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MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)
A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 65
doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.32.23831 RESEARCH ARTICLE
http://mycokeys.pensoft.net Launched to accelerate biodiversity research

A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae,

Basidiomycota): new species, new combination
and infrageneric classification

Zai-Wei Ge1, Adriaana Jacobs2, Else C. Vellinga3, Phongeun Sysouphanthong4,

Retha van der Walt2, Carmine Lavorato5, Yi-Feng An1, Zhu L. Yang1

1 Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China 2 National Collection of Fungi, Biosystematics Division, ARC,
Plant Health and Protection, Queenswood 9012, Pretoria, South Africa 3 111 Koshland Hall 3102, Univer-
sity of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3102, USA 4 Ecology Division, Biotechnology and
Ecology Institute, Ministry of Science and Technology, P.O.Box: 2279, Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR 5 C/da
Calamia 10 – I-87069 San Demetrio Corone (CS), Italy

Corresponding author: Zai-Wei Ge ([email protected])

Academic editor: S. Redhead | Received 23 January 2018 | Accepted 5 March 2018 | Published 20 March 2018

Citation: Ge Z-W, Jacobs A, Vellinga EC, Sysouphanthong P, van der Walt R, Lavorato C, An Y-F, Yang ZL (2018)
A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species, new combination and infrageneric
classification. MycoKeys 32: 65–90. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.32.23831

Abstract
Taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of Chlorophyllum were carried out on the basis of morphological
differences and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Based on the phylogeny inferred from the internal tran-
scribed spacer (ITS), the partial large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrLSU), the second largest subunit
of RNA polymerase II (rpb2) and translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1) sequences, six well-supported
clades and 17 phylogenetic species are recognised. Within this phylogenetic framework and considering
the diagnostic morphological characters, two new species, C. africanum and C. palaeotropicum, are de-
scribed. In addition, a new infrageneric classification of Chlorophyllum is proposed, in which the genus is
divided into six sections. One new combination is also made. This study provides a robust basis for a more
detailed investigation of diversity and biogeography of Chlorophyllum.

Keywords
Agaricales, Lepiota, Macrolepiota, multigene phylogeny, new taxa

Copyright Zai-Wei Ge et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
66 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Introduction
The genus Chlorophyllum Massee, 1898 (Agaricaceae, Agaricales) is typified by Chloro-
phyllum molybdites (G. Mey.) Massee. This genus currently accommodates ca. 16 spe-
cies (Kirk et al. 2011) and 30 records can be found in Index Fungorum (http://www.
indexfungorum.org/Names/NAMES.ASP). Traditionally, this genus was monotypic,
only containing the green-spored species, C. molybdites. Based on similarities in mor-
phology and/or molecular evidence, a few species previously placed in Macrolepiota
Singer or Lepiota (Pers.) Gray, were transferred into it (Vellinga 2002). Similarly, En-
doptychum agaricoides was also transferred to this genus based on molecular evidence
and the proposal to conserve Chlorophyllum (hereafter abbreviated as C.) against En-
doptychum was submitted to retain the genus name for the well-known toxic species C.
molybdites (Vellinga and De Kok 2002) and accepted (Gams 2005). Members of this
genus are characterised by the following unique combination of morphological char-
acters: the pileus covering is hymenidermal, the stipe (if present) is smooth and basidi-
ospores lack a germ pore or have a germ pore caused by a depression in the episporium
without a hyaline covering. The basidiospores are white, green, brownish or brown in
deposit and the habit varies from agaricoid, secotioid to gasteroid (Crous et al. 2015a;
Ge and Yang 2006; Vellinga 2003a; 2004b; Vellinga et al. 2003). Species within this
genus are saprotrophic and distributed worldwide, often growing in urban and ruderal
habitats, with a preference for tropical and subtropical regions (Vellinga 2004a).
Recently, three species, C. lusitanicum G. Moreno, Mohedano, Manjón, Carlavilla
& Altés, C. pseudoglobosum J. Sarkar, A.K. Dutta & Acharya and C. sphaerosporum
Z.W. Ge & Zhu L. Yang were described from Spain, India and China, respectively
(Crous et al. 2015a; Crous et al. 2015b; Ge and Yang 2006). These studies provided a
better understanding of the species diversity within the genus, but are confined to cer-
tain specific regions and samples from other poorly explored areas such as Africa have
seldom been included. Such studies have been focused on new species descriptions, but
an infrageneric classification for the genus is still lacking because infrageneric relation-
ships are poorly known.
Phylogenetic studies have shown that Chlorophyllum is nested within Agaricaceae
(Ge and Yang 2017; Vellinga 2004b; Vellinga et al. 2003; Vellinga et al. 2011). How-
ever, due to limited taxon sampling and /or use of the ribosomal RNA genes only (ITS
and /or nrLSU), limited information on infrageneric relationships could be gleaned.
Further sampling of more species and phylogenetic analyses based on protein coding
genes are needed to clarify relationships within Chlorophyllum.
Based on investigations of lepiotoid fungi in China, Dominican Republic, Germany,
Italy, South Africa, Thailand, United Kingdom and the United States of America, detailed
morphological and molecular studies were carried out in this study. The aims were to:

