Lecture 1 Computer Architecture

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND
ORGANIZATION
LECTURE 1
Computer architecture
 Computer architecture refers to the design of

a computer system, including the hardware
components and their interconnections, the
instruction set architecture (ISA), and the
system's performance characteristics.
 Computer architecture focuses on the high-
level design of the system, such as the overall
organization of the processor, memory
hierarchy, input/output system, and the
communication channels between these
components.
 It also deals with the design of the instruction
set, which is the interface between the
hardware and software of the system.
Computer Organization
 computer organization refers to the

operational units and their interconnections
that realize the architectural specifications.
 Computer organization deals with the low-
level design of the system, such as the logical
circuit design of the processor, the memory
organization, the peripheral devices, and the
data path of the computer.
 It also deals with the implementation
of the instruction set architecture,
including the design of the instruction
decoder, the control unit, and the
execution units.
Example
 Assume you are a programmer and you are

writing a program. Also suppose your
program has the following features:
1- Loads data from memory
2- Stores that data in integer variables
3- Performs some calculations and then
outputs that data on computer screen.
Programming example
To write such a program, programmers are only

concerned with the details visible to them –
Computer Architecture.
Therefore programmers do not care about
the conversion of keywords input to useful
computer instructions. Nor do we care about
the underlying RAM technology used. For this
reason we say that organization of
components is invisible to the programmer.
 In essence, computer architecture defines
what the computer does, while computer
organization defines how it does it.
 In other words, computer architecture is
concerned with the big picture, while
computer organization is concerned with
the details of the system's design and
implementation.
Examples of computer organization include:
 Processor design: This includes the logical circuit

design of the processor, such as the arithmetic logic
unit (ALU), the control unit, and the register file.
 Memoryorganization: This includes the design of
the memory hierarchy, such as the cache memory,
main memory, and secondary storage.
 Input/outputsystems: This includes the design of
the interfaces between the computer and its
peripheral devices, such as the keyboard, mouse,
and display.
Components’ and Functions of a
computer
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Made up of:
Control Unit
Arithmetic and Logic units
Registers
MEMORY
Made up of:
ROM (Read Only Memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Secondary Storage
INPUT/OUTPUT UNITS
 Self
study: Computer Components
function(s)/purpose(s)
Strategies for different computer
architectures
Many computer architectures have ways of

categorizing them:
(i)By Number of instructions executed per
clock cycle
Many Computer Machines read and execute
one instruction at a time.
(i)By Number of instructions executed per clock
cycle
a) Von Neumann machines

These include:
• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer(RISC)
• Minimal instruction set computer (MISC)
• Transport Triggered Architecture(TTA)
• Digital Signal Processor(DSP)
Others also include:
Accumulator machines
Register machines
Stack machines
Executing several instructions per clock
Other computers read and execute several

instructions at a time(clock cycle)
• Very long instruction word(VLIW), Super-
Scalar execute a minimum of two
instructions per clock cycle
ii) Categorization based on connections
between CPU and Main Memory
These are Princeton Machines

• They use unified memory where a single
address corresponds to a single place in
memory
• One can use that address to read and write
data, or can load that address in a program
counter to execute a code
iii. Categorization according to memory
spaces
b) Harvard Machines
• Program memory
• Data memory
HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
 Harvard architecture: This computer
architecture has separate memories
for data and instructions, which allows
the CPU to fetch instructions and data
simultaneously.
Harvard architecture instruction and
data flow
What is Harvard Architecture?
 It is a type of computer architecture that keeps

programme data and instructions in storage and
signal channels that are physically independent
from one another.
 In contrast to the Von Neumann design, which
retrieves instructions from memory using a single
bus while simultaneously moving data from one
component of a computer to another, the
Harvard architecture keeps data and instructions
in their own distinct memory spaces.
 Both ideas are comparable, with the
exception of the means through which
they access memory.
 The Harvard architecture is based on the
concept of separating the memory into
two distinct sections, with one section
dedicated to storing data and the other to
storing programmes.
 This architecture is commonly used in
embedded systems and digital signal
processors.
 To work with Harvard architecture, it is
important to optimize the memory hierarchy
for separate instruction and data access.
 This can be achieved by using separate
instruction and data caches, and optimizing
the instruction decoder to minimize the
number of instructions fetched.
Von Neumann architecture
What is Von Neumann Architecture?
 Thisis a widely used computer architecture that
consists of a single shared memory for both data
and instructions. The CPU fetches instructions
and data from the memory and stores the results
back to the memory.
 This
is a hypothetical architecture that is derived
from the idea of stored-program computers, in
which the memory is used for storing both the
program data and the instruction data.
 Prior to the introduction of the Von
Neumann idea of computer design,
computing machines were developed for a
single predetermined function, and their
level of sophistication was limited as a
result of the need for human rewiring of
the circuitry.
 The ability to keep instructions in the
memory along with the data that the
instructions operate on is the central tenet
of the Von Neumann architectures.
 This architecture is commonly used in
personal computers and servers.
 To work with Von Neumann architecture, it is
important to optimize the system's memory
hierarchy to reduce memory access latency.
This can be achieved by using caches,
pipelining, and prefetching techniques.
 Also, the instruction set should be optimized
for efficient execution of common tasks.
 C) ARM Architecture: This architecture is
commonly used in mobile devices and
embedded systems. To work with ARM
architecture, it is important to optimize the
system's power consumption while maintaining
good performance.
 Thiscan be achieved by using power-efficient
processors, optimizing the instruction set for
energy-efficient execution, and reducing the
frequency of memory accesses.
 d) GPU Architecture: This architecture is
commonly used in graphics-intensive
applications and scientific computing.
 To work with GPU architecture, it is
important to optimize the application for
parallel execution using threads and
blocks, and to use specialized libraries
such as CUDA or OpenCL for efficient
execution on the GPU.
 e) Quantum Architecture: This architecture
is a new and emerging technology that is
being developed for quantum computing.
 To work with quantum architecture, it is
important to optimize the algorithms and
applications for quantum execution, which
requires a fundamentally different approach
to problem-solving than classical computing.

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND

 Computer architecture refers to the design of

 computer organization refers to the

 Assume you are a programmer and you are

To write such a program, programmers are only

 Processor design: This includes the logical circuit

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Many computer architectures have ways of

a) Von Neumann machines

Other computers read and execute several

These are Princeton Machines

 It is a type of computer architecture that keeps

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