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Lect 20 W24

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7 views75 pages

Lect 20 W24

Uploaded by

Bill Lee
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ATOC 184

THE SCIENCE OF STORMS

WINTER 2024

TR 1:05-2:25pm
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (AOS)
Faculty of Science

Course Instructor : Evangelia Ioannidou

[email protected]
LECTURE 20

• CONVECTIVE STORMS

The squall line (continued)

The gust front

Multicell storms

• Blizzards

• BEYOND THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND

The three-force balance


Upright updraft/downdraft
RECAP

So, the cold downdraft falls into the warm, buoyant air masses
that rise and form the updraft. This way the updraft is
eliminated.

→ so, the convective circulation does not persist


IMPORTANCE OF SHEAR
RECAP

When there is big supply of warm and humid air at low levels of the
atmosphere:
the more the shear the more long-lived the convective circulation and the
resulting storm.
In no shear conditions convective developments, and the resulting storms are
shallow and short-lived.

𝑧
RECAP
Line of thunderstorms (called a squall line) as seen by weather radar

𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 N
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

W E

S
𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

Wind vector turns with height


The wind shear set-up commonly seen in central US
A SQUALL-LINE RECAP

A two-dimensional convective system : it consists of thunderstorms,


in a straight line or, aligned in a bow shaped structure.

The squall may be a continuous line or may show breaks in between the individual
thunderstorm cells.

All thunderstorms of the squall propagate with uniform speed.


RECAP

LOOKING UP FROM THE SURFACE AS THE SQUALL IS APPROACHING


VERTICAL CROSS SECTION in the direction of the squall line movement

𝑾 𝑬

The squall is moving (propagating) from the West to the East.


The surrounding air in the low levels is warm and humid.
VERTICAL CROSS SECTION in the direction of the squall line movement

Anvil in the upper levels

𝑾 𝑬
Cold pool and gust front in the low levels
𝑾 𝑬

Due to the wind profile (characterised by shear in the low levels)


We have
Inflow of warm, moist air from the East in the low levels
Inflow of dry air from the west in the middle and upper levels.
Focus on the low levels

𝑾 𝑬

1. Due to the wind blowing into the storm from the


east at low levels the warm, moist air , is drawn into
the squall from the pre-storm sector.
𝑾 𝑬

2. The warm, moist air glides over the gust front and is lifted upwards .

As it is lifted, it is cooled, it reaches saturation and cloud starts to form.

Note the importance of the uplift,


that is provided by the cold pool
that is created by the downdraft air mass.→
The gust front presence helps the convective development
Focus on the middle and upper levels

𝑾 𝑬

3. Dry air is continuously drawn into the squall from the west.

Precipitation that forms in the cloud is falling into this dry air.
The falling precipitation evaporates into this dry air.
As the air is dry, evaporation is more rapid.
And so, the cooling of the inflowing air due to evaporation is more intense.
Focus on the middle and upper levels

𝑾 𝑬

4.
This way the air becomes very cold and very heavy.

It sinks, thus creating the powerful downdraft, and the gust front.

The powerful gust front will in turn help the warm humid inflow air
to rise.
Note, the cooperation (called a synergistic relation)
between the updraft and the downdraft in the case of the squall storm.

that permits its long-term maintenance.


The downdraft cleats the cold pool that helps to lift up
the warm air flowing in from the east.
The updraft creates the precipitation that evaporates as
it falls and generates the downdraft
that permits the long-term maintenance of the
squall.

Note that in the case of the squall the cold


downdraft hits the surface to the rear of the
warm, humid air that feeds the squall
and so does not kill the updraft.
SQUALL LINE
PRECIPITATION and CLOUD TYPES

Mammatus
Cloud
Rain from Anvil

Anvil cloud

Shelf cloud
THE GUST FRONT

𝑾 𝑬
• The leading edge of the advancing low level, cold, downdraft air is the gust front.

The gust front can move at a speed as high as 25m/sec.

