Error Analysis and Graph Drawing

I. Introduction:
I.1 It is impossible to do an experimental measurement with perfect accuracy. There is always an
uncertainty associated with any measured quantity in an experiment even in the most carefully done
experiment and despite using the most sophisticated instruments. This uncertainty in the measured
value is known as the error in that particular measured quantity. There is no way by which one can
measure a quantity with one hundred percent accuracy. In presenting experimental results it is very
important to objectively estimate the error in the measured result. Such an exercise is very basic to
experimental science. The importance of characterizing the accuracy and reliability of an
experimental result is difficult to understate when we keep in mind that it is experimental evidence
that validate scientific theories. Likewise, reliability and accuracy of measurements are also deeply
relevant to Engineering.
The complete science of error analysis involves the theory of statistics (see Ref. 1,2) and is too
involved to present here. This short presentation is intended to introduce the student to some basic
aspects of error analysis and graph drawing, which it is expected that the student will then put into
practice when presenting his/her results of the coming experiments.

I.2 When a measurement of a physical quantity is repeated, the results of the various measurements
will, in general, spread over a range of values. This spread in the measured results is due to the errors
in the experiment. Errors are generally classified into two types: systematic (or determinate) errors
and random (or indeterminate) errors. A systematic error is an error, which is constant throughout a
set of readings. Systematic errors lead to a clustering of the measured values around a value displaced
from the “true” value of the quantity. Random errors on the other hand, can be either positive or
negative and lead to a dispersion of the measurements around a mean value. For example, in a time
period measurement, errors in starting and stopping the clock will lead to random errors, while a
defect in the working of the clock will lead to systematic error. A striking example of systematic error
is the measurement of the value of the electric charge of the electron ‘e’ by Millikan by his Oil Drop
method. Millikan underestimated the viscosity of air, leading to a lower value for his result
e = (1.591  0.002)  10−19 C. (1)
Compare this with a more modern and accurate value (Cohen and Taylor 1973, Ref 3)
e = (1.602 189  0.000 005)  10−19 C. (2)
Systematic errors need to be carefully uncovered for the particular experimental set-up and
eliminated by correcting the results of the measurements.

I.3 Random errors are handled using statistical analysis. Assume that a large number (N) of
measurements are taken of a quantity Q giving values Q1,Q2, Q3,…QN. Let Q be the mean value of
1 N
these measurements Q = 1 Qi ,i = 1,2 ,.....N (3)
N
and let ‘d’ be the deviation in the measurements
1 N
 ( )
2
d= 1
Qi − Q ,i = 1,2 ,.....N (4)
N

1
 The result of the measurement is quoted (assuming systematic errors have been eliminated) as Q =
Q  d. (5)
The error Q in the quantity Q is then taken to be the deviation d. (This is called the standard error
in Q).
In a single measurement of a physical quantity, the error can be estimated as the least count (or its
fraction) of the instrument being used.
As an example, the result of a measurement of the radius of curvature R, of a Plano-convex could be
quoted asR = 140  0.2 cm. (6)
This means that we expect that the value of R to be in the range 139.8 to 140.2 cm. Note however,
that this does not mean that the “true” value of R necessarily lies in this range, only that there is a
probability that it will do so.
The error in a measurement can also be quoted as a percent error,
Q d
 100 =  100 . (7)
Q Q
For example, the percent error in R is 0.143%.
I.4 Combination of errors:
Often the value of a quantity of interest may depend on other measured quantities. For example we
could have a quantity Q which is a function F of a number of independent (actively controlled by us)
variables say x,y and z i.e ,Q = Q(x,y,z) (8)
In general, the error in Q is related to errors in x, y, z……, as follows (for small errors)
(Q )2 = (Qx )2 + (Qy )2 + (Qz )2 + ...(9)
where

 Q   Q   Q 
Qx =  x ; Qy =  y ; Qz =  z etc.
 x   y   z 
The following table summarizes the results for combining errors for some standard functions. Try
to derive some of these results.
Sl. No Function Q(x,y) Error Q or Fractional Error Q/Q

1 Q=x+y Q = (x )2 + (y )2

2 Q = x − y Q = (x )2 + (y )2
2 2 2
 Q   x   y   Q   x   y 
2 2

3 Q = x y   =   +      =   +  
 Q   x   y   Q   x   y 
2 2 2
 Q   x   y   Q   x   y 
2 2

4 Q = x/y   =   +      =   +  
 Q   x   y   Q   x   y 
Q x
5 Q = xn =n
Q x

2
 x
6 Q = ln x Q =
x
Q
7 Q = ex = x
Q

II Drawing of best fit straight line graph:

Below we describe how to fit a straight line to a set of data. Relations that are not linear can be
transformed to a linear one by an appropriate transformation of the variables (as you will learn from
these assignments).
To draw the best fit straight line graph through a set of scattered experimental data points we will
follow a standard statistical method, known as least squares fit method.
Let us consider a set of N experimental data points (x1, y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3)…(xN, yN). It is well known
that a straight line graph is described by the equation y = mx + c (10)
We ask the question: how are the slope m and the y-intercept c to be determined such that a straight
line best approximates the curve passing through the data points? Let
Si = yi- mxi –c be the deviation of any experimental point P (xi, yi), from the best fit line. Then, the
gradient ‘m’ and the intercept ‘c’ of the best fit straight line has to be found such that the quantity
S =  ( yi − mxi − c ) is a minimum. We thus require
2

S S
= −2 xi ( yi − mxi − c ) = 0 and = −2 ( yi − mxi − c ) = 0 ,
m i c i

m xi + c xi =  xi yi m xi + Nc =  yi .
2
which give, and

1 1 
The second equation can be rewritten as y = mx + c , where y =
N
 yi and x =   xi 
N 
showing that the best fit straight line passes through the centroid ( x , y ) of the points (xi, yi). The
required values of m and c can be calculated from the above two equations to be

m=
 (x − x ) y
i i
and c = y − mx . (11)
 (x − x )
2
i

The best fit straight line can be drawn by calculating m and c from above. A graphical method of
obtaining the best fit line is to rotate a transparent ruler about the centroid so that it passes through
the clusters of points at the top right and at the bottom left. This line will give the maximum error in
m,(Δm)1 on one side. Do the same to find out the maximum error in m, (Δm)2 on the other side. Now
bisect the angle between these two lines and that will be the best fit line through the experimental
data.
What are the errors in the gradient and intercept due to errors in the experimental data points? The
estimates of the standard errors in the slope and intercept are

(m )2  1  i and (c )2   1 + x   i , where D =  (xi − x )2 and Si is the deviation

2 2
S  2
 S
D N −2 N D  N −2
Si = yi- mxi –c.

3
II. Presentation of error associated with experimental data in a graph:
Let us consider a function, y = f(x), where x is an independent parameter which in the hand of the
experimentalist during performing the experiments and y is the experimental data which is having a
value depending upon the x and the instruments. Let the error associated with x be ±Δx and that for
y be ±Δy. One can represent ±Δx and ±Δy with the experimental data point P(x, y) on the graph paper.
To do that, first plot P(x, y) on the graph paper, then draw a vertical line parallel to y axis about the
point P(x, y) of length 2Δy. So upper half of the line represents the error +Δy and the lower half
represents –Δy error. To present ±Δx, draw horizontal lines at the two ends of the vertical line of
length 2Δx each. The whole presentation is now giving the errors associated with the experimental
point P(x, y).
Figure 1 is an example of experimental data of
resonance absorption of -ray experiment (Mössbauer
spectroscopy) with error associated with each
experimental data. The solid line gives the fitted curve
through the experimental data. Note that the error in
the variable along horizontal axis is not shown.

Fig.1

II.3 Use of graphs in experimental physics:

In practical physics, the graph of the experimental data is most important in improving the
understanding of the experimental results. Moreover from the graphs one can calculate unknowns
related to the experiments and one can compare the experimental data with the theoretical curve
when they are presented on same graph. There are different types of graph papers available in
market. So, one should choose the appropriate type of graph paper to present their experimental
results in the best way depending upon the values of the experimental data and the theoretical
expression of the functions. To understand all those some of the assignments are given below in
addition to those we discussed before.

III Using calculator to fit curves

After doing these assignments you also have to verify the best fit parameters, you have obtained, by
using your calculator. Calculators do the kind of curve fitting we want. Find out the procedure, specific
to your calculator, to fit curves to a set of data. You will find it in the calculator’s manual under
heading like “statistical” and sub heading “Regression”. If the formula of interest is one of the
standard relations in the calculator then you simply enter the data and read of the best fit parameters
that the calculator responds with. For other formulae you can use the trick of transforming to a new
set of variables. In all your future work you can do the regression analysis using a calculator.

IV. Log-Log and Semi-log graphs:

In certain physical situations we notice that the Physical quantities involved do not follow a linear
relation.
For example a variable y may depend on another variable x as y = axb
How do implement the least squares curve fitting procedure for this case?

4
One option is to take logarithm on both sides of this equation. We would then get obtain the following
equation:
log y = b log x + log a
We notice from the above equation that log y and log x satisfy a linear relation. Therefore, if we were
to plot log x on the x axis and log y on the y-axis of a normal graph sheet with linear scale, we would
obtain a straight line with slope b and y-intercept log a.
We can obtain the values of b and log a by following the least squares curve fitting procedure outlined
earlier.
Alternately, one can plot x and y (instead of log x and log y) on a graph sheet which has a logarithmic
(log to the base 10) scale. Such a graph sheet is shown below:

In the above logarithmic graph, the x values range from 102 to 104 and the y values range from 103 to
106. The point (200, 3000) is indicated with a solid circle. How was this graph sheet constructed? We
know that log10(2) = 0.3010 , log10(3) = 0.4770 etc. So we can measure the interval between 10 2 and
103 in the above graph (for example). If this interval is of measure d, then the x-coordinate
corresponding to 200 is obtained by taking it to be at a distance 0.3010 d from 10 2. So the person
who made the log-log graph has to calculate logarithm of all numbers from 2 to 9, but those who use
it need not!
By using this graph sheet we can avoid the calculation of logarithms. However, remember that for
calculating the slope and intercept of the best fit line, we have to anyway calculate log of x and y.
Further, you may have some confusion about how to draw the line of best fit on a log-log graph. The
simplest way is to determine the coordinates of two points which lie on the straight line, by using the
equation: log y = b log x + log a

5
i. e, we have already calculated the values of loga and logb for the line of best fit, we now find the
values of log y corresponding to two values of log x. But to mark these points on the logarithmic graph
sheet we need to calculate 10log x and 10log y.
In certain problems a semi-log graph sheet, i. e, a graph sheet which has a linear scale along one of
the axes is more useful than a log-log graph sheet. For example, the conductivity, C, of a semi-
 E 
conductor varies with temperature (T) according to the relation: C = C o exp − o  . This is a non-
 kT 
linear relation, hence we take log on both sides of the equation to linearize it.
Eo
log C = log C o −
kT
Therefore, if we plot log C vs (1/T), would obtain a straight line graph. Further, we could use a semi-
log graph to plot C along the y axis) and 1/T (on the x axis). A semi-log graph sheet is shown below:

For Q2.

6
V. Exercises and Viva Questions Radius of
1. What is the general classification of errors? Give an example of each. How are they curvature
(cm)
taken care of?
2. What is the meaning of standard error? 130.121
Calculate the standard error for the hypothetical data given
130.136
in the adjacent table. Express the quantity as in eq. (5), i.e.
R= R d . 130.139
3. What is the percent error in Millikan’s measurement of the charge of the electron: e = 130.148
(1.591  0.002) x 10−19 C? 130.155
4. What is the error in the volume of a cube V= L3 if the error in L is 0.01m? If L is 130.162
measured as L = 2  0.01, express the value of V in a similar manner.
130.169
5. A small steel ball-bearing rests on top of a horizontal table. The radius (R) of the ball is
measured using a micrometer screw gauge (with vernier least count 0.05 mm) to be 2.15 mm. The height
of the table is found using an ordinary meter scale to be 90 cm. What is the height of the center of the
steel ball from the floor (include the error)?
6. Let Q = x − y, where x = 100  2 and y = 96  2. Calculate Q (express the result with the error included).
7. Consider the quantity Q = x/y. If x = 50  1 and y = 3  0.2. Calculate Q (express the result with the error
included).
8. In an experiment involving diffraction of sodium light using a diffraction grating, the doublet lines are
unresolved at first order and a single spectral line is seen at an angle of 13 o. If the least count of the
vernier of the telescope is 1, what will be the error in the calculated value of the grating constant d?
(Principal maxima of a grating occur at angles  such that dsin = m. The wavelength separation
between the sodium doublet lines is 6Ao)
9. Consider an experiment to measure the gravitational acceleration g by measuring the time period of a
simple pendulum. What are the possible sources of systematic error in this experiment?
10. “If there are always errors in any measurement then there is nothing like the ‘true’ value of any
measured quantity”. Comment on this statement. In what sense then do you understand the values of
‘physical constants’ to be constants?
References:
1. “Practical Physics”, G.L. Squires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.
2. “Laboratory Experiments in College Physics”, C.H. Bernard and C.D. Epp, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, 1995.
3. “Engineering Physics”, Sanjay Jain and Girish Sahasrabudhe, Universities Press, 2010

7
 EXPERIMENT NO.1
Atwood’s Machine

Aim: Calculate the acceleration of a system using total mass constant, net force constant and hence
calculate the rotational inertia of the pulley.

