DIFFERENT TYPES OF VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC

ERUPTIONS
Week 1 | Enhanced Science

Volcano
● A volcano is a natural geological feature
characterized by a vent or opening in the Earth's
crust through which molten rocks, hot gases,
smoke, and ash are ejected during periods of
volcanic activity.
● These openings may lead to the formation of
various volcanic landforms, such as shield
volcanoes, cinder cones, or composite cones,
depending on the type and intensity of the
eruptions.

Phivolcs Composite Cones ( Stratovolcanoes )

● Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology ● Large, nearly perfect sloped structures formed from
(PHIVOLCS) alternate solidification of both lava and pyroclastic
● classifies Philippine volcanoes as active or inactive deposits.
based on eruption records: ● Ex. Mayon Volcano in the Philippines
➔ Active Volcanoes: Those erupting within the last
600 years or 10,000 years based on material Factors Affecting Magma Viscosity
analysis.
Temperature
➔ Inactive Volcanoes: Dormant for over 10,000 years,
● EFFECT: Viscosity decreases with increasing
undergoing changes due to weathering and erosion.
temperature.
● The Philippines, situated along the Ring of Fire, is
● IMPACT: As magma cools during lava flow, its
home to over a hundred volcanoes, as reported by
viscosity rises, impeding flow until it solidifies.
PHIVOLCS in 2013.
● Among these, 23 are classified as active, with the Composition
remaining categorized as inactive. ● EFFECT: High silica content increases magma
● Summit, Slope, and Base: Basic structural viscosity.
components of a volcano. ● IMPACT: Silica-rich magma tends to be more
● Summit Opening: Can be a crater or a caldera. viscous, hindering flow and solidifying closer to the
○ Crater: Funnel-shaped opening at the top vent.
of a volcano. Dissolved Gas
○ Caldera: Formed by collapse post-explosive ● EFFECT: Dissolved gases, primarily water vapor,
eruption. decrease magma viscosity.
● Example: Mayon Volcano (single crater) or Taal ● IMPACT: Loss of gases near the surface increases
Volcano (47 craters). magma viscosity, leading to the formation of
domes or columnar structures.
Volcanic Cones
Viscosity of magma in different condition:
Shield Volcanoes
● Formed by the accumulation of non-viscous lava,
resulting in a broad, slightly domed structure
resembling a warrior's shield.
● Ex. Mauna Loa in Hawaii

Cinder Cones
● Built from ejected lava fragments, characterized by
a steep slope and a wide crater.
● Ex. Paricutin in Mexico
Signs of Eruption Plinian Eruption
1. Increase in Volcanic Quakes ● Excessively explosive eruption of gas and
2. Increase Steaming Activity pyroclastics.
3. Crater Glow ● Massive eruption columns, extensive ash fallout,
4. Ground Deformation and pyroclastic flows.
5. Localized Landslides 1. Vulcan
6. Vegetation Changes ● Roman god for whom volcanoes are named
7. Temperature Changes 2. Mantle
8. Chemical Variations ● Layer of earth under the crust
9. Drying of Springs/Wells 3. Eruption
10. Thermal Activity ● Ejection of solid, liquid, and gas from a volcano
4. Tectonic
Volcanoes According to Eruptions ● The earth’s crust is divided into _____ plates.
Phreatic or Hydrothermal Eruption 5. Mars
● Stream-driven eruption occurs when hot rocks ● Planet with the largest known volcano, Olympus
encounter water. Mons
● Short-lived, characterized by ash columns, and 6. Core
may precede larger eruptions. ● Center of the earth
7. Geyser
● Tall column of water and steam erupting from the
earth’s surface
8. Crust
● Top layer of the earth
9. Dormant
● Volcano that is currently inactive but may erupt in
the future
10. Ring of Fire
● Area in the pacific ocean with lots of volcanic
activity