It resembles a cold front in that across the gust-frontal surface we see:


1. strong shift of winds (winds are westerly on the cold side and easterly on the warm side)
2. sharply falling temperatures
Since a gust front separates a lower density (warm) from a higher density (cold) fluid, it
is examined within the group of currents known as “density” currents.

Other density currents that resemble a gust front:


Lava flow on Surtsey, Iceland 1963
The gust front position varies : Immediately ahead of the rain area in “new” ie. young squall lines.
It outruns, or leaves behind, the squall line that generated it and
appears as an isolated feature in “old” decaying squall lines.

𝑾 𝑬
A circular gust front propagating away from parent storm
Gust fronts that outrun the ‘parent’ squall-line can still provide uplift for warm and humid air-masses.

As these air masses rise, they condense their water vapour and the characteristic elongated type of
cloud is generated: the roll cloud.

ROLL CLOUDS
ARCUS CLOUDS

or a bow-shaped cloud: the arcus cloud.

𝑾 𝑬
MULTICELL STORMS
Development of the SQUALL LINE BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR
(moderate, and
concentrated in the low levels)

𝑾 𝑬
𝑾 𝑬

BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR


(moderate)
B

𝑾 𝑬

WHEN WE HAVE A VERY


STRONG BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR

We get a multi-cell
squall.
CROSS- SECTION of a multi-cell SQUALL LINE

A SIMPLIFIED RADAR VIEW

Squall moving from West to East

Note, that the multi-cell squall is


characterised by more than one cells of
high reflectivity.
WEATHER RADAR VIEW OF MULTI-CELL SQUALL
A young cell forming as
warm, humid air is lifted
over the cold pool.

Squall moving from West to East

Layered, stratiform
cloud Mature cell

Older cell, in stage of


dissipation. This cell is cut-off
from supply of warm, humid air
that feeds the storm.
A young cell forming as
warm, humid air is lifted
over the cold pool.

Squall moving from West to East

Layered, stratiform
cloud Mature cell

Older cell, in stage of


dissipation.

There is continuous formation of new cells at the leading edge


as air is lifted over the cold pool
and continuous dissipation of the older cells at the rear.
PLAN VIEW FROM ABOVE

SCALES of multi-cell SQUALL LINES


𝑵

N − 𝑆 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒: 400km

Squall moving from West to East

𝑾 𝑬
𝛿𝑥2 = 100 − 200km

Typical extent (scale) in the North to South direction: 400𝑘𝑚

In the East to West direction, we see on the radar several rows of thunderstorm cells.
Extent (scale) of the entire multi cell storm In the East to West direction can be up to
100 − 200𝑘𝑚
SQUALL LINE
PRECIPITATION and CLOUD TYPES

Mammatus
Cloud
MULTICELL SQUALL LINE

A REALISTIC RADAR VIEW –


VERTICAL SECTION

Vertical section across a multicell squall line.


Arrow shows direction of squall propagation anvil
Note the succession of cells from newly formed at the
leading edge to more mature in the rear.
STRONG BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR
STRONG BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR

A B

Note that In the case of a multicell squall storm, the


cold pool is enhanced by cold downdrafts from
several cells.

So, the resulting gust front will have a tendency to move much faster
than in a squall storm made of a single cell.
The gust front will move from position A to position B.
STRONG BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR
1
2

3 4

A B

The movement of the gust front forward to position B gives the


impression that the cells are moving rearwards : cell 2 to position of
cell 1, cell 3 to position of cell 2, cell 4 to position of cell 3.

Once a cell has ‘moved’ rearwards and is located well above the cold
pool its access to rising warm air from the surface is blocked.
STRONG BACKGROUND WIND SHEAR
1
2

3 4

A B

Once a cell has moved rearwards and is located well above the cold pool its
access to rising warm air from the surface is blocked.