Apparatus required: Photogate pulley system, mass and hanger set, universal table clamp, 60cm
long threaded rod, multi clamp, braided physics string, 550 universal interface, PASCO capstone
software, balance or scale, calipers.

Introduction:
The purpose of this activity is to study the relationship between net force, mass, and acceleration as
stated by Newton’s 2nd Law, using an Atwood’s Machine apparatus, built with a PASCO Super Pulley.
The Super Pulley has very low friction and small mass.
The Photogate head, when attached to a Super Pulley, is used to measure the velocity of both masses
as one moves up and the other moves down. The slope of the graph of velocity vs. time is the
acceleration of the system. Careful measurement when there is no net force allows the student to
compensate for friction.
The effect of the motion of the pulley on the measured experimental acceleration will also be
examined. This will provide a way to roughly compensate for the (small) effect of the pulley.

Simplified Theory:
The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to the net applied force and inversely proportional
to the system’s mass, as stated by Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion:
a = Fnet/Msystem
Atwood's Machine consists of two unequal masses connected by a single string that passes over an
ideally mass-less and frictionless pulley as in Figure 1. When released, the heavier object accelerates
downward while the lighter object accelerates upward.
The free-body diagrams below show the forces acting on each of the masses. T is the tension in the
string, assumed to be the same for both masses. This is a good assumption as long as it is a single
strand of string and a relatively light pulley system. With m1> m2, m1 is descending mass and m2 is the
ascending mass. The magnitude of the acceleration, a, is the same for each mass, but the masses
accelerate in opposite directions. We adopt the convention that down is positive. Then the equation
of motion of the descending mass, m1, is
m 1g – T = m 1a
The equation of motion for the ascending mass, m2, is
m2g –T = m2(-a)
Eliminating T between the two equations yields:
(m1 – m2)g= (m1 + m2)a
Which may be solved for the acceleration
a = (m1 – m2)g /(m1 + m2) = Fnet/Msystem Eq. (1)

8
Figure 1: Atwood’s Machine Figure 2: Free Body Diagram for Atwood’s Machine

Setup:
1. Attach the PASCO Super Pulley to the Photogate. Attach one end of the photogate wire to
the telephone jack on the photogate and the other end to Digital Input 1 on the 550 Universal
Interface.
2. Attach the Multi Clamp to a table and arrange the rods.
3. Cut 1.5 m piece of the braided string and tie loops on each end to hold a mass hanger.
Determine the mass of the string in grams and enter it in column 1 (String Mass) of the Acceleration
Data table under the Analysis tab. Enter the value in each of the first four rows.
4. Add a single 50 g mass to one mass hanger (5 g) for a total mass of 55 g. We will call this mass
hanger m1. To a second mass hanger (call it m2) add one 20 g, one 10 g, two 5 g, two 2 g, and one 1g
mass for a total of 50 g (including the 5 g hanger).
5. Adjust the height of the pulley so that when mass hanger m1 is touching the floor, mass hanger
m2 is a few centimeters below the pulley. The Photogate should be horizontal so the string does not
pull sideways on the pulley.

Friction & String Mass Compensation:

1. Add an additional 5 g to m2. The two masses should now balance. If there were no friction
and the string were massless, then if we gave m1 a push downward, it would continue at constant
speed.
2. Move m1 to its highest point. Click RECORD. Give m1 a gentle push downward and release it.
When m1 stops moving or strikes the floor, click STOP. The masses may touch as they pass each other.
If so, click the Delete Last Run button at the bottom of the screen and repeat the run.
3. Click the Data Summary button at the left of the screen. Double click on the current run
(probably Run #1) and re-label it “Equal mass run”. Click Data Summary again to close the panel.
4. Your Speed vs Time graph will appear on the same window.

9
 5. Add 0.5 g to m1 and repeat. Label this run “0.5 g run”. Then add another 0.5 g and repeat
again until you get a graph like Figure 6. Since you only have 0.5 g increments, your graph may not be
quite as symmetric as Figure 6. (Of course, you could add small paper clips to get as close as possible.)
Note that the slowing/speeding up is now in the hundredths of a meter per second rather than tenths
of a meter per second. Enter the amount of mass (in grams) you added to compensate for friction in
column 2 (Friction Mass) of the Acceleration Data table under the Analysis tab in all four rows. Answer
question 2 on the Conclusions page.
6. Leave the extra mass on m1 to compensate for friction. We will include the extra mass (+ any
paper clips) and the mass of the string in the total mass of the system, but will not include them in the
mass difference, m1 – m2 .
7. Remove the extra 5 g from m2!

Procedure: (sensors set at 10 Hz)

1. Put different masses for m1 and m2, always put m1>m2. Move m1 to its highest point. Click
RECORD. Give m1 a gentle push downward and release it.
2. When m1 strikes the floor, click STOP. It is better if you can catch m2 just before m1 hits the
floor. Otherwise, the m1 hanger may come loose and you’ll end up chasing masses around the floor.
The masses may touch as they pass each other. If so, click the Delete Last Run button at the bottom
of the screen and repeat the run.
3. Click the Data Summary button at the left of the screen. Double click on the current run and
re-label it “run1”.
4. Repeat the same procedure with different masses. (Note that this keeps the total mass
constant.)
5. Repeat steps 1-3. Label each and every run and save the data.
Data:
1. Click on the black triangle by the Run Select icon on the graph toolbar and select “run 1”.
2. Click the Scale to Fit icon on the left of the graph toolbar.
3. Click the Selection icon and adjust the handles on the selection box to highlight the linear
portion of the data. Use as much of the data as possible but be sure not to include any points where
the masses were not moving freely.
4. Click the black triangle by the Curve Fit icon and select “Linear”. The slope on the linear
portion of a speed versus time plot is the acceleration. Record the value in column 8, row 1 of the
Acceleration Data table under the Analysis tab.
5. Repeat for the other data and record it in row two. Then do the other two runs.
Analysis:
1. Compare the “Theory a” column to the “Exp. a” column. The “Theory a” numbers should be
consistently high. Calculate the percentage error.
2. What could be the source of the systematic error? If you answered “the pulley”, then you are
correct. The pulley also has mass, and it accelerates. We will deal with rotating systems later in the
course. For now we just assert that the pulley may be treated as an additional constant mass added
to the total mass of the system. The effective total mass of the pulley wheel (which does not equal
it’s mass) may be estimated from our four runs.

10
Conclusions:
1. For the “Equal mass run”, step 5 from the Friction tab:
a. Why are the masses slowing down?
b. Why is the rate at which the masses slow down decreasing with time (the slope is less
negative)? Hint: does the string weight tend to speed the masses up or slow them down, or both?
2. For the run where the speed stayed as constant as possible, step 6 under the Friction tab:
a. Why do the masses first slow down and then speed up? Hint: remember the string.
b. You may not see the periodic oscillation that shows in Figure 6. If you do see it, try to explain
it.
3. Does your data support Newton’s Second Law of Motion? Support your answer!
4. The PASCO specs on the pulley wheel list its actual mass as 5.5 g. If all the mass were at the
same distance as the string is from the axis of the wheel, the effective rotational mass would be 5.5 g.
Some of the mass is actually further from the axis which increases the effective mass, but quite a bit
of the mass is closer to the axis. The true effective mass is probably 4.5+/-1.0 g. How well does this
agree with your results?

NOTE: The procedure is easier to perform if one person handles the apparatus and a second person
handles the computer.

PROCEDURE A: Total Mass Constant

NOTE: The procedure is easier to perform if one person handles the apparatus and a second person
handles the computer.
1. Place the illustrated combination of mass-pieces on the hangers. Record the masses m1 and
m2 in the Data Table, including the 5-g mass of the hanger itself.

m1 m2
descending ascending
mass mass

5g 5g
10 g 5g
20 g 10 g 10 g
5g 20 g 20 g 5g

2. Move the m1 mass hanger upward until the m2 mass hanger almost touches the floor. Hold
the string to prevent the system from moving just yet.
3. Click ‘Start’ to begin recording data and then release the string.
4. Stop the motion by gently grabbing the string, before the hangers reach the pulley at the top
or the floor at the bottom. This will prevent the small pieces from jumping out of the hangers.
5. Click ‘Stop’ to end the data recording. Do not worry if the data on the graph has sections of
“extra data” from the moments when the masses were still not moving, or if they collided with each
other, or from after you stopped them.

11
6. Repeat two more times with the same masses m1 and m2 .
7. In the computer: Select Run #1 from the Data Menu in the Graph display. (If multiple data
runs are showing, first select No Data from the Data Menu and then select Run #1.) Click the “Scale-
to-fit” button to rescale the Graph axes to fit the data.
8. Click the ‘Fit’ menu button and select ‘Linear’. The computer will make a linear fit of all the
data and tell you the slope “m” of the best-fitting line.
9. If there are parts of the plot that are not needed, place the cursor on the lower-left edge of
the “good data.” Click, hold, and drag the cursor up until only the part of the plot needed is highlighted.
(See the diagram below.)

By highlighting only a portion of the graph, the linear fit calculation uses only those points.

10. In a graph of Velocity vs. Time, the slope is the acceleration. Record the value of the slope as
the “Experimental Acceleration” in the Data Table.
11. Repeat for each of the data runs and then calculate the average experimental acceleration for
this set of masses m1 and m2 .PROCEDURE B: Net Force Constant
12. Place the illustrated combination of mass-pieces on the hangers. Record the masses m1 and
m2 in the Data Table, including the 5-g mass of the hanger itself.

12
 m1 m2
descending ascending
mass mass

10 g 20 g
20 g
5g 20 g 20 g 5g

13. Add 5 grams to each mass hanger. Record the new m1 and m2 in the Data Table. Notice that
the addition of the extra mass only changed the total mass of the system, but without altering the
difference between the ascending and descending masses. Record data and measure the
experimental acceleration three times to calculate an average
14. For the next trial, place more mass on each hanger, the same amount on each. This will
increase the total mass of the system, but without changing the difference between m1 and m2 .
15. Measure the acceleration of each mass combination three times to calculate the average.
16. If you want to perform Procedure C, the examination of the effect of the pulley, dismantle the
equipment and use a scale to measure the mass of the string. Record it in the space provided in the
Data Table for Procedure C.

PROCEDURE A & B: Calculations

17. For each of the data runs, calculate the total mass m1 + m2 and record it in the Data Table.
18. For each of the data runs, using the measured mass values, calculate and record the net force:
Fnet = (m1 − m2 )g
19. Using the total mass and the net force, calculate the theoretical acceleration using Newton’s
nd
2 Law of Motion:
Fnet
a=
M total
20. For each data run, calculate and record the percent difference between the experimental
acceleration and the theoretical acceleration:
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
%difference = | | × 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
(The percent difference compares the difference between the values to the average of the values.)