Phreatomagmatic Eruption
● Violent eruption resulting from water-magma
Parts of a Volcano
contact. Lava
● Large columns of fine ash, high-speed sideways ● Melted rocks that comes out of a volcano
emission of pyroclastics (base surges). Conduit
Strombolian Eruption ● Passage followed by magma
● Periodic eruptions varying from weak to violent, Flank
producing fountain lava. ● Side of a volcano
● Moderate explosivity with frequent lava ejections. Magma
● Melted rock inside earth
Ash
● Fine particles of rock dust form an erupting
volcano
Parasitic Cone
● Small cone-shaped volcano formed
Sill
● When magma hardens in the cracks
Vent
Vulcanian Eruption ● Crack in the earth’s crust where volcanic materials
● Characterized by tall eruption columns reaching up escape
to 20 km, accompanied by pyroclastic flow and Crater
ashfall tephra. ● Mouth of a volcano
● Explosive with significant ash and pyroclastic Summit
material ejections. ● Highest point; apex
Throat
● Entrance of a volcano
Ash Cloud
● A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions
EFFECTS OF VOLCANO ERUPTION
Week 2 | Enhanced Science

Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption After an Eruption

1. Increased Volcanic Activity ● Check for damage and clean cautiously.
● Await further instructions before returning home.
2. Steaming Activity
3. Crater Glow
4. Ground Deformation
5. Landslides and Rockfalls
6. Vegetation Changes
7. Temperature Variation
8. Chemical Changes
9. Water Source Drying
10. Thermal Activity

Positive Effects
Renewable Energy
● Volcanic areas can generate electricity from heat
deep inside the Earth, known as geothermal energy.
Tourism
● People visit volcanoes for their amazing views,
which helps local businesses.
Fertile Soil
● Ash and lava from eruptions break down into
nutrients for soil, making it great for farming.
Energy Source
● Steam released during eruptions can be used to
make electricity in places with geothermal power
plants.

Negative Effects
Loss of Lives and Property
● Eruptions can harm people and destroy homes and
buildings.
Economic Problems
● Businesses struggle after eruptions, impacting
local economies.
Environmental Damage
● Habitats and landscapes can be hurt by lava flows,
affecting plants and animals.
Mudflows and Lahars
● Ash and mud mixed with rain or snow can cause
fast-moving mudflows, endangering communities
downstream.

Volcanic Eruption Preparedness Guidelines

Before an Eruption
● Understand the risks and alert levels.
● Gather essentials and life-saving items.
● Ensure safety of vulnerable individuals.
During an Eruption (If Indoors)
● Seek indoor shelter.
● Secure pets and monitor alerts indoors.
During an Eruption (If Outdoors)
● Seek shelter indoors and avoid low-lying areas.
● Evacuate safely if possible.
ENERGY FROM VOLCANOES FOR HUMAN USE (1)
Week 3 | Enhanced Science

Geothermal Energy Geyser

● Geothermal energy, derived from the intense heat ● is a vent in Earth's surface that periodically ejects a
within the Earth, is a renewable resource that has column of hot water and steam.
been utilized by humans for centuries. ● have eruptions that blast thousands of gallons of
ORIGINS: . boiling-hot water up to a few hundred feet in the air
● Romans used hot springs for baths and
heating in Pompeii. Geothermal Energy
● In 1904, Piero Ginori Conti pioneered ● is produced by the emergence of geothermally
geothermal energy for lighting. heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth.
● Larderello, Italy, hosted the first ● The groundwater is heated either by shallow bodies
commercial geothermal power plant in of magma or by circulation through faults to hot
1913. rock deep in the Earth's crust.
● The United States leads global geothermal ● Geo = Earth
energy production ● Thermal = Heat

Generation Methods
Earth’s Interior
● Geothermal power plants use deep heat sources to
● Heat Flow: Outward from Earth's interior.
produce steam for electricity.
● Crust Insulation: Insulates surface from interior
● Geothermal heat pumps utilize shallow heat
heat.
sources for heating buildings or water.
● Geological Layers: Mantle, outer core, inner core.
Powerplant Methods
1. Wells drill deep into the Earth, extracting steam or Accessible Resources
hot water. ● Geothermal Hotspots: Along the "Ring of Fire" and
2. Pressure drop at the surface converts water to other geological features.
steam. ● Volcanic Indicators: Active volcanoes signal
3. Steam spins turbines connected to generators, underground heat.
producing electricity.
4. Cooled steam condenses into water in cooling Exploration
towers.
● Satellite and Aerial Surveys: Utilize imagery for
5. Cooled water is re-injected into the Earth for the
initial assessment.
cycle to repeat.
● Geological Mapping: Identifies potential
geothermal areas.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES ● Field Surveys: Collect data on geophysical and
geochemical characteristics.
Environmentally Friendly: Hydrogen Sulfide
● Temperature Gradient Drilling: Determines
No fossil fuels are burned, Emissions: Geothermal
reducing carbon dioxide plants may release subsurface temperatures and rock types.
emissions. hydrogen sulfide gas,
which has an unpleasant Drilling and Testing
odor.
● Core Sampling: Extracts rock samples for
Low Emissions: Waste Disposal: Disposal examination.
Geothermal fields emit of geothermal fluids ● Production Wells: Drilled for testing reservoir
significantly less carbon containing low levels of viability.
dioxide compared to toxic materials poses ● Well Construction: Establishes extraction
natural gas plants. environmental challenges. infrastructure.