1. elucidate species diversity within Chlorophyllum based on both morphological

characters and phylogenetic analysis, describe novel species and provide more in-
formation on poorly known species;
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 67

2. use a combined multi-gene dataset (ITS, nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1) to provide a robust
hypothesis for relationships amongst Chlorophyllum species;
3. examine diagnostic characters for recognised clades and establish an infrageneric
classification that best reflects the evolutionary history of the genus.

Materials and methods

Taxon sampling and morphological studies

Fifty-nine collections were newly sampled from China, Dominican Republic, Germany,
Italy, South Africa, Thailand, the United Kingdom and United States of America and
deposited in HMAS, PREM, HKAS (Herbarium of Cryptogams, Kunming Institute of
Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences) and MFLU. Twelve out of the 16 recognised spe-
cies, plus two recently described species, as well as two putative new species and a new
combination were represented in this study. Morphological characters were studied from
field notes, colour images of the material and complemented with literature data. Colour
names and codes are from Kornerup and Wanscher (1978). Microscopic character obser-
vations were conducted under a light microscope using thin handmade sections rehydrat-
ed in 5% aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) (w/v). Melzer’s reagent was used to test
the amyloidity of basidiospores and cresyl blue was used to study the metachromatic reac-
tion (Largent et al. 1977). In the descriptions of basidiospores, the abbreviation [n/m/p]
indicates n basidiospores measured from m basidiocarps of p collections; (a)b–c(d) stands
for the dimensions of the basidiospores, with b–c containing a minimum of 90 % of the
measured values and (a) and (d) extreme values. Q is used to mean “length/width ratio” of
a basidiospore and Qav represents average of Q of all basidiospores studied.

DNA extraction, primers, PCR and sequencing

A small piece of dried basidiocarp was excised from a specimen and ground in an
Eppendorf tube. Genomic DNA was isolated using the CTAB method (Doyle and
Doyle 1987). Optimal dilutions of the DNAs were used to amplify the following
regions: internal transcribed spacer (ITS), the large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA
(nrLSU), the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2) and the translation
elongation factor 1-α gene (tef1). PCR amplifications used the previously described
primers: ITS1F/ITS4 for ITS, LR0R/LR5 for nrLSU (Gardes and Bruns 1993; White
et al. 1990), bRPB2-6F /bRPB2-7.1R for rpb2 (Matheny 2005) and 983F/1567R
for tef1 (Rehner and Buckley 2005). PCR conditions were as recommended by the
Taq polymerase manufacturer (Bioteke, Beijing, China), using an ABI 2720 Thermal
Cycler (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). PCR products were cleaned and
sequenced by Sangon Biotech (Shanghai) Co. Ltd. (Shanghai, China) and Kunming
Shuoqing Biotech Ltd (Kunming, China).
68 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Phylogenetic analyses
In this study, 144 sequences were produced using standard methods and deposited in
GenBank (MG741961–MG742106), viz., 59 ITS, 29 nrLSU, 28 rpb2 and 28 tef1
(Figure 1 and Table 1) sequences. To obtain an estimate of Chlorophyllum genetic di-
versity, 96 ITS sequences were also retrieved from GenBank and included in the phy-
logenetic analyses (GenBank nos. included in Figure 1).
The ITS data set included 155 Chlorophyllum sequences. From these, a subset of 29
collections was chosen to represent the full range of phylogenetic diversity sampled for
a four-locus dataset comprising portions of the ITS, nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1 (Table 1).
To test the monophyly of Chlorophyllum within Agaricaceae, ML analysis of the rpb2
dataset, which has much fewer ambiguous aligned sections in the matrix compared to
the ITS dataset, was conducted with representative genera of the Agaricaceae (Ge and
Yang 2017; Ge et al. 2015; Vellinga et al. 2011). As Chlorophyllum is confirmed as a
monophyletic group close to Agaricus L. and allied genera in the present study (Suppl.
material 1) and recent studies (Ge and Yang 2017; Ge et al. 2015; Vellinga et al. 2011),
representative species of these genera were included as outgroups for rooting purposes
for analyses; these are Agaricus campestris L., Clarkeinda trachodes (Berk.) Singer, Con-
iolepiota spongodes (Berk. & Broome) Vellinga, Eriocybe chionea Vellinga, Heinemanno-
myces splendidissimus Watling and Pseudolepiota zangmui Z.W. Ge.
Sequences were aligned using MAFFT 6.8 (Katoh et al. 2009) and further opti-
mised visually. The best-fit evolutionary model for each dataset was determined us-
ing MRMODELTEST (Nylander 2004). Maximum Likelihood (ML) analyses were
conducted in RAxML 7.2.6-WIN with default settings using a GTRGAMMA model
(Stamatakis et al. 2007). Clade robustness was assessed using a bootstrap analysis with
1000 replicates (Felsenstein 1985).
The ITS-nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1 datasets were analysed separately before concatena-
tion. As no significant (bootstrap support above 70 %) incongruence was detected,
the resulting three alignments (ITS-nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1) were combined for further
multigene analyses. Unavailable sequences of loci from a few species were treated as
missing data in the phylogenetic analyses. Final alignments have been deposited in
TREEBASE (http://www.treebase.org) with accession number (S22068).