13
PROCEDURE C: The Rotational Inertia and the Friction of the Pulley System
THEORY
Theoretical Assumptions
One of the main assumptions of the Atwood’s rotational
motion
Machine theoretical analysis is that the pulley- pulley-system r
system has no significant mass and that its motion  = a/r
has no effect on the measured acceleration of the
system. However, it is obvious to the observer that
the pulley moves together with the hanging
masses and is thus also part of “the system.” (So is a linear
motion
the string, by the way.) In order to account for this
“extra mass,” let’s introduce a term to the total
mass of the system: linear
a m1
M total = m1 + m2 + m .
motion

actual
m1 > m2
Here m will be the excess mass unaccounted for
in the previous theoretical analysis. We expect m m2
to be (hopefully) very small.
The other main assumption is that the system is
frictionless. This is also an idealization. Even for
the specially designed type of bearing of the pulley
there may be a small amount of friction that may
drag the pulley. The strings may also contribute to
the drag if they slip and rub against the pulley. The
presence of any frictional force will reduce the net
force.
Let’s introduce a general frictional term to the calculation of the net force:
Fnet = Fnet − f
actual assumed

= (m1 g − m2 g ) − f 

Here Fnet is the net force we used in the ideal case, the difference in weight between the masses
assumed

m1 and m2 .

Notice that the presence of any excess mass and the presence of any frictional force must result in a
measured value of acceleration that is lower than the ideal theoretical value predicted in procedures
A & B.
The Effect of the Rotation of the Pulley
The pulley rotates with constant angular acceleration  . As long as there is no slippage, the linear
acceleration of any point on the rim of the pulley must be the same as the linear acceleration of the
masses and of the string. That is,  = a r .
The body diagram below shows the tensional forces acting on the pulley, of radius r and moment of
inertia I . No friction is considered in this part of the analysis.

14
 Let T1 be the tension from the side of the string
connected to m1 , and let T2 be the tension from
I the side of the string connected to m2 . These
r  = a/r tensional forces provide the torques that make
the pulley rotate. Because T1 tries to make the
T1 > T2 pulley rotate clockwise, while T2 tries to make the
T2
T1 pulley rotate counterclockwise, the torques they
apply are in opposite directions, but the torque
from T1 must be greater, since we know the
system in the end rotates and accelerates
clockwise (in the direction of the larger,
descending mass).
The equation of rotational motion for pulley is:
T1 r − T2 r = I .

Applying the no-slippage condition, this equation becomes:

a
T1r − T2 r = I
r
Now, from previous analysis (see the ‘Theory’ section for Procedure A) we know that T1 = m1 g − m1a ,
and that T2 = m2 a + m2 g . Substituting into the previous equation, then simplifying and re-arranging,
we see that the linear acceleration of the system must be:
Fnet
m1 g − m2 g
a= =
assumed
.
m1 + m2 + r 2 m1 + m2 +
I I
r2

If the pulley-system has any significant rotational inertia, then its mass contribution ( m ) to the system
has the form m = I r . Notice that if I is very small this expression reduces to the theoretical formula
2

used in the analysis of Procedures A and B. If there is also friction opposing the motion of the pulleys,
the same analysis can be used to show that the effect is a reduction to the net force.
Fnet − f
a=
(assumed)
.
m1 + m2 + I
r2

The Analysis
The experimentally measured acceleration must include all effects of excess mass and friction. Let’s
say that the measured acceleration for each run is actually given by

Fnet − f
a=
aasumed

M total + m
assumed

Rearranging this equation, Fnet − M tota a = ma + f  , where m and f  are the unknowns we are
assumed assumedl

attempting to find.

15
PROCEDURE C: Calculations

21. Transfer the following data from Procedures A and B into the Data Table for Procedure C: the
measured experimental acceleration of each run (this will be a ), the net force of each run (this will
now be Fnet ), and the total mass of each run (this will now be M total ).
assumed assumed

22. Calculate the quantity Fnet − M total a for each data run and enter the results in the table.
assumed assumedl

23. Make a plot of the quantity Fnet − M total a in the y-axis versus the experimental
assumed assumedl

acceleration, a , in the x-axis. Notice that the equation should be linear:

Fnet − M total a = m a + f
assumed assumed

   
y = m x + b
The excess mass m will be the slope of the line. The frictional force f  will be the y-intercept.
24. Draw the best-fitting line for your plot and calculate the slope and the y-intercept. Record the
values as m and f  , respectively. Don’t forget the units.
25. Use calipers to measure the diameter of the Super Pulley. Determine the radius of the pulley
and enter it in the Data Table.

26. Use the calculated excess-mass m to calculate the rotational inertia of the pulley:
I = r 2 m

QUESTIONS PROCEDURE A: Total Mass Constant

27. Look at the data: as the net force increased, what happened to the acceleration? Did it
increase, decrease or stay constant?
28. Did a change in the net force produce a change in acceleration by the same factor? Do your
results agree with Newton’s 2nd Law?
29. Use this grid to make a plot of Net Force vs. Experimental Acceleration and draw the best
fitting line.

Experimental Acceleration

16
30. Calculate the slope of the best-fitting line. What does the slope of the best-fit line represent?
(Hint: what are the units of the slope?)

QUESTIONS PROCEDURE B: Net Force Constant

31. Look at the data: as the total mass increased, what happened to the acceleration? Did it
increase, decrease or stay constant?
32. Did a change in the total mass produce a change in acceleration by the same factor? Do your
results agree with Newton’s 2nd Law?
QUESTIONS PROCEDURE C: The Rotational Inertia of the Pulleys
33. The motion and mass of the string that moves the system was never considered in any part
of the theoretical analysis. Looking at your results, is it reasonable to ignore the mass of the string as
paErt of the “total mass of the system”? Discuss.
34. Looking back at the ideal case: was it safe to assume that the system is essentially frictionless?
35. What has a larger impact on the percent differences found in procedures A & B, the small
excess mass or the small amount of friction? Discuss based on your results.
36. Assuming frictional forces only act to oppose the linear motion of the masses, and that each
mass receives the same amount of friction f , prove that f  = 2 f .

17
 EXPERIMENT NO.02
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Aim: 1. To measure the speed of the car at various levels for different tracks
2. Estimate potential energy and kinetic energy
3. Compare the total energy for two points on different tracks and hence calculate the energy loss
percentage in two different points.

Apparatus required: Roller coaster complete system, photogate heads, smart timer.
INTRODUCTION
A car is started from rest on a variety of shapes of tracks (hills, valleys, loops, straight track) and the
speeds of the car at various points along the track are measured using a photogate connected to a
Smart Timer. The potential energy is calculated from the measured height and the kinetic energy is
calculated from the speed. The total energy is calculated for two points on the track and compared.
The height from which the car must be released from rest to just make it over the loop can be
predicted from conservation of energy and the centripetal acceleration. Then the prediction can be
tested on the real roller coaster. Also, if the car is released from the top of the hill so it easily makes
it over the top of the loop, the speed of the car can be measured at the top of the loop and the
centripetal acceleration as well as the apparent weight (normal force) on the car can be calculated.

THEORY
The total energy (E) of the car is equal to its kinetic energy (K) and its potential energy (U).
E=K+U (1)
1 2
K= mv (2)
2

where m is the mass of the car and v is the speed of the car.
U=mgh (3)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height of the car above the position where the
potential energy is defined to be zero.
If friction can be ignored, the total energy of the car does not change. The Law of Conservation of
Energy is stated as

E = constant  Kinitial + U initial = K final + U final

18
STEP PROCEDURE

Figure 1: Step Configuration

1. Configure the track as shown in Figure 1. Attach a photogate to the straight portion at the
bottom, positioned to measure the speed of the car just after it reaches the straight part (on the
second peg from the left). Also put the catcher on the end of the straight part to keep the car from
going off the end of the track.
2. Place the Mini Car at the top of the step on the left. Mark on the white board where you start
the car. Measure the initial height of the car: Measure from the table to the center of mass of the
car. Note that the center of mass of the car is approximately at the slot where the flag is inserted.
The exact center of mass can be determined by balancing the car. Measure the car’s mass.
3. Place the car at the bottom on the flat part of the track and measure the height of the car
from the table.
4. Place the car at the top and release it from rest. Use the photogate and Smart Timer (set on
the Velocity: One Gate Mode) to measure the speed of the cart at the bottom of the step.
5. Calculate the initial total energy of the car.
6. Calculate the final total energy of the car.
7. How much energy is lost? Where does it go?
EnergyLost
8. Calculate the percent of total energy lost. % Lost =
InitialEnergy

9. Place the 50g mass on the car and repeat steps 2 through 8 above.
QUESTIONS
1. How does increasing the mass of the car change the total energy?
2. How does increasing the mass of the car change the speed of the car at the bottom?
3. Does the car lose a greater percentage of its energy when it has the extra mass or not?

HILL PROCEDURE

19
 Figure 2: Hill Configuration

Figure 3: Hill with Photogates

1. Configure the track as shown in Figures 2 and 3. Attach photogates at the top of the hill and
on the straight portion at the bottom. Also put the catcher on the end of the straight part to keep
the car from going off the end of the track.
2. Place the Mini Car at the top of the hill on the left. Mark on the white board where you start
the car. Measure the initial height of the car: Measure from the table to the center of the car.
3. Place the car at the top of the small hill in the center and measure the height of the car.

4. Place the car at the bottom on the flat part of the track and measure the height of the car
from the table.
5. Place the car at the top and release it from rest. Use the Smart Timer on Velocity: 2 Gate
Mode to measure the speed of the cart at the top of the center hill and at the bottom.
6. Calculate the initial total energy of the car.
7. Calculate the total energy of the car at the top of the center hill.
8. How much energy is lost? Where does it go?

EnergyLost
9. Calculate the percent of total energy lost. % Lost =
InitialEnergy

10. Calculate the total energy of the car at the bottom. Calculate the percent of the total energy
lost between the starting position on the left and the final position on the right.
QUESTIONS
1. Using the speed of the car at the top of the middle hill, calculate the normal force on the car.
You will need to estimate the radius of a circle that matches the curvature of the hill by drawing the
circle on the white board.
2. How fast would the car have to go to cause the normal force to be zero at the top of the hill?
How high would the car have to start to make this happen?

20
 LOOP PROCEDURE

Figure 4: Loop Setup

1. Configure the track as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Attach a photogate at the top of the loop. Also put
the catcher on the end of the track to keep the car
from going off the end of the track.
2. Put a peg in the center of the loop. Place the Mini
Car at the top of the loop. Mark on the position of
the center of mass of the car on the white board.
Measure from the center of the center peg to the
center of mass of the car at the top of the loop (see
Figure 6). Figure 6: Loop Radius
3. Measure the distance from the center of mass of the car at the top of the loop to the table.
4. Using Conservation of Energy, predict the minimum height from which the car can be released on the
left end of the track so the car will just make it completely over the loop.
5. Draw a horizontal line from the top of the circle you drew for the loop to the left part of the track.
Measure from this line to mark the starting position calculated in Part 4.
6. Place the center of mass of the car at the marked predicted position and release it from rest.

QUESTIONS
1. Does the car make it over? If not, why not? If so, does it just make it or did you start too high?
2. Once you have determined the release position where the car will make it over the loop, observe and
mark the highest position reached on the right side of the track. In theory, where should this position
be? How far above or below is this position from the horizontal line drawn in Part 5? Use the loss in
LossOfHeight
height from the starting position to calculate the percent energy lost. % EnergyLost =
StartingHeight

21
HIGH ROAD/LOW ROAD PROCEDURE

Figure 10: High Road/Low Road Configuration

Figure 11: Photogate Placement

1. Configure the two tracks as shown in Figures 10 and 11. Attach a photogate at the end of the
two tracks as shown in Figure 11. Also put catchers on the end of each track to keep the cars from
going off the end of the tracks. Put a photogate flag in each of the cars, in the sides nearest to the
other car so both flags will block the photogate.
2. If the cars are started from rest on the left end of each track at the same time, predict
which car will reach the right end first. Try it to test your prediction.
3. Prediction: Which car will have the greater speed at the right end of the track?
4. Set the Smart Timer for Speed: Collision Mode. Press the Button #3 on the Smart Timer to
ready the timer. Place the two cars on the left end of the track and release them from rest.
5. After the cars pass through the photogate, press Button #3 on the Smart Timer to stop timing.
The speeds of the cars will be displayed.

QUESTIONS
1. Which car has the greater speed at the right end of the track? How does energy conservation
explain the result?
2. Which car reaches the end of the track first? Why?

22
 EXPERIMENT NO.3
COLLISIONS

AIM:

1. Determine (a) the sum of the momenta before collision, (b) the sum of the momenta after collision and (c) the
percentage change in momenta in the following cases: (a) explosions (b) elastic collision and (c) inelastic collisions.
2. Determine the total kinetic energy before collision and after collision and the percentage change of kinetic energy
in an elastic and inelastic conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Smart cart- Red, Smart cart- Blue, 250g mass bars, 1.2 m dynamic track, track end stop, track feet, blue-tooth adapter
and computer with capstone software.