Consistent Availability: Resource Depletion: Over

Unlike solar and wind, time, specific geothermal
geothermal energy is locations may cool down,
available year-round. reducing their
effectiveness.

Cost-Effective: Direct use

of geothermal energy can
result in savings of up to
80% compared to fossil
fuels.

Reliability: Geothermal
energy is reliable and Natural steam from the production wells power the turbine
consistent, providing a generator. The steam is condensed by evaporation in the cooling
stable source of power. tower and pumped down an injection well to sustain production.
ENERGY FROM VOLCANOES FOR HUMAN USE (2)
Week 4 | Enhanced Science

Power Plants
Dry - Steam Power Plants
● Steam extracted and passed directly to the turbine.
● Uncommon
● First invented by Prince Piero Ginori Conti in Italy in
1904.

Larderello Field .
● First modern geothermal power plants
built in Lardello, Italy.
● Despite destruction in WWII, Lardello field
Benefits of Geothermal Power
is still operational after 90 years.
● Clean and safe
The Geysers Field .
● Renewable energy with minimal land use
● First geothermal power plants in the U.S.
● Continuous, reliable power
were built in The Geysers, California in
● Reduces fossil fuel reliance
1962.
● Supports local economies
● The Geysers remains the world's largest
● Enables modular, remote development
producing geothermal field.
● Wastewater injection from nearby cities
aids in steam production and disposal. Direct Uses
● Balneology ( hot spring and spa bathing )
● Agriculture ( greenhouse and soil warming )
● Aquaculture ( fish, prawn, and alligator farming )
● Industrial Uses ( product drying and warming )
● Residential and District Heating

Advantages of Geothermal Power Plants

● Environmentally friendly
● Sustainable and renewable
● Reliable
Flash - Steam Power Plants ● Stable energy cost
● Utilize hot water reservoirs. ● Low operating cost
● Hot water released from pressure, some vaporizes
to steam. Disadvantages of Geothermal Power Plants
● Common Technology: Majority of geothermal
● Location-specific
reservoirs are hot water based.
● High upfront costs
● Some reservoirs yield valuable minerals like silica
● Potential for environmental impact
and zinc.
● Seismic activity risk

Binary Cycle Power Plants

● Heat from geothermal water used to vaporize a
separate fluid.
● Transfers heat to a second liquid without exposing
geothermal water to air.
● Suitable for lower temperature reservoirs,
expanding potential usage.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Week 4 - Week 5 | Enhanced Science

Weather ● Warm currents increase temperatures in coastal

● Weather generally refers to the day – to – day areas, while cold currents have the opposite effect.
temperature and precipitation activity in the ● Ocean currents that flow away from the equator
atmosphere. carry warm water
● It describes the interactions of air, water and solar ● Oceans current that flow away from the poles carry
cool water
energy in a specific period of time.
5. Topography
Climate
● Climate on the other hand is the average of all ● Refers to the natural features or arrangement of an
weather conditions of an area over a long period of area like land
time. ● Windward sides of mountains receive more
● These conditions include average temperatures, air precipitation due to orographic lifting, while
pressure, humidity and days of sunshine for a
● leeward sides experience drier conditions, known
period of 30 years or more.
as rain shadows.
● Climate is influenced by latitude, altitude, distance
from bodies of water, ocean currents, and
topography

Impact on Regional Climates

● Equatorial Regions:
Near the equator, countries experience tropical
climates due to high solar radiation.