So an ‘old’ cell that is furthest from the leading edge will be dissipating
at the same time that a ‘young’ cell at the leading edge will be forming.
older cells MULTICELL STORM
younger cell
RADAR VIEW from ABOVE

Multicell storm moves in the direction shown by the


arrows.
Note, on radar view that the storm’s cells appear as
independent "blobs“.
VIEW FROM AIRPLANE

old cell
young cell
MULTICELL STORM
RADAR PLAN VIEW

Multicell storm moves in the


Multiple
direction shown by the arrow.
cells
BLIZZARD

is a severe snow storm characterized by strong winds causing blowing snow and a result low visibility.

The term blizzard became common since it was used by the U.S. press to describe
snowstorms during the harsh winter of 1880–81
QUANTITATIVELY

To be a blizzard, a snow storm must have winds that are greater than or equal to 35 𝑘𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑝ℎ
and
the blowing reduces visibility to less than 400𝑚 for a period of time of more than 3ℎ𝑟𝑠.

What makes the blizzard stand out from a typical snowstorm is the is the strength of the
wind.
A recent blizzard : Eastern Newfoundland 18 January 2019

Accumulation of snow from 16:00h to 05:00 the following morning

https://twitter.com/i/status/1218513604393213953
Well known are the blizzards of ANTARCTICA

These are characterised by winds spilling over the edge


of the Antarctican ice plateau at a speed of 100𝑘𝑡𝑠.
GROUND BLIZZARD

is a type of blizzard where there is no snowfall but snow on the ground is


lifted and blown by strong winds.
THE DEADLIEST BLIZZARD in HISTORY

The Iran Blizzard of February 1972.


This refers to a week-long period of severe snow storms that hit areas in
northwestern, central and southern Iran with a death toll of approximately 4000
people.
Southern Iran received as much as 8𝑚 of snow. The city of Ardakan and
surrounding villages were hardest hit, with no survivors in Kakkan and Kumar. In
the northwest, near the border with Turkey the village of Sheklab and its 100
inhabitants were buried.
IN THE U.S. THE SNOW WINTER OF 1880-1881

is considered the most severe winter ever known in the United States and is known
for the frequency of blizzard and the deep cold that lasted several months. The snow
arrived in October 1880 and blizzard followed blizzard throughout the winter and into
March 1881.

SOME HISTORICAL FACTS

The very first of the blizzards, in October


1880, brought snowfalls so deep that two-
story homes had snow up to the second
floor windows.
IN THE U.S. THE SNOW WINTER OF 1880-1881

SOME HISTORICAL FACTS

Farmers all over the regions were caught


before their crops had even been
harvested, so there was wide starvation
especially among town people.

In the towns the streets were filled with


solid drifts to the tops of the buildings and
tunneling was needed to secure passage
about town.

When the snow finally melted in late spring


of 1881, huge sections of the plains were
flooded.
THREE - FORCE BALANCE
A SURFACE WEATHER MAP.

Showing a low pressure system with its warm and cold fronts
We learned that the way the wind blows is determined (90% of the
time) by the geostrophic balance that is a balance of 2 forces the PGF
and the CF.

Because of the geostrophic balance the flow around a Low pressure


centre and a High pressure centre in the Northern hemisphere is as
shown.
1004hPa 1008 hPa

996hPa 1020 hPa


L H
IS GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE ALWAYS VALID ?
GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE

LOW pressure

PGF
CF
HIGH pressure

We saw that at each point downstream CF acts at right angles to the


curved path and deflects the particle to the right of its original path.
So, the path becomes progressively more bent.
GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE

And eventually this gives a flow that is parallel to the isobars, with the high pressure on
the right in the Northern hemisphere and proportional in strength to the pressure
gradient.

LOW pressure

𝑉𝑔

HIGH pressure
However, for a moving airmass there is another force
that comes into play, the force of friction.

LOW

PGF
𝑉

FR CF

HIGH

Frictional drag : is the collective effect of all motions that


FR
result in exchange of momentum between the air parcel
and its environment and therefore have a decelerating
effect on its speed.
1. Exchange of momentum happens when there is a
marked change of the wind speed (or direction) in the
vertical.