INTRODUCTION:

Elastic and inelastic collisions are performed with two dynamic carts. Magnetic bumpers are used in the elastic
collision and Velcro® bumpers are used in the inelastic collision. Explosion situation I also studied here. In all the cases,
momentum is conserved.

Figure 1: Setup

Cart velocities are recorded by using two Rotary Motion Sensors connected to the carts by string wrapped around
pulleys. This measurement method adds very little friction to the experiment and, since the velocities are continuously
monitored, any deceleration due to friction can be measured. The total kinetic energy before and after the collision is
also studied.

THEORY:

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐦𝐯
The momentum of the cart is 𝐩 ⃗⃗ where m is the mass (m in kg) of the cart and v is its velocity (in m/s).
Momentum is a vector quantity.

The direction of the momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity. During a collision, the total momentum of
the system of both carts is conserved because the net force on the two-cart system is zero. This means that the total
momentum just before the collision is equal to the total momentum just after the collision. If the momentum of one
cart decreases, the momentum of the other cart increases by the same amount. This is true regardless of the type of

23
collision, and even in cases where kinetic energy is not conserved. The law of conservation of momentum is stated as
⃗⃗⃗ 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝐩
𝐩 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧

m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 , where u1 and u2 are the velocities of m1 and m2 before collision

and v1 and v2 are the velocities of m1 and m2 after collision.

Change in momentum = pac - pbc where pac and pbc are the total momenta after collision and pbc is total momenta before
collision.
Pac −pbc
Percentage change in momentum = pbc
× 100.

1
The kinetic energy of a cart is KE = 2 mv 2 . kinetic energy is a scalar.

The total kinetic energy of the system of two carts is found by adding the kinetic energies of the individual carts.
1 1
Kinetic energy before collision is, kbc = m1 u12 + m2 u22
2 2
1 1
Kinetic energy after collision, kac = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2

𝑘𝑏𝑐 −𝑘𝑎𝑐
Percentage change in kinetic energy = × 100
𝑘𝑏𝑐

Initial Adjustments for explosion:

1. Install the magnetic bumpers on the carts.

2. Use the balance to find the mass of each cart and note down in the record.
3. Place a cart at rest on the track and give it a little push in each direction. If it is not accelerating on the track
then the dynamic track is said to be horizontal to the table. Otherwise, use the spirit level and the levelling
screws on the track feet to adjust the track to be horizontal.
4. Click the capstone icon on the computer. Go to hardware setup. Click the hardware setup in toolbox palette
and the blue-tooth adapter will sense the presence of the carts on the dynamic track automatically. Now select
the red smart cart option and blue cart option one at a time and click the hardware setup again to close the
dropdown box.

24
 5. Click graph & digits icon. On y-axis, click select measurement and a dropdown box will appear. In that click
velocity, red (m/s). then on the graph, this will appear on y axis and on x-axis time in s will appear. Click
velocity, red (m/s) on y axis and in the drop-down box click add similar measurement and select velocity.
Now the software is ready to measure the velocities of both the carts on the same graph.

6. Place both carts’ magnetic bumpers facing towards the right on the dynamic track.
7. Press the red button on the monitor to record the velocities of the carts. Push both carts to the right. If the
velocities of both the carts are positive on the graph, then the motion of the carts is said to be positive along
x-axis for both carts.

PROCEDURE:

I. Explosion: (a) Equal Mass Carts:

25
1.
2. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 as mentioned in the initial adjustments.
3. Arrange the plunger on blue cart to position #2 by gently pressing the black trigger on the cart. Now, place the two
carts in contact on the dynamic track such that the point of contact is at the center of the dynamic track.
4. Start recording the velocities and tap black trigger gently to launch the explosion of the carts.
5. Stop recording before either cart reaches the end of the track.
6. On top of the velocity vs time graph, select add coordinates tool and click add coordinates / delta tool
and a + mark in dotted line will appear on the graph. Drag this to a point to find the velocity of the red
and blue carts just after explosion. Their initial velocities will be zero as both the carts are at rest just
before the explosion. Note them in the table.

(b) Unequal Mass Carts:

Place the additional mass bar in the blue cart and repeat the procedure mentioned above.

II Inelastic Collisions:
(a) Equal Mass Carts:

1. Place the red and blue carts at rest on the dynamic track as shown above, with the Velcro bumpers facing each
other.
2. Click the Capstone icon on the computer. Go to hardware setup. Click the hardware setup in toolbox palette and
the blue-tooth adapter will sense the presence of the carts on the dynamic track automatically. Now select the
smart cart, red option and click properties icon against the smart cart position sensor. In the drop-down box check
the Change sign option. Then Click ok. This has to be done due to the reversal of the red cart on the dynamic track.
3. Repeat the step 5 in the initial adjustments.
4. Keep both carts at 15 to 20 cm distance in the middle of the dynamic track.
5. Start recording the velocities and give the red cart a gentle push toward the blue cart such that they hit each other.
Stop recording before either cart reaches the end of the track. This will record a plot of velocities on the graph.
6. Find the velocities of the red cart before and after collision. Also find the velocity of the blue cart after collision.

(b). Unequal Mass Carts:

26
Place the additional mass bar in the blue cart and repeat the procedure mentioned above.

III. Elastic Collisions:

(a). Equal Mass Carts:

1. Place the red and blue carts at rest on the track with the magnetic bumpers facing each other at a
distance of 15-20 cm in the middle of the dynamic track.
2. Click the Capstone icon on the computer. Go to hardware setup. Click the hardware setup in toolbox
palette and the blue-tooth adapter will sense the presence of the carts on the dynamic track
automatically. Now select the smart cart, blue option and click properties icon against the smart cart
position sensor. In the drop-down box check the Change sign option. Then Click ok. This has to be done
due to the reversal of the blue cart on the dynamic track.
3. Click graph & digits icon. On y-axis, click select measurement and a dropdown box will appear. In that
click velocity, red (m/s). Then on the graph, this will appear on y axis and on x-axis time in s will appear.
Click velocity, red (m/s) on y axis and in the drop-down box click add similar measurement and select
velocity. Now the software is ready to measure the velocities of both the carts on the same graph.
4. Start recording the velocities and give the red cart a gentle push toward the blue cart.
5. Stop recording velocities before either cart reaches the end of the track.
6. Find the velocities of the red cart before and after collision. Also find the velocity of the blue cart after collision.
Note them in the record.

(b) Unequal Mass Carts:

Place the additional mass bar in the blue cart and repeat the procedure mentioned above.

References:
1. F. Keller, W. Gettys& M. Skove- Physics, McGraw- Hill, Inc., Int. ed., 1993, 235-236.
2. Halliday, Resnick & Walker- Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley & sons, 4th ed. (extended), 1993,
947-948, 260-263.

27
 EXPERIMENT NO.4
Moment of Inertia for different bodies

Objectives of the experiment

• Measuring the period of oscillation of a thin transverse rod with weights on a torsion axle as a function
of the distance of the weights from the torsion axle.
• Confirming the proportionality between the moment of inertia of the weights and the square of the
distance.
• Determining the restoring torque of the torsion axle.

Apparatus

1 torsion axle
1 stand base, V-shape, 20 cm
1 stop clock I, 30 s / 15 min

Principles

The moment of inertia is a measure of the inertia that a body exhibits when a torque acts on it causing a
change of its rotational motion. It corresponds to the inertial mass in the case of translational motions. In
rotational oscillations, for example, the period of oscillation T is the greater, the greater the moment of
inertia J of the oscillating system is. More specifically:
J
(i) T=2π √D

D: restoring torque
The moment of inertia of a point like mass m moving on a circular path with radius r is
J = m ⋅r 2 (II).

The moment of inertia of two equal masses m that are rigidly connected and have the same distance r from
the axis of rotation is
J2 = 2⋅m ⋅r 2 (III).

In both cases, the moment of inertia is proportional to the square of the distance r.
In the experiment, the rigid connection between the two masses is established by means of a thin rod whose
middle is fixed to the torsion axle (see Fig. 1). After deflection from the equilibrium position, the system
oscillates with the period of oscillation T. From Eq. (I) it follows that

T 2
J = D. (2π ) (iv)
However, the moment of inertia is composed of the moment of inertia J2 of the two weights and the moment
of inertia J0 of the rod:

J = 2 ⋅m ⋅r 2 +J0 (V).
Therefore the period of oscillation T0 of the rod without weights is measured in another measurement, which
leads to

28
or
8 ⋅m ⋅π2
T2= ⋅r 2 +T02 (VI).

D
Thus a linear relation between the square of the period of oscillation T and the square of the distance r is
obtained. From the slope of the straight line,
8 ⋅m ⋅ π2
a= (VII),
D

the restoring torque D can be calculated if the mass m is known.

fig. 2 Experimental setup for determining the period of oscillation.

Setup and carrying out the experiment

The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 2.
▪ Fix the middle of the transverse rod to the torsion axle and arrange the weights symmetrically at a
distance of 30 cm from the torsion axle.
▪ Mark the equilibrium position on the table.
▪ Rotate the transverse rod to the right by 180° and release it.

29
▪ Start the time measurement as soon as the transverse rod passes through the equilibrium position and
stop the measurement after five oscillations.
▪ Repeat the measurement four times, alternately deflecting the rod to the left and to the right.
▪ Calculate the period of oscillation T from the mean value of the five measured values.
▪ One after another reduce the distance to 25 cm, 20 cm, 15 cm, 10 cm and 5 cm, each time repeating the
measurement.
▪ Remove the weights, and repeat the measurement.

Moment of inertia and body shape

Objective of the experiment

• Determining the moments of inertia of rotationally symmetric bodies from their period of oscillation on a
torsion axle.
• Comparing the periods of oscillation of two bodies having different masses, but the same moment of
inertia.
• Comparing the periods of oscillation of hollow bodies and solid bodies having the same mass and the same
dimensions.
• Comparing the periods of oscillation of two bodies having the same mass and the same body shape, but
different dimensions.

Apparatus
1 torsion axle
1 set of cylinders for torsion axle
1 sphere for the torsion axle
1stand base, V-shape, 20 cm
1 stop clock I, 30 s / 15 min
Principles

The moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of a body against a change of its rotational motion and
it depends on the distribution of its mass relative to the axis of rotation. For a calculation of the moment of
inertia J, the body is subdivided into sufficiently small mass elements ∆mi with distances ri from the axis of
rotation and a sum is taken over all mass elements:
(I)
J =∑∆mi⋅ri 2 .
i
For bodies with a continuous mass distribution, the sum can be converted into an integral. If, in addition, the
mass distribution is homogeneous, the integral reads
1⋅ r 2
J=M⋅ ∫
V V
⋅dV (II)

M: total mass, V: total volume,

r: distance of a volume element dV from the axis of rotation
The calculation of the integral is simplified when rotationally symmetric bodies are considered which rotate
around their axis of symmetry. The simplest case is that of a hollow cylinder with radius R. As all mass
elements have the distance R from the axis of rotation, the moment of inertia of the hollow cylinder is

J = M ⋅R2 (III).

In the case of a solid cylinder with equal mass M and equal radius R, Eq. (II) leads to the formula

30
 1 𝑅
𝐽 = 𝑀. . ∫ 𝑟 2 . 2𝜋. 𝑟. 𝐻. 𝑑𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉 = 𝜋. 𝑟 2 . 𝐻
𝑉 0

and the result is

1
J=2 . M. R2 (iv).

That means, the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder is smaller than that of the hollow cylinder as the
distances of the mass elements from the axis of rotation are between 0 and R.
An even smaller value is expected for the moment of inertia of a solid sphere with radius R (see Fig. 1). In
this case, Eq. (II) leads to the formula
1 𝑅 2 4𝜋 3
𝐽 = 𝑀. ∫ 𝑟 . 2𝜋. 𝑟. 2. √𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 . 𝑑𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉 = .𝑅
𝑉 0 3
And the result is
2
𝐽 = . 𝑀. 𝑅 2
5
Thus, apart from the mass M and the radius R of the bodies under consideration a dimensionless factor
enters the calculation of the moment of inertia, which depends on the shape of the respective body.

