arc method,
powdered flux is automatically spread ahead of the electrode and completely covers the welding arc and also protects the
new weld metal. In gas metal-arc welding, a coil of electrode wire is constantly fed to a holder as the electrode melts. The
new weld metal is protected from the air by CO2 or other gas constantly fed to the location as the welding proceeds.
In flux-cored arc welding, the welding rod consists of a core of flux surrounded by weld metal. This is used to facilitate
continuous feeding of the electrode as welding takes place. The fillet weld is the most frequently used type. Other types
commonly used are the butt or groove weld and the plug or slot weld, as shown in Figure 5–13. The fillet weld is
triangular in cross section and is placed at a right-angle joint formed by the pieces to be connected. For a butt or groove
weld, the ends to be connected are butted together and welded. The abutting edges may be smooth, flat surfaces, or
they may be shaped to form a groove. Grooves of several shapes are used. Flat edges and the two most common
grooves are shown in the figure. Most butt welding is done to join plates edge to edge. Butt welding requires that the
pieces to be welded be cut precisely to size or they will not meet properly. This expensive, precise cutting is avoided if
the pieces are lapped and welded with fillet welds. This economy accounts for the greater popularity of fillet welds, even
though butt welds are stronger. A plug or slot weld consists of filling with weld metal a circular or oblong hole in one
piece, which is positioned on top of the piece to which it is to be connected. This type of weld is useful for joining pieces
that must act together over an area too large to be satisfactorily connected at the edges, such as elements of the flange
of a plate girder. They are also used on plate joints that are overlapped to avoid overhead welding in the field. Fillet welds
may be used inside the plugged or slotted holes.

 BOLTS

A bolt is manufactured with a head at one end and threads at the other end, to which a nut can be threaded.Washers may
be used. They fit loosely on the shank of the bolt at either or both ends and increase the area that bears on the member
when the nut is tightened. When the bolt is in position to hold two members together, a tightening of the nut pulls the
bolt with a tensile force and presses inward on the two members, causing friction between them to resist movement
(Figure 5–14). A bolted joint is subject to two types of loading from the structure. Tension tends to pull the plates apart
in a line parallel with the bolt axis, and shear tends to make the plates slip against the friction between their surfaces in a
direction perpendicular to the bolt axis. The friction available to resist shear is proportional to the bolt tension. Movement
perpendicular to the bolt axis cannot occur until the friction between the members is overcome. If the friction is overcome,
there is slight movement, and both members bear on the bolt. A bearing connection is satisfactory, provided slight
movement is permissible and the load is static. If the joint is subject to load changes, stress reversal, impact, or vibration,
a bearing connection is unsatisfactory, because it may loosen. The joint must then be designed so that sufficient friction is
developed between the members to resist any load perpendicular to the bolt axis and so that the load parallel with the
bolt is not sufficient to stretch it and thereby reduce that friction. Like rivets, common bolts have an uncertain tension, and
therefore the friction caused between members cannot be accurately determined. Nevertheless, common bolts and rivets
have been and still are used successfully. In many connections where little strength is required and there are no vibrations,
impact loads, or stress cycles, common bolts should be used because they are less expensive and easier to install than
highstrength bolts. However, common bolts are much weaker than high-strength bolts; they loosen under vibration, impact
loads, or cyclic loads, especially if there is stress reversal. High-strength steel bolts can be installed to produce a
predetermined tension greater than that of a common bolt. Because of the great friction developed between members,
there is very little movement between them when loads are applied to the members. High-strength bolts are several times
as strong in tension as common bolts. They are the most recently developed fastening devices, but have become

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
the most popular by far, especially for field connections. Bolts are tightened with wrenches powered by electricity or
compressed air. These power wrenches operate by impacting against the object to be turned and are called impact
wrenches. The nut is usually turned, but the bolt may be turned by its head if more convenient. The opposite end
is held with a hand wrench while tightening takes place. A torque wrench is used to inspect a percentage of bolts chosen
at random. A torque wrench is a long, hand-operated wrench that includes an indicator dial to indicate torque
while the wrench is used. The wrench is calibrated to determine the torque needed to produce the required bolt
tension. This wrench is applied to each bolt to be tested until the bolt moves slightly in the tightening direction. The
torque required to do this must be as large as the torque determined by calibration. too narrow for the gauge.
High-strength bolts are of two types: A325, described in ASTM A325, and A490, described in ASTM A490. The A325
bolts are of carbon steel and the A490 bolts are of alloy steel. There are four types of A325 bolts: medium-carbon steel,
lowcarbon martensite, weathering steel, and hot-dip galvanized. There are two types of A490 bolts: alloy steel and
weathering steel. An A325 bolt has the strength of one and one-half rivets of the same size, and an A490 bolt has the
strength of one and one-half A325 bolts of the same size. Figure 5–15 shows a typical connection made with high-
strength bolts.

REINFORCING STEEL

Steel is used as the reinforcing in combination with Portland cement concrete for reinforced concrete structural members.
Members are constructed so that steel resists all tension, and compression is resisted by concrete or by concrete and
steel together. Reinforcing steel is shown being tied in place for a concrete wall in Figure 5–16. Reinforcing bars are
made either plain or deformed. Figure 5–17 shows standard bar markings. Deformed bars create a better bond between
concrete and steel. They are designated by the number of eighths of an inch in their diameter and are available in sizes
from No. 2, or 1⁄4 in. diameter, to No. 18, or 21⁄4 in. diameter. Rebars are made from Bessemer or open-hearth carbon
steel with 0.40 to 0.70 percent carbon; from scrap carbon steel axles of railroad cars; and from standard section T rails.
The bars are hot-rolled and furnished in the grades shown in Table 5–7. Standard reinforcing bars are referred to as black
bars and are used in most reinforced concrete. Reinforcing steel is also available with epoxy or galvanized coatings, which

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only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
are used where corrosion of the rebars may cause structural and other problems with the concrete. Figure 5–18 shows
steel reinforcing bars being bent.

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only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

VIII. ASSIGNMENT

A. Answer the following guide questions. Use long bond paper and avoid erasures.
1. What is the difference between steel and iron, chemically and in physical properties?
2. How does steel fail in a fire?
3. In what environments does weathering steel need protection from corrosion?
4. Sketch the three most common types of weld.

IX. REFERENCES
1. Basic Construction Materials by Theodore Marotta

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