Factors Affecting Climate Change ● Mid-Latitude Regions:

Countries farther from the equator have temperate
1. Latitude and Solar Radiation
climates influenced by latitude and ocean currents.
● Near the equator, where the sun's rays strike more
vertically, temperatures are higher, resulting in ● High Altitude Areas:
warm climates. Regions at higher altitudes tend to have colder
● As latitude increases, the angle of incidence temperatures.
decreases, leading to lower temperatures.
2. Altitude ● Coastal Areas:
● Height of an area above sea level Proximity to bodies of water moderates
● The higher the area, the colder the temperature temperatures, leading to more moderate climates.
● Air temperature increases, Altitude decreases
● Air temperature decreases with altitude. For every ● Inland Areas:
1000 meters increase in altitude, there is a Places far from bodies of water may experience
temperature drop of approximately 6.5°C. more extreme temperature variations.
● Higher elevations have less dense air, which
absorbs less heat, leading to lower temperatures.
Climate Change
3. Distance from Bodies of Water
● Climate change is a significant global issue
● Proximity to bodies of water moderates climate due
characterized by shifts in weather patterns and
to water's slower absorption and release of heat
environmental conditions.
compared to land.
● There are differing perspectives on its causes, with
● Areas that are closer to oceans and other large
some attributing temperature fluctuations to
bodies of water tend to have more moderate climate
natural cycles and others pointing to human
changes between seasons.
activities as the primary driver.
● Despite these debates, the reality remains that
4. Ocean Currents
climate change is altering our environment.
● Currents are caused by the wind, earthquakes, and
gravity
● Ocean currents distribute heat around the globe, Negatives Effects of Climate Change
influencing climate. 1. Rising Sea Levels
 ● Melting ice caps and glaciers contribute to higher typhoons, and cyclones, particularly in regions like
sea levels, posing threats to coastal areas and the Pacific and Indian Ocean basins.
habitats. Impacts:
2. Extreme Weather Events ● Agriculture: El Niño's influence on rainfall
● Global warming intensifies weather disturbances, patterns can disrupt agricultural productivity,
leading to stronger typhoons, heavier rainfall, and affecting crop yields, food security, and livelihoods
the occurrence of phenomena like El Niño and La in vulnerable regions.
Niña. ● Water Resources: Regions dependent on seasonal
3. Biodiversity Loss rainfall for water resources may face challenges
● Climate change can cause the extinction of certain due to reduced precipitation, leading to water
species due to habitat destruction and disruptions scarcity, reduced reservoir levels, and impacts on
in ecosystems. hydropower generation.
● Ecosystems: Changes in rainfall patterns and
temperatures associated with El Niño can affect
Greenhouse Effect ecosystems, influencing vegetation dynamics,
● The greenhouse effect is a major cause of climate wildlife habitats, and biodiversity
change, primarily driven by the accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. La Niña
● These gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, La Niña typically brings about varied weather conditions
and nitrous oxide, trap heat from the sun, leading across different regions:
to elevated temperatures on Earth's surface.
● Increased Rainfall: Some areas experience
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels,
above-average precipitation, leading to flooding
contribute to the increased concentration of these
and wetter-than-normal conditions.
gases.
● Drought Relief: Conversely, regions that suffered
from drought during El Niño events may experience
Impacts of Climate Change relief as La Niña brings enhanced rainfall.
1. Shifts in Wildlife Behavior ● Intensified Tropical Storms: La Niña can
● Changes in climate patterns disrupt natural contribute to the formation of more frequent and
behaviors of animals and plants, leading to altered intense tropical storms, including hurricanes and
breeding seasons, migration patterns, and habitat typhoons, particularly in regions like the Atlantic
suitability. and Pacific basins.
2. Rising Sea Levels Impacts:
● Melting glaciers and ice sheets contribute to sea ● Agriculture: La Niña's influence on rainfall
level rise, threatening coastal communities and patterns can impact agricultural productivity, with
ecosystems. some areas benefiting from increased precipitation
3. Extreme Weather Events while others may face flooding or drought
● Intensified storms, droughts, and heatwaves result conditions.
in economic losses, infrastructure damage, and ● Water Resources: Regions dependent on seasonal
human casualties. rainfall for water resources may experience
fluctuations in water availability, with implications
El Niño and La Niña for irrigation, drinking water supplies, and
1. El Niño hydroelectric power generation.
● A warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean, disrupting ● Ecosystems: Altered precipitation patterns can
weather patterns worldwide. affect ecosystems, influencing vegetation growth,
● Associated with severe droughts, reduced rainfall wildlife habitats, and biodiversity.
in some regions, and increased rainfall in others.
2. La Niña
● A cooling of the eastern Pacific Ocean, often Wala nako gi include ang groupings, study that also
following El Niño events.
● Associated with increased rainfall in some areas,
drought relief in others, and intensified tropical
storms.