The moment of inertia is determined from the period of oscillation of a torsion axle, on which the test body
is fixed and which is connected elastically to the stand via a helical spring. The system is excited to perform
harmonic oscillations. If the restoring torque D is known, the moment of inertia of the test body is calculated
from the period of oscillation T according to

𝑇
J = D. ( ) 2 (vi)
2𝜋

Fig. 1 Calculation of the moments of inertia of a hollow cylinder, a solid cylinder and a sphere

31
Fig 2. Experimental setup for determining the moments of inertia of some rotationally symmetric bodies

Setup and carrying out the experiment

The experimental set up is illustrated in Fig2.

• Put the sphere on the torsion axle, and mark the equilibrium position on the table.
• Rotate the sphere to the right by 180°and release it.
• Start the time measurement as soon as the sphere passes through the equilibrium position and
stop the measurement after five oscillations.
• Calculate the period of oscillation T.
• Replace the sphere with the disk, and repeat the measurement.
• Replace the disk with the supporting plate.
• Repeat the measurement with the solid cylinder and then with the hollow cylinder.
• Finally carry out the measurement with the empty supporting plate.
• Measure the mass of disk, sphere, solid and hollow cylinder and the diameter using Vernier
calipers and record in your observation table.

Evaluation

a)Qualitative comparison:
Bodies having different masses, but the same moment of inertia:
The sphere and the flat solid cylinder (disk) have different shapes and different masses. They oscillate at
approximately the same period, i.e, they have the same moment of inertia.

Hollow body and solid body:

The hollow cylinder and the solid cylinder have approximately the same mass and the same diameter.
The periods of oscillation are clearly different, i.e. they have different moments of inertia.
Bodies having the same mass and the same shape but different dimensions:
The flat solid cylinder (disk) and the long solid cylinder have approximately the same mass, but different
diameters. They oscillate at clearly different periods, i.e. the moments of inertia are different.

32
b) Quantitative comparison:
With Eq. (VI), the moments of inertia J can be calculated from the periods T listed in Table 1. The restoring
torque D of the torsion axle required for the calculation was determined in the experiment

Nm
D =0 , 023 .
rad
The results of the calculations are listed in Table 2. The moment of inertia of the empty supporting plate is
J=0.2 gm2.
Moreover, the dimensionless factors of Eqs. (III), (IV) and (V) are listed in Table 2 and compared with the
values calculated from the measuring data. In all cases (solid sphere, solid cylinder and hollow cylinder), an
agreement between measurement and theory is found within the accuracy of measurement.

33
 EXPERIMENT NO.5
Steiner’s theorem (parallel axis theorem)
Objectives of the experiment

• Determining the moment of inertia of a circular disk of various distances between the axis of
rotation and axis of symmetry.
• Confirming Steiner’s theorem (parallel axis theorem)

Apparatus
1torsionaxle
1circulardiskforthetorsionaxle
1standbase, V-shape, 20cm
1stop clock I, 30s/15min

Principles

The moment of inertia of an arbitrary rigid body whose mass elements ∆mi have the distances ri from the
axis of rotation A is
J A=∑∆mi⋅ri2 (I)
i
If the axis of rotation does not pass through the centre of mass of the body, application of Eq. (I) leads to an
involved calculation. Often it is easier to calculate the moment of inertia JS with respect to the axis S, which
is parallel to the axis of rotation and passes through the centre of mass of the body.
For deriving the relation between JA and JS, the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation where the
respective mass element ∆mi is located is considered (see Fig. 1). In this plane, the vector a points from the
axis of rotation to the centre-of-mass axis, the vector ri points from the axis of rotation to the mass element
∆mi, and the vector si points from the centre-of-mass axis to the mass element. Thus

ri = a +si (II)

and the squares of the distances in Eq. (I) are

𝑟𝑖2 = (𝑎 + 𝑠𝑖 )2 = 𝑎2 + 2. 𝑎. 𝑠𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖 2

Therefore the sum in Eq. (I) can be split into three terms:

2
J= ∑ ∆m ⋅ a 2+ 2⋅ ∑ ∆m ⋅ s ⋅ a +∑∆m ⋅s (IV).
i i i i i

i i i

In the first summand

∑∆mi=M
i

34
is the total mass of the body. In the last summand,
∑∆mi⋅si2 = JS
i

is the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the centre-of-mass axis. In the middle summand,

∑∆mi⋅si = 0
I
because the vectors si start from the axis through the centre of mass. Thus Steiner’s theorem follows from
Eq. (IV):

JA = M.a2 + JS (v)

This theorem will be verified in the experiment with a flat circular disk as an example. Its moment of inertia
JA with respect to an axis of rotation at a distance a from the axis of symmetry is obtained from the period
of oscillation T of a torsion axle to which the circular disk is attached. We have

𝑇
JA = D. (2𝜋)2 (vi)

D: restoring torque of the torsion axle

Fig.2Experimental setup for the experimental confirmation of Steiner’s theorem (parallel axis theorem)

35
Setup and carrying out the experiment
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig2.
• Fix the centre of the circular disk to the torsion axle and mark the equilibrium position on the table.
• Rotate the circular disk by180° from the equilibrium position and release it.
• Start the time measurement as soon as the circular disk passes through the equilibrium position
and stop the measurement after five oscillations.
• Repeat the measurement four times alternately deflecting the disk to the left and to the right.
• Calculate the period of oscillation T from the mean value of the five measurements.
• Mount the circular disk on the torsion axle so that its centre is at a distance of 2cm from the axle,
and, if necessary, mark the equilibrium position a new.
• Measure the time of five oscillations five times alternately deflecting the disk to the right and to
the left.
• Calculate the period of oscillation T.
• Repeat the measurement for other distances a from the axis of symmetry.

Evaluation
With the aid of Eq. (VI), the moment of inertia JA can be calculated from the values of the period of
oscillation listed in Table 1. The restoring torque D required for the calculation was determined in the
experiment.
𝑁𝑚
D =0.023 𝑟𝑎𝑑

36
 EXPERIMENT NO.06
VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS

Aim: Determine the frequency and linear density of different cords using sine wave generator and
hence calculate the percent of deviation of linear density.

Apparatus required : Sine wave generator, string vibrator, physics braided string, yellow
braided cord, elastic wave cord, banana patch cords, universal table clamp, super pulley, mounting
rod for super pulley, adjustable table clamp, 45cm rod, mass and hanger set, balance and tape
measure.

INTRODUCTION
A sine wave generator drives a string vibrator to create a standing wave pattern in a stretched
string. The driving frequency and the length, density, and tension of the string are varied to
investigate their effect on the speed of the wave in the vibrating string.
THEORY
A stretched string has many natural modes of vibration (three examples are shown below). If the
string is fixed at both ends then there must be a node (place of no amplitude) at each end and at
least one anti-node (place of maximum amplitude). It may vibrate as a single segment in which
case the length (L) of the string is equal to 1/2 the wavelength (λ) of the wave. It may also vibrate
in two segments with a node at each end and one node in the middle; then the wavelength is
equal to the length of the string. It may also vibrate with a larger integer number of segments. In
every case, the length of the string equals some integer number of half wavelengths.

If you drive a stretched string at an arbitrary frequency, you will probably not see any particular
mode: Many modes will be mixed together. But, if the driving frequency, the tension and the
length are adjusted correctly, one vibrational mode will occur at a much greater amplitude than
the other modes.
In this experiment, standing waves are set up in a stretched string by the vibrations of an
electrically-driven String Vibrator. The arrangement of the apparatus is shown below. The tension
in the string equals the weight of the masses suspended over the pulley. You can alter the tension
by changing the masses. You can adjust the amplitude and frequency of the wave by adjusting the
output of the Sine Wave Generator, which powers the string vibrator.

37
 
L is the length of the vibrating part of the string and λ is the wavelength of the wave. For the
string shown above vibrating in 3 segments, λ= ⅔L.
For any wave with wavelength λ and frequency f, the speed of the wave, v, is
v = λf (1)

In addition, the speed of a wave on a string is also given by

F
v = ---
 (2)
The linear density (µ) is the mass per unit length of the string. The Tension (F) is applied by the
hanging a mass (m), and is equal to the weight (mg) of the hanging mass.

SETUP
1. Measure the exact length of a piece of the braided string several meters long. Measure
the mass of the string and calculate the linear density, µ (mass/length). (If your balance can not
read to 0.01 g, you may want to use a longer piece of string to calculate the linear density.)

2. As shown in the picture, use the two clamps to position the Sine Wave Generator and
pulley about 120 cm apart. Attach about 1.5 m of braided string to the vibrating blade, run it over
the pulley, and hang about 150 g of mass from it.

3. Measure from the knot where the string attaches to the string vibrator to the top of the
pulley. This is distance L. (Note that L is not the total length of the string, only the part that is
vibrating.)

4. Turn on the Sine Wave Generator and turn the Amplitude knob all the way down (counter-
clockwise). Connect the Sine Wave Generator to the string vibrator using two banana patch cords.
Polarity does not matter.

PROCEDURE
Part I:

1. Set the Amplitude knob about midway. Use the Coarse (1.0) and Fine (0.1) Frequency knobs of
the Sine Wave Generator to adjust the vibrations so that the string vibrates in one segment. Adjust
the driving amplitude and frequency to obtain a large-amplitude wave, but also check the end of
the vibrating blade: The point where the string attaches should be a node. It is more important to
have a good node at the blade than it is to have the largest amplitude possible. However, it is
desirable to have a large amplitude while keeping a good node.

38
2. Record the frequency. How much uncertainty is there in this value? How much can you
change the frequency before you see an effect?

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for a standing wave with two segments. The string should vibrate
with a node at each end and one node in the center. Do not change the hanging mass.

4. How is the frequency of the two-segment wave related to the frequency of the one-
segment wave? Calculate the ratio of the frequencies. Is the ratio what you would expect?

5. With the wave vibrating in two segments, the length of the string, L, is one wavelength
(L = λ). Does it look like one wavelength? Since the string vibrates up and down so fast, it is hard
to see that when one side is up, the other is down. Try touching the string at an anti-node. What
happens? Try touching the string at the central node. Can you hold the string at the node and not
significantly effect the vibration?

6. What was the wavelength when the string was vibrating in one segment? Use Equation
1to calculate the speed of the one-segment wave. Calculate the speed of the two-segment wave.
How do these two values compare? Are they about the same? Why?

7. Calculate the tension in the string caused by the hanging mass (don’t forget the mass
hanger) and using your measured density of the string, calculate the speed of the wave using
equation (2). How does this compare to your answer in part 6?

8. Adjust the frequency so that the string vibrates in three segments. What is the velocity
now? Has it changed? Does the speed of the wave depend on the wavelength and the frequency?

9. Set the frequency to a value between the frequencies that produced waves of two and
three segments. Adjust the frequency so that no particular standing waveform is present.
Unclamp the string vibrator on the table and slowly move it towards the pulley. (Do not let go of
the string vibrator without clamping it to the table again.). Without changing the driving
frequency or the hanging mass decrease the length of vibrating string until it vibrates in two
segments. Measure the new wavelength and calculate the speed of the wave. Is it about the same
as before? Does the speed of the wave depend on the length of the string?

Part II:
1. Clamp the String Vibrator back at its original position, about 120 cm from the pulley. You
should re-measure the length, L. Hang about 50 g from the string over the pulley. Record the
total hanging mass, including the mass hanger.

2. Adjust the frequency of the Sine Wave Generator so that the string vibrates in four
segments. As before, adjust the driving amplitude and frequency to obtain a large-amplitude
wave, and clean nodes, including the node at the end of the blade. Record the frequency.

Note: For this part of the experiment, you will always adjust the frequency so that the wave vibrates
in four segments.
3. Add 50 g to the hanging mass and repeat steps 1 and 2.

4. Repeat at intervals of 50 g up to at least 250 g. Record your data in a table.

ANALYSIS
1. For this part of the experiment, you always adjusted the frequency so that the wave vibrated in
four segments, and thus the length of the string was always equal to two wavelengths (L = 2λ).

39
 

Use this information to show that equations (1) and (2) can be combined to yield

4g (3)
f2 = m
L2

where f = driving frequency of the Sine Wave Generator

g = acceleration due to gravity
m = total hanging mass
L = length of string (vibrating part only)
µ = linear density of the string (mass/length)

2. Make a graph of the square of the frequency (f 2) versus hanging mass, m. (The units will
be easier to work with later if you graph the mass in kilograms.) Is the graph linear?