Wind 𝑉

2. Exchange of momentum also happens in the lowest 1km


of the atmosphere (called the Planetary Boundary Layer) as the air
flows over terrain or water. This exchange is particularly strong
for flow over rough terrain.
The frictional drag FR acts in the direction opposite to the wind speed
and is stronger for stronger wind speed.

FR Wind 𝑉
We consider that FR is so strong near the surface of the Earth
that the moving air-mass is under the effect of FR as well as of
the PGF and the CF forces.

For the flow to be steady, we need that these three forces balance out

PGF + CF + FR = 0
The lay-out of the three forces in order for them to balance out is as shown
below

LOW
PGF
𝑉

FR CF
HIGH
LOW 𝑝

PGF
𝑉

FR CF

HIGH 𝑝

When the 3 forces are in balance, the wind:

a. is no longer parallel to the isobars but is directed at an angle to the isobars


towards the Low pressure
b. is weaker than the geostrophic wind would have been (for the same PGF).

So, this wind, that is the result of the 3-force balance is called subgeostrophic.
IN THE CASE OF A LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEM

(NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE THREE-FORCE BALANCE

1020 ℎ𝑃𝑎 1020 ℎ𝑃𝑎

1004 ℎ𝑃𝑎 1004 ℎ𝑃𝑎


L L
PGF CF
FR
SO, the WIND AROUND THE LOW-PRESSURE CENTRE:

GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE THREE-FORCE BALANCE

1020 hPa 1020 hPa

1004 hPa 1004 hPa


L L

The geostrophic wind blows in the


The wind blows in the counterclockwise sense and
counterclockwise sense and
is converging towards the centre of Low pressure
parallel to the isobars
LET’S SEE WHAT HAPPENS IN THE CASE OF A HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM

( NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)
IN THE CASE OF A HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM (NORTHERN HEMISPHERE)

GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE THREE-FORCE BALANCE

1008ℎ𝑃𝑎

FR
1020ℎ𝑃𝑎
1020ℎ𝑃𝑎 H
H
CF PGF
SO, the WIND AROUND THE HIGH PRESSURE CENTRE:

GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE THREE-FORCE BALANCE

1008ℎ𝑃𝑎 1008ℎ𝑃𝑎

1020ℎ𝑃𝑎 1020ℎ𝑃𝑎
H H

Black arrows show the geostrophic wind. Wind blows clockwise and
It blows in the clockwise sense and diverging away from the
parallel to the isobars centre of High pressure.
NEAR THE EARTH’S SURFACE where the frictional drag is
significant

THE FLOW AROUND A LOW OR a A HIGH-PRESSURE


SYSTEM IS DETERMINED BY the ΤΗRΕΕ-FORCE BALANCE.
Consider the LOW PRESSURE CENTRE, in 3 force balance

As flow is converging towards the centre of low pressure

over time
Air mass is moving towards the low pressure centre → build-up of air mass at the centre of the low-pressure system.

So, the pressure at the centre will gradually increase.


and, we say that the low pressure center will start filling.
Likewise, for HIGH PRESSURE CENTRE near the surface of the Earth

Flow is diverging away from the centre of High pressure

OVER TIME …..

less air mass will be left at the centre of the high pressure system.
So, the pressure at the centre will gradually decrease.
we say that the high-pressure center will weaken.
So, the three-force balance implies that low and high-pressure
systems near the surface of the Earth will weaken with time and
therefore will be short-lived structures.
However, this is not what happens !

Typically, Low pressure systems like the one over N. America


shown below (and the stormy weather they bring) persist on
average for a period of 2-4 days.
1004 hPa
L

A longer lifetime is possible if some other process removes the air masses that tend
to pile up at the centre of the system due to the converging winds.

If the air masses are moved away from the centre, the low-pressure system will not
fill and can persist for a long time.

What is this process ?


to be continued ….

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