El Niño
El Niño can trigger varied weather conditions across
different regions:
● Decreased Rainfall: Some areas experience
below-average precipitation, leading to drought
conditions, water shortages, and impacts on
agriculture and ecosystems.
● Intensified Tropical Storms: El Niño can
contribute to the formation of more frequent and
intense tropical storms, including hurricanes,
CONSTELLATIONS
Week 6 - Week 7 | Enhanced Science

Stars ● Circumpolar stars remain visible year-round near

celestial poles.
Nature of Stars
● Constellations shift gradually due to Earth's orbit
● Stars are luminous spheroids of plasma held
around the Sun.
together by gravity.
Practical Uses
● Historically, stars were grouped into constellations
● Constellations used for navigation and agricultural
and asterisms.
purposes.
● Majority of stars, including those outside our
● Polaris serves as a reference point for navigation
galaxy, are invisible to the naked eye.
due to its stability.
Variability in Stars
● Constellation patterns aid in determining seasons
● Stars differ in size, brightness, and color.
for planting and harvesting.
● Observable stars range from massive giants to
dwarf stars.
● Stars emit various forms of radiation such as heat,
Constellations
light, x-rays, and ultraviolet rays. ● Constellations are classified into three separate
categories based upon when they can be seen
Factors Affecting Stars
during the year as well as what celestial objects
● Mass influences a star's lifespan and energy
move through the stars as well.
output.
● Surface temperature determines a star's color.
● Brightness depends on luminosity and distance 1. Circumpolar Constellations
from Earth. ● are ones that are seen all year round. Their
● The star’s brightness as seen from Earth is its shapes lie close to the north celestial pole and
apparent brightness. do not set below the horizon
● Size ranges from dwarfs to supergiants, with some 2. Zodiacal Constellations
stars comparable in size to Earth. ● are ones in which the sun passes through.
● Mass is measured in terms of solar masses
This is where the origin of the signs of the
Observing Stars
zodiac came from
● Apparent brightness depends on distance and true
a. ARIES (March 21 – April 19)
brightness (absolute brightness).
● Sirius and Rigel demonstrate the effect of distance
on apparent brightness.
● Astronomers consider absolute brightness when
comparing stars.

Constellations
Definition and Origin b. TAURUS (April 20 – May 20)
● Constellations are groups of stars forming
recognizable patterns.
● Imaginary groupings of stars with cultural
significance.
● Named by ancient civilizations based on myths and
practical uses.
Classification c. GEMINI (May 21 – June 20)
● 88 official constellations categorized into ancient
and modern groups.
● Ancient constellations observed easily without
telescopes.
● Modern constellations identified by later
astronomers using telescopes.
Naming and Mapping d. CANCER (June 21 – July 22)
● Stars named by celestial coordinates on the
celestial sphere.
● Stars' positions defined relative to celestial poles
and equator.
● 88 constellations delineated by boundaries on the
celestial sphere.
Celestial Motion and Visibility
● Stars appear to move due to Earth's rotation and
e. LEO (July 23 – August 22)
orbit.
f. VIRGO (August 23 – September 22)
3. Seasonal Constellations
● are ones that change throughout the year
depending on the seasons.
● For example, in the northern hemisphere, the
constellation Orion is one that is seen during
the winter months. The constellation Scorpius
is one you see during the summer months.
g. LIBRA (September 23 – October 22)

h. SCORPIO (October 23 – November 21)

i. SAGGITARIUS (November 22 – December 21)

j. CAPRICORN (December 22 – January 19)

k. AQUARIOUS (January 20 – February 18)

l. PISCES (February 19 – March 20)