3. Find the slope (including uncertainty) of the best-fit line through this data.

4. As you can determine from Equation 3, the slope of the f2 vs. m graph is:

4g
slope = ----------
2
L

From the slope of your graph, calculate the density (µ) of the string. What is the uncertainty?

5. Compare the density that you measured from the graph to the actual density that you
determined when you weighed the string. Calculate the percent deviation.

Measured – Actual
% Deviation = ---------------------------------------------  100%
Actual

40
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS

1. Repeat the procedure (for Part II only) using the yellow cord. Put the data from the
string and cord on the same graph to show the difference in their densities.

2. Repeat the procedure with elastic cord. The density is much larger, so put the data on a
separate graph. Look carefully at the graph. Is it linear like the first two? Calculate the density
using both the minimum and maximum slopes.

3. Measure how much the elastic cord stretches when you place the maximum mass on the
hanger. Based on the un-stretched density of the cord, and the amount that it stretches,
estimate the “stretched” density of the cord. Compare this value to the densities that you
calculated from your graph.

CONCLUSION
Summarize the quantities that affect the speed of a wave in a string: Consider the number of
segments, the frequency, the tension in the string, and the length and density of the string.

41
 EXPERIMENT NO.7
RLC CIRCUIT

Aim: Determination of the frequency performance of a parallel –tuned circuit for

• Voltage resonance without parallel resistor and
• Voltage resonance with parallel resistor.

Apparatus required: Function generator, digital counter, coil, connection box, resistor
plug- in box, multirange meter with amplifier, PEK carbon resistor,- 10 Ohm, PEK carbon
resistor- 1 kOhm, PEK capacitors, connecting cords.

Fig.1: Experimental setup for investigating tuned circuits.

Set up and procedure:

The experimental set up is as shown in figure 1.

• Function generator

-DC offset:  0 (multimeter in DC mode)

- Amplitude: 3 to 4 V (multimeter in AC mode)

-Frequency: 103 Hz

42
 Mode: ~

• Digital counter: kHz/frequency mode

Figure2: Equivalent circuit diagram for the parallel tuned circuit

The equivalent circuit for the parallel-tuned circuit(C= 1µF) is shown in the Fig.2. A 1kΩ resistor Rk is
used for coupling the tuned circuit to the generator. For recording the current resonance curve, the
total current is measured with the multimeter while traversing the frequency range. No parallel
resistance is used (Rd=∞).

In the case of the voltage resonance curve, the voltage across the tuned circuit is measured with the
multimeter and the frequency range is a gain traversed (Rd=∞,1kΩ,470Ω). The loss resistance RO can
be determined from the current and voltage values at the resonance frequency.

Theory and evaluation

If a coil with inductance L, a capacitor with capacitance C and an ohmic resistance are connected in
series with an alternating voltage source.

U = U 0 cos t (1)

The network rule leads

dL Q
U = IR + L( )+ (2)
dt C
Where I is the current and Q is the charge of the capacitor.
If the equation (2) is differentiated and solved for I, with
dQ
I=
dt

One obtains:

I = I 0 cos(t −  ) (3)

where

V0
I0 = (4)
1 2
R + (L −
2
)
C

43
 The phase displacement  is given by

1
(L − )
tan  = − C (5)
R

From (3), I has a resonance point at

1
 = 0 =
LC
If we introduce the quality factor Q or the loss factor d:

0 L , d = 1
Q= (6)
R Q
Together with


=
0

Then (4) and (5) become:

Ir
I=
1
{1 + Q 2 ( − ) 2 }1 / 2


1
tan  = Q( − )

Where Ir is the current I at the resonance frequency.

If we determine the frequency  b , at which

I I
=
Ir 2
then the bandwidth B is defined as

B = 2 b −  0

Or, with 2f 0 ,

f0
B= (7)
Q

If the voltage source has an internal resistance Ri, the terminal voltage U has behaves in accordance
with the current resonance curve given by (3)

U = R i .I
The equations (3), (4), (5) and (6) are still applicable if Riis added to the resistance R= Rd and U0 is the
no- load voltage. An internal resistance of the generator,

Ri = 80.5

44
 Was found from the measurements of current and voltage. The coil, capacitor and leads have a loss
resistance Rv, which is added to the resistance Rd. A loss resistance of

Rv = 9.3
At the resonance frequency was found by measurements of current and voltage. Therefore

Rtot = Rd + Ri + Rv

In the parallel tuned circuit the loss resistance of the capacitor (several 100 MΩ) can be disregarded.
The loss resistance mainly lies in series with the coil. In the resonance case, therefore, the loss current
also flows through the coil. Since the current f0 the coil and capacitor are equal in the resonance case,
a pure active current flow from the generator. It is therefore logical to determine the loss resistance
of the parallel- tuned circuit from the voltage measurements. This resistance should be connected in
parallel with the parallel resistance Rd.
Fig3: Voltage as a function of the frequency with the parallel tuned circuit
1: Rd =∞
2: Rd =1kΩ
3: Rd =470Ω

Resonance occurs if
1
= = 0
LC

The Q-factorfromFig.3, in accordance with (7).

Questions:
1. What are damped oscillations?
2. Why is damping resistance required?
3. What is the significance of Q factor?

45
4. What is resonance of systems?

References:
1. M. Alonso and E. Finn- Physics, Addison Wesley, Int. studs. Ed., 1992, 734-739.
2. F. Keller, W. Gettys& M. Skove- Physics, McGraw- Hill, Inc., Int. ed., 1993, 768-773.
3. Halliday, Resnick & Walker- Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley & sons, 4th ed. (extended), 1993,
947-948, 957- 965

46
 EXPERIMENT NO.08
Diffraction at a single slit and double slit

Aim: To determine the slit width of single and double slits and slit separation of a double slit using PASCO
Capstone software.

Apparatus required: Basic optics track, high precision diffraction slits, basic optics diode laser, aperture
bracket, linear translator, high sensitivity light sensor, rotary motion sensor, 55o universal interface, PASCO
capstone software.

Introduction:
The distances between the central maximum and the diffraction minima for a single slit are measured by
scanning the laser pattern with a Light Sensor and plotting light intensity versus distance. Also, the distance
between interference maxima for two or more slits is measured. These measurements are compared to
theoretical values. Differences and similarities between interference and diffraction patterns are examined.

Theory:
Single Slit Diffraction
When diffraction of light occurs as it passes through a slit,
the angle to the minima (dark spot) in the diffraction pattern
is given by asinθ = mλ (m=1, 2, 3,…) Eq. (1)
where "a" is the slit width, θ is the angle from the center of
the pattern to a minimum, λ is the wavelength of the light,
and m is the order (m = 1 for the first minimum, 2 for the
second minimum, ...counting from the center out).In Figure
1, the laser light pattern is shown just below the computer
intensity versus position graph. The angle theta is measured
from the center of the single slit to the first minimum, so m
equals one for the situation shown in the diagram. Notice that the central spot in the interference
Figure 1: Single-Slit Diffraction pattern is twice as wide as the other spots since m=0 is not a minimum.
Since theta is a very small angle, sinθ tanθ = xm/L, where xm is the distance from the center of central
maximum to the mth minimum on either side of the central maximum and L is the distance from the slit to
the screen. Equation 1 now becomes
mλ = a sin θ= a tan θ = axm/LEq. (2)
It is easier to measure the distance (2xm) from the mth minimum on one side to the mth minimum on the
other side than to try to judge the center of the pattern. Equation 2 becomes:
mλ = a(2xm)/2L Eq. (3)

47
Our accuracy will be improved by making (2xm) as large as possible. The slit width is not known very well. The
uncertainty in the width is +/- 0.005 mm. That is a 25% uncertainty for the 0.020 mm slit. So instead of using
the slit width to calculate a value for the laser wavelength, we use the known wavelength of the laser to
calculate a more accurate value for the slit width. Rearranging Equation 3 yields: a = 2mLλ/ (2xm)
Eq. (4)

Double-Slit Interference
When interference of light occurs as it passes through two
slits, the angle from the central maximum (bright spot) to the
side maxima in the interference pattern is given by
dsinθ= nλ (n=0,1,2,3, …) Eq. (4)
where "d" is the slit separation, θ is the angle from the center
of the pattern to the nth maximum, is the wavelength of the
light, and n is the order (0 for the central maximum, 1 for the
first side maximum, 2 for the second side maximum
...counting from the center out).
In Figure 2, the laser light pattern is shown just below the
computer intensity versus position graph. The angle theta is measured from the midway between the double
slit to the second side maximum, so n equals two for the situation shown in the diagram. Figure 2: Double-
Slit Interference
As before, theta is a small angle and Equation 4 may be rewritten:
nλ= d sinθ=d tanθ= dxn/L Eq. (5)
where xn is the distance from the central maximum to the n th side maximum and L is the distance from the
slits to the screen. The distance from one max to the next (∆x) is then:
∆x = xn+1 – xn = (n+1)λL/d -nλL/d = λL/d Eq. (6)
Note that x does not depend on n, so all the bright spots have the same max to max distance. Since x is
small, accuracy will be improved if we measure the distance (n∆x) from the nth spot on one side to the nth
spot on the other side. Examination of Figure 2 shows that
∆x = (n∆x)/2n,
And solving Equation 6 for the wavelength of the laser yields: λ =(n∆x)d/2nL Eq. (7)
Note that the single slit diffraction pattern is also present in the double slit pattern. It is responsible for the
broad minimums that occur (see Figure 2).This means we must be careful when counting n in the double
slit pattern since a double slit maximum can be suppressed by a single slit minimum.

48
Figure 3: Setup
Setup
1. Mount the laser on the end of the optics bench. Mount the High Precision Single Slit disk to the optics
bench with the printed side toward the laser as shown. Turn on the laser. CAUTION: never shine the
laser beam directly into anybody’s eye! To select the desired slits, just rotate the disk until it clicks
into place with the 0.16 mm aperture slit illuminated by the laser.

Figure 4: Mounting the Light Sensor

2. Mount the Rotary Motion Sensor on the rack of the Linear Translator and mount the Linear Translator to
the end of the optics track (see Figure 4). Arrange things so the black stop block on the linear translator
arm is on the left side as viewed from the laser and all the way against the bracket. Mount the Light Sensor
with the Aperture Bracket (set on slit #1 = 0.1mm) in the Rotary Motion Sensor rod clamp. The Light Sensor
should be aligned with the bracket so it points parallel to the optics track.

3. Move the light sensor until you can see the beam somewhere on the white screen. Use the adjustment
screws on the laser (see Figure 5) to adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-

49
 down to make the pattern on the white screen as bright as possible. Once this position is set, it is not
necessary to make any further adjustments of the laser beam when viewing any of the slits on the disk.
When you rotate the disk to a new slit, the laser beam will be already aligned. Since the slits click into
place, you can easily change from one slit to the next, even in the dark.

Figure 5: Aligning the Laser

4. Move the Light Sensor up or down until the light pattern is centered on the slits shown in Figure 6.Use
slit #1 (=0.1 mm), not slit #4 as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Aligning the Light Sensor

5. Set the Light Sensor for maximum sensitivity by pressing the 0-1 button. If the Light Intensity goes too high
(it will flat line at 100% on the graph), turn the sensitivity down by pressing the middle button (0-100) on
the Light sensor.
6. Plug the Rotary Motion Sensor and the Light Sensor into the PASPORT inputs on the 850 Universal
Interface.
Single Slit Procedure: (sensors set to 25 Hz)
1. Measure the distance between the slits (front of Slit Disk) and the screen. You can use the scale on
the track, but it is easier and more accurate to use a meter stick. Click open the calculator (left side
of the screen) and enter your value for the distance to the screen in meters into line 1.That is, replace
the 0.962 with your value. The wavelength of the laser is printed on its back. If it is not 650 nm, change
line 4 in the calculator to match the actual laser wavelength. Click the calculator closed.
2. Turn out the room lights.
3. Observe the pattern on the screen as you rotate the Single Slit to each of its four positions (0.16, 0.08,
0.04, 0.02 mm).How does the pattern change as you decrease the slit width? Set the disk to the 0.02
mm slit.
4. Move the Light Sensor so the Rotary Motion Sensor (RMS) is against the black stop block on the linear
translator arm. If the positions are all negative when you start taking data, move the stop block to
the other end on the linear translator arm and always start from that side.
5. Click on the RECORD button. Then slowly turn the RMS pulley to scan the pattern. Hold the rear of
the RMS down against the linear translator bracket so it does not wobble up and down as it moves.

50
 Click on STOP when you have finished the scan. If you make a mistake, simply delete the run using
the Delete Last Scan button at bottom of screen and do the scan again. If the intensity maxes out
(100%), change the gain setting on the light sensor and repeat the run. Click on Data Summary at the
left of the screen. Double Click on Run #1 and re-label it 20 Run (for 20 µm).Click Data Summary to
close it.
6. Repeat for the 0.04, 0.08, & 0.16 mm slits. Label the runs 40 Run, 80 Run, 160 Run.

Single Slit Analysis:

1. Click on the black triangle on the Data Display icon ( ) and select the 20 Run. Click the Graph
Re-scale button ( ).Ignore the noise on the central maximum. It mostly arises because the beam
from the solid state is not very well collimated resulting in the horizontal spread of the beam. This
means different parts of the beam from the laser strike the slit at slightly different angles (from the
left or right of the beam instead of the center of the beam), resulting in slightly different path lengths
to the screen and some additional interference in the pattern. It does not affect the positions of the
minimums.
2. We need to expand the vertical scale to see the minimums more clearly. Move the computer pointer
onto the graph so you see the hand icon. Move the hand over a number near the bottom of the
vertical scale. The hand icon will be replaced by a parallel plate icon. Click and drag upward. Continue
until you can clearly see the 1st minimums (nearest the central max).

3. Click on the Smart Cursor ( ).Drag the crosshairs to the 1st minimum on the left. Record the
st
position (1 number in the box) in the “left x” column of the table under the Data tab.
4. Repeat step 3 for the 1st minimum on the right. Enter the position in the “right x” column.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 for the 40 Run, 80 Run, & 160 Run. Except, your accuracy will be improved by using
minimums further from the center if you can see them clearly. The table on the Graph page assumes
you used the 3rd minimum for the 40 Run and the 5th minimum for the 80 Run and the 160 Run. If you
use different minimums, you must change the “m” value in the table to reflect the minimum you
actually measured. You must use the same minimum on each side of the center!

Double Slit Procedure: (sensors set to 25 Hz)

1. Note where the index foot is on the bottom of the Single Slit holder with respect to the yellow scale
on the Optics Bench. Replace the Single Slit holder with the Double Slit holder so the index foot is in
the same position. The distance to the screen should be the same as it was for the single slit
experiment.
2. Turn out the room lights.
3. Observe the pattern on the screen as you rotate the Double Slit to each of its four positions (a = 0.04
mm & d = 0.25 mm, etc.).How does the pattern change? Can you see the single slit diffraction
pattern? Set the disk to a = 0.04 mm and d = 0.25 mm position.
4. Move the Light Sensor so the Rotary Motion Sensor is against the black stop block on the linear
translator arm. Set the Light Sensor for max sensitivity (0-1).
5. Click on the RECORD button. Then slowly turn the Rotary Motion Sensor pulley to scan the pattern.
Click on STOP when you have finished the scan. If the intensity maxes out (100%), change the gain
setting on the light sensor and repeat the run. Click on Data Summary at the left of the screen. Double
Click on the current Run #1 and re-label it 40 250 Run (for 40 by 250 µm).Click Data Summary to close
it.
6. Repeat for the other slits. Label the runs 40 500 Run, 80 250 Run, 80 500 Run.

Double Slit Analysis:

51
 1. Click on the black triangle on the Data Display icon ( ) and select the 40 250 Run. Click the Graph
Re-scale button ( ).

2. Click on the Smart Cursor ( ).Right click in the center of the crosshairs and select tool properties.
Then increase the number of significant figures to 4.We actually want 4 decimal places which means 4
significant figures when the positions is greater than 0.1 meters.
3. We need to expand the horizontal scale to see the maximums more clearly. Move the computer
pointer onto the graph so you see the hand icon. Click and drag to the left until the left second
diffraction minimum is at the left of the screen. Move the hand over a number on the horizontal
scale. The hand icon will be replaced by a parallel plate icon. Click and drag to the right until the right
second diffraction max is near the right of the screen. The pattern should look like the example on
the Intro page.
4. Under the central diffraction pattern, select a maximum that is far to the left of the central max as
possible. For example, the n=5 max. (Recall that the central max is n=0.)Use the Smart Cursor
crosshairs to measure the position of the max you chose and enter the value in the “left x” column
of the table under the Data tab for the first 40 250 Run line. If the number of your max was different
from 5, enter your value in “n” column. Repeat for the right max with the same n value. Leave the
crosshairs on top of the higher of the two maximums.
5. Your precision will be improved if you can use a larger value of n. We need to expand the vertical
scale to see the maximums more clearly. Move the computer pointer onto the graph so you see the
hand icon. Move the hand over a number near the bottom of the vertical scale. The hand icon will be
replaced by a parallel plate icon. Click and drag upward. Continue until the peak with the cursor on it
is near the top of the graph.
6. Recall that you know the n value for the peak the cursor is on and for the corresponding peak on the
other side of center. Count n values out as far as you can (you can generally tell how many 2 slit peaks
were suppressed by the single slit diffraction pattern).Enter your values in the table under the data
tab in the second 40 250 Run line. Don’t forget to change the “n” value in the table to match the
value you used. If the λ value in the table is grossly different from what it was in the previous line,
you probably miscounted one of the n values.
7. Repeat steps 1-6 for the 40 500 Run, and the 80 500 Run. Don’t try to analyze the 80 250 Run since it
is very difficult to separate the single and double slit patterns (look at it to see why.)

Conclusions:
1. Using your eyes, how does the single slit pattern change as you increase the slit size?

2. Using your eyes, how does the double slit pattern change as you increase the slit separation?

3. On the Graph page, click on the Data Display button () to display multiple runs, then click on the
black triangle and select 20 Run. Click the Graph Re-scale button ().Now use the black triangle of
Data Display to select all four single slit runs. How does the Single Slit Diffraction change as you
vary the slit width (a)? Note that the 160 Run has a lower Relative Intensity because we changes
scales on the Light Sensor. Does this agree with your answer to Question 1 above?

4. On the Graph page, use the Data Display black triangle to turn off the four single slit patterns and
turn on the 40 250 Run and the 40 500 Run. Click the Graph Re-scale button. How does the Double
Slit pattern change as you vary the slit separation (d)? Does this agree with your observations
from Question 2 above?

5. On the Graph page, use the Data Display black triangle to turn off the 40 250 Run and turn on the
80 500 Run (40 500 still on).How does the Double Slit pattern change as you vary the slit width

52
 (a)?

6. On the Graph page, use the Data Display black triangle to turn on the 40 250 Run and 40 Run (all
others off).Can you see the single slit pattern in the double slit pattern? Why? If the patterns do
not exactly fall on top of each other, it is because you may not have started the Rotary Motion
Sensor at the same place each time, and the actual slit widths may not be exactly the same.

7. On the Graph page, use the Data Display black triangle to turn on the 20 Run and the 40 Run (all
others off).Click the Graph Re-scale button. The 40 µm slit lets in twice as much light, so why is
the maximum on the 40 µm curve about 4 times as high as the 20 µm curve?

8. In the Legend box in the upper right click on the 20 Run to select it. Then click on the Area Tool (
).Now click on the 40 Run in the Legend box and click the area tool again. The areas given
are the area under each curve. Note that the area for the 40 Run is roughly two times the area
under the 20 Run. If the system where ideal, it would be exactly two times. Why?

9. The manufacturer of the slits claims the uncertainty in the slit width is 0.005 mm. Do your results
agree with this? Compare the “a” column and the “slit width” column in the table under the Data
tab. What does this show about Equation (1)? What does it show about the manufacturer?

10. The manufacturer of the slits claims the uncertainty in the slit separation is 0.01 mm. This means
the % uncertainty in λ using the 0.25 mm slit separation is 4% and for the 0.50 slit separation is
2%.In the table under the Data tab, ∆λ is calculated using these percentages since this is the
largest uncertainly in the experiment. Do your values for the wavelength agree with each other
and with the known wavelength of the laser? What does this show about Equation (4)? The
uncertainty for the first 80 500 Run case (n~5) is probably worse than stated since “right s” – “left
x” ~ 0.0100 with an uncertainty of several %, and ∆λis probably more like 20 nm.

53
 EXPERIMENT NO.9
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

Aim:
Understanding the major interactions of electrons diffraction through a crystal lattice and wave-particle
duality.
1. Measure the diameter of the smallest diffraction rings at different anode voltages
2. Calculate the wavelength of the electrons from the anode voltages
3. Determine the interplanar spacing of graphite from the relationship between the radius of the
diffraction rings and the wavelength

Apparatus:
Electron diffraction tube, High voltage supply unit, High value resistor (10MΩ), Connecting cords, Vernier
caliper(plastic), Power supply.

Theory:
In 1926, De Broglie predicted in his famous hypothesis that particles should also behave like waves. This
hypothesis was confirmed concerning electrons three years later independently by George Thomson and
Clinton Davisson, who observed diffraction patterns of a beam of electrons passing a metal film and a
crystalline grid, respectively. All of them won the Nobel prize for their investigations, De Broglie in 1929
and Thomson and Davisson in 1937. Electron diffraction is used to investigate the crystal structure of solids
similar to X-Ray diffraction. Crystals contain periodic structural elements serving as a diffraction grating
that scatters the electrons in a predictable way. Thus, the diffraction pattern of an electron beam passing
through a layer of a crystalline material contains information about the respective crystal structure. In
contrast to X-Rays, electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with matter through coulomb
forces providing other information about the structure than X-ray diffraction.
To explain the interference phenomenon of this experiment, a wavelength , which depends on
momentum, is assigned to the electrons in accordance with the de Broglie equation:

λ = h/ p (1)

where h = 6.625 x 10-34 Js, Planck’s constant.

The momentum can be calculated from the velocity ν that the electrons acquire under acceleration voltage UA:

½ (mv2) = p2 /2m = e. UA (2)

The wavelength is thus

λ = h/( √2me UA ) (3)

54
where m=9.109.10-31 kg (rest mass of electron) and e= 1.602.10-19 As (elementary electric charge). At the voltages
UA used, the relativistic mass can be replaced by the rest mass with an error of only 0.5%. The electron beam strikes
a polycrystalline graphite film deposite on a copper grating and is reflected in accordance with the Bragg condition:

2dsinƟ = n. λ n=1,2,3,… (4)

where d is the spacing between the planes of the carbon atoms and is the Bragg angle (angle
polycrystalline graphite the bond between the individual between electron beam and lattice
planes).
In layers is broken so that their orientation is random. The electron beam is therefore spread out in
the form of a cone and produces interference rings on the fluorescent
screen.

The Bragg angle can be calculated from the radius of the interference ring but it should be
remembered that the angle of deviation is twice as great:
α = 2θ
From figure, it's read off
sin2α = r/R (5)

where R = 65 mm, radius of the glass bulb.

Now, .sin2α = 2sinα cosα
For small angles α(cos 10° = 0.985) can put

55
 sin2α ≈ 2sinα (6)

so that for small angles Ɵ we obtain

sin2α = sin4Ɵ ≈ 4sinƟ (6a)

With this approximation we obtain

r = (2R/d).n.λ (7)
The two inner interference rings occur through reflection from the lattice planes of spacing d 1 and
d2, for n = 1 in (7).

The intensity of higher order interference rings is much lower than that of first order rings.
Thus, for example, the second order ring of d1 is difficult to identify and the expected fourth order
ring of d1 simply cannot be seen. The third order ring of d1 is easy to see because graphite always
has two lattice planes together, spaced apart by a distance of 1/3d.
In the sixth ring, the first order of ring of d4 clearly coincides with the second order one of d2.

56
The visibility of high order rings depends on the light intensity in the laboratory and the contrast of
the ring
system which can be influenced by the voltages applied to electron diffraction tube.
The bright spot just in the center of the screen can damage the fluorescent layer of the tube. To
avoid this reduce the light intensity after each reading as soon as possible.

Setup:
Push the electron diffraction tube into the tube holder, ensuring that the contact pins of the tube
engage with the correct holes of the holder. The middle pin of the tube should project slightly at
the back of the holder.
Connect sockets F3 and F4 of the tube holder to the heater voltage output terminals of the 5 kV
high-voltage power supply.

Connect the negative output terminal of the 5 kV high-voltage power supply to socket C5 of the
tube holder and the positive output terminal to socket G7, and connect the safety earth terminals.

Procedure:
Apply the high voltage at 5000 V and measure the diameters of the two diffraction rings on the
curved fluorescent screen.
Measure the inner and outer edge of the rings with the vernier caliper (in a darkened room) and
take an average.
Reduce the voltage in steps of 500 V and measure the diffraction rings in each case.

57
UA/kV λ/pm
5.0 19.4
5.5 18.3
6.5 15.2
7.0 14.7
Calculated electron wavelengths at different accelerator voltages

Distance to the fluorescent screen L, radius R of the glass

sphere of the electron diffraction tube and lattice constants d are:
L = 130 mm
R = 65 mm
d1 = 123 pm
d2 = 213 pm
The wavelength is calculated from the anode voltage in accordance with (3)

Radii of the first two interference rings as a function of the wavelength of the electrons
By applying the regression lines expressed by Y = AX + B to the measured values from the figure, it
gives a slopes
A1 = 0.62(2) ⋅ 109 and
A2 = 1.03(2) ⋅ 109
and the lattice constants

58
d1 = 211 pm and
d2 = 126 pm
in accordance with (7).

Questions:
1. What is De Broglie’s hypothesis:
2. Mention the name of the experiment which shows that electron behaves like a wave?
3. What is Bragg’s law?
4. What is the difference between Crystal and Amorphous material:
5. Define lattice constant in a crystal.
6. Why interference rings are circular?

Reference:
1. F.Keller, W.Gettys & M.Skove – Physics, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,Int.ed.,1993,998-999.
2. Halliday, Resnick & Walker-Fundamentals of Pysics, John Wiley & sons, 4th ed.(extended), 1993,
1158-1159.

59
 EXPERIMENT NO.10
FINE STRUCTURE

Aim:
1. To calibrate the grating spectrometer using the known source (Na source) of light and to
calculate the grating constant.
2. Using the same grating, to calculate the wavelength of sodium – D lines.
3.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, grating, sodium lamp, power supply for spectral lamps, magnifying
glass.

Basic methodology:
Light from a mercury source is made to fall normally on a grating mounted on a spectrometer. The
diffraction angle of the diffracted light is measured for each spectral line of the Hg-source. Likewise
for sodium source, the diffraction angle and angular separation  of the sodium doublets is
measured.

I. Introduction:

I.1Diffraction Grating: A diffraction grating is a very powerful and precise instrument for the study of
spectra and is widely used in a large number of fields from Astronomy to Engineering, wherever there
is a need for detection of the presence of atomic elements.
A diffraction grating can be simply thought of as a set of identical and equally spaced
slits separated by opaque strips. In reality gratings are made by ruling fine grooves by a diamond
point either on a plane glass surface to produce a transmission grating or on a metal mirror to
produce a reflection grating. In a transmission grating the grooves scatter light and so are opaque
while the un-ruled surfaces transmit and act like slits. Typically a high quality grating (used for
studying spectra in the visible range) has about 15000 grooves per inch, which gives a slit spacing of
the order of a micron.
The chief requirement of a good grating is that the lines be equally spaced over the width of the ruled
surface, which can vary from 1-25 cm. After each groove has been ruled, the machine lifts the
diamond point and moves the grating forward by a small rotation of a screw. For rulings of equal
spacing the screw must have a constant pitch. Replication gratings are also used, in which the cast
of the ruled surface is taken with some transparent
material. Replication gratings give satisfactory
performance where very high resolving power is
not required. A typical groove profile is the
triangular blazed profile shown in Fig. 1.The angle 
is called the blaze angle.

I.2 Basic Theory:

60
When a wave front is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the slits and
obstructed by the opaque portions. The secondary waves from the positions of the slit interfere with
one another, similar to the interference of waves in Young’s experiment. If the spacing between the
lines is of the order of the wave length of light then an appreciable deviation of the light is produced.
Consider the diffraction pattern produced by N
parallel slits, each of width b; the distance between
two consecutive slits is assumed to be d. (See Fig.2)
The field at any arbitrary point P will essentially be a
sum of N terms (recall the derivation for the double
slit),

sin 
E=A cos(t −  ) +


sin  sin 
A cos(t −  − 1 ) + ............. + A cos(t −  − ( N − 1)1 ) (1)
 
sin 
E=A [cos(t −  ) + cos(t −  − 1 ) + ........ + cos(t −  − ( N − 1)1 ]

sin  sin N
=A cos[t −  − 1 / 2( N − 1)1 ] (2)
 sin 

Where  = b sin  and  = 1 =  d sin 

 2 
And  1 is the phase difference between the light rays emanating from successive slits. The
sin 2  sin 2 N
corresponding intensity distribution will be I = I 0 (3)
 2 sin 2 

sin 2 
As can be seen, the intensity distribution is a product of two terms, the first term ( )
2
sin 2 N
represents the diffraction pattern produced by a single slit and the second term
sin 2 
represents the interference pattern produced by N equally spaced slits. For N=1 eqn (3) reduces to
the single slit diffraction pattern and for N=2, to the double slit diffraction pattern.

1.3 Principal maxima

When the value of N is very large, one obtains intense maxima at  = m i.e., when
d sin  = m , m=0,1,2,3,…..(maxima) (4)

61
 sin N N cos N
Thus, it can be easily seen by noting that lim = lim = N
 → m sin   → m cos 
sin 
Thus, the resultant amplitude will be E ( ) = NA and the corresponding intensity distributions

sin 2  b sin  bm
are given by I = N 2 I 0 , where  = =
  d
Such maxima are known as principal maxima. Physically, at these maxima the fields produced by each
of the slits are in phase and, therefore, they add up and the resultant field is N times the field
produced by each of the slits.

I.4 Minima and secondary maxima:

sin 2 N
To find the minima of the function we note that the numerator becomes zero at N
sin 2 
 = 0,  ,2 or in general, pπ where p is an integer. In the special case when p=0, N, 2N…, γ will be 0,
π, 2π, … For these values the denominator will also vanish, and we have the principal maxima
described above. The other values of p give zero intensity since for these the denominator does not
vanish at the same time. Hence the condition for minima is γ= pπ/N, excluding those values of p for
which p = mN, m being the order. These values of γ corresponds to the omitting the values 0,
N 2 N
, ,..... for which d sin  = m and which corresponds to principal maxima. Thus, between
N N
two principal maxima we have (N-1) minima. Between two such consecutive minima the intensity
has to have a maxima; these maxima are known as secondary maxima. These are of much smaller
intensity than principal maxima. The principal maxima are called spectrum lines.

Intensity

Θ
Fig. 3

62
The intensity distribution of the screen is shown in
Fig.3, P corresponds to the position of the central
maxima and 1, 2 etc. on the two sides of P represents
the 1st,2nd etc. principal maxima. a, b, c, etc. are
secondary maxima and e, f etc. are the secondary
minima. The intensity as well as the angular spacing
of the secondary maxima and minima are so small in
comparison to the principal maxima that they cannot
be observed. This results in uniform darkness
between any two principal maxima.
I.5. Sodium D lines
The sodium doublet is responsible for the bright
yellow light from a sodium lamp. The doublet arises
from the 3p →3s transition in the sodium atom. The
3p level splits into two closely spaced levels with an
energy spacing of 0.0021 eV. The splitting occurs due to the spin orbit effect. This can be crudely
thought of as arising due to the internal magnetic field produced by the electron’s circulation around
the nucleus and the splitting takes place analogous to the Zeeman effect. Fig. 4 shows the 3p and 3s
levels their splitting and the radiative transition that produces the sodium doublets or D lines.

II. Set Up and procedure:

PART A: Calibration of diffraction grating:
1. Adjust telescope for parallel rays i.e. focus telescope on the object at infinity. Here we can adjust
telescope on an object which is at very large distance. Level the spectrometer and prism table on
which grating is mounted using a spirit level. Fig. 5 schematically shows the arrangement of the
grating and the spectrometer.
2. Switch on the power supply for spectral lamp
3. Place the grating on the prism table such that the surface of the grating is approximately
perpendicular to the collimator of the spectrometer (i.e., perpendicular to the incident slit falling on
the grating). Fix the prism table in this position. With the Na source observe first order spectrum on
left hand side and right hand side. Measure the angle of diffraction of each line by rotating telescope
so that cross-wire coincides with particular spectral line. Note down each measurement in the
observation table 1. The diffraction angle is equal to difference between LHS and RHS observation
divided by two for a particular spectral line. (See Fig. 5).The wavelengths of the main spectral lines of
Na in the visible region are given in Table 1.

PART B: To measure the wavelength of second sodium line ( D2 ):

63
3. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with sodium source. In first order spectrum of sodium measure the angular
position L of yellow 1 (D1) on the left side. Use the micrometer screw to turn the telescope to align
the crosswire at the second yellow line (D2) and read its angular position L.
4. Likewise measure  R on the RHS for D1 and D2.
Precautions:
1. The experiment should be performed in a dark room.
2. Micrometer screw should be used for fine adjustment of the telescope. For fine adjustment the
telescope should be first locked by means of the head screw.
3. The directions of rotation of the micrometer screw should be maintained otherwise the play in the
micrometer spindle might lead to errors (also known as backlash error).
4. The spectral lamps (Na source) attain their full illuminating power after being warmed up for about
5 minutes, so the observations should be taken after 5 minutes.
5. One of the essential precautions for the success of this experiment is to set the grating normal to
the incident rays (see below). Small variation in the angle of incidence causes correspondingly large
error in the angle of diffraction. If the exact normally is not achieved, one finds that the angles of
diffraction measured on the left and on the right are not exactly equal. Read both the verniers to
eliminate any errors due to non-coincidence of the center of the circular scale with the axis of rotation
of the telescope or table.
Method to make light to fall normal to the grating surface:
a) First mount grating approximately normal to the collimator. See the slit through telescope and take
reading from one side of vernier window. Note down the reading.
b) Add or subtract (whichever is convenient) 90° from reading taken in step a) and put telescope to
this position. In this position telescope is approximately perpendicular to the collimator.
c) Now rotate prism table until the slit is visible on the cross-wire of the telescope. At this position the
incident light from the collimator falls at an angle 45° with the plane of the grating. Note down this
reading.
d) Next add or subtract 45° to step c) reading and rotate prism table so as to obtain this reading on
the same window. In this situation light incident on the grating surface is perpendicular.

III. Exercises and Viva Questions:

1. What is a diffraction grating? How are they made? Name three different types of gratings.
2. Can a grating be used for studying spectra in the UV or infrared region? If so, what should be its
characteristic? Can a prism be so used? What are the advantages of a grating over a prism?
3. The dispersion of a grating is defined as D = /where is the angular separation of the
principal maxima of two lines whose wavelengths differ by. Show that the dispersion of a grating
is D= m/(dcos) at the mth order. Calculate D for the sodium doublet at the first order for your
experiment.
4. The resolving power of a grating is defined as R = avg/where avgis the mean wavelength and
 is the difference in the wavelengths of two spectral lines which can just be resolved into two lines.
It can be shown that R = Nm, where Nis the total number of rulings on the grating and m is the order
at which the two spectral lines can be resolved. Calculate the number of rulings required to resolve
the sodium doublet at the first order.
5. Use Bohr model for the frequency of light emitted in atomic transitions to calculate the
wavelengths for the sodium doublet, using Fig. 4.
6. In the Hg spectrum which lines are prominent and which are weak? What could be the reason for
variation in intensities of spectral lines?
7. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of looking at the second order spectra in this
experiment?
8. What is the mechanism by which the emission spectrum is produced in the spectral lamps (Na or
Hg)?

64
9. What will happen if the incident light does not fall normally on the grating? Show that if ψis the
angle of incidence with respect to the normal to the grating, then the principal maxima occur at
angles θ(w.r.t. the normal) such that d(sin+ sin) = m.
10. Give examples of uses of gratings in Astronomy, Physics and Engineering.

References:
1. “Advanced Practical Physics for students”, B.L. Worsnop and H.T. Flint, Metheun London, 1942.
2. “Fundamentals of Optics”, F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, 4th ed., McGraw-HillInc.,1981.
3. “Fundamental of Physics”, D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J.A Walker, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 2001.
4. “Optics”, A. Ghatak, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi 1992

65