Results
The ITS alignment contained 787 sites, all of which were included in the analy-
ses. The ML tree is shown in Figure 1 with the final ML optimisation likelihood at
-5625.939348. According to the ML tree, 17 phylogenetic species were recovered. The
new species were nested within Ellipsoidospororum clade (C. africanum) and Chloro-
phyllum clade (C. palaeotropicum).
The combined data set included subsamples of the 17 species recovered in the ITS tree.
This alignment contained 2896 nucleotide sites (including gaps), consisting of 785, 851,
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 69

Figure 1. ML tree inferred from ITS data. Bootstrap values >50 % are indicated at internodes. Names
of new taxa are in bold.

699 and 561 sites (including gaps) for ITS, nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1, respectively. The analyses
identified six distinct well-supported clades within Chlorophyllum, each representing one
to four species (Figure 2). These clades are: Chlorophyllum clade, Ellipsoidospororum clade,
70 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Table 1. Taxa, vouchers, geographic origin, and GenBank accession numbers of DNA sequences of Chlo-
rophyllum and outgroups used in this study. New sequences generated by this work are in bold.

Taxon Collection Origin nrITS nrLSU rpb2 tef1

Chlorophyllum
PREM 62140 South Africa MG741961 MG742041 MG742070 MG742098
africanum
C. africanum PREM 62141 South Africa MG741963 MG742042 MG742071 MG742099
C. agaricoides HKAS 101312 Russia MG742003 MG742020 MG742050 MG742078
C. agaricoides HMAS 71678 China: Neimenggu MG742004 MG742021 MG742051 MG742079
C. arizonicum AH31724 Mexico KR233490 KR233499 N/A N/A
Trappe 11481
C. arizonicum USA HQ020416 HQ020419 N/A N/A
(AZ80)
C. brunneum HKAS 101315 Italy MG742013 MG742022 MG742052 MG742080
C. brunneum AY083206 AF482886 HM488804 HM488886
C. demangei Z. W. Ge 3112 China: Yunnan MG741965 MG742027 MG742056 MG742084
C. demangei Z. W. Ge 3574 China: Yunnan MG741964 MG742025 MG742055 MG742083
C. globosum Z. W. Ge 2006-1 China: Yunnan MG741995 MG742023 N/A N/A
C. globosum PREM 62147 South Africa MG742002 MG742024 MG742053 MG742081
C. hortense HKAS 101317 China: Hainan MG741967 MG742026 MG742054 MG742082
C. hortense Z. W. Ge 3115 China: Yunnan MG741968 MG742028 MG742057 MG742085
C. hortense HKAS 90470 China: Yunnan MG741971 MG742029 MG742058 MG742086
C. lusitanicum AH45540 Spain KR233482 KR233491 N/A N/A
C. lusitanicum AH43927 Spain KR233483 KR233492 N/A N/A
C. molybdites HKAS 45051 China: Hunan MG741985 MG742030 MG742059 MG742087
C. molybdites Z. W. Ge 3381 USA: Florida MG741993 MG742034 MG742063 MG742091
C. molybdites Z. W. Ge 3146 China: Yunnan MG741987 MG742031 MG742060 MG742088
C. molybdites HKAS 101322 Italy MG741988 MG742032 MG742061 MG742089
C. molybdites Z. W. Ge 3377 USA: Florida MG741992 MG742033 MG742062 MG742090
C. neomastoideum HKAS 83208 China: Zhejiang MG741976 MG742035 MG742064 MG742092
C. olivieri HKAS 31587 Germany: Marburg MG742016 MG742036 MG742065 MG742093
C. olivieri HKAS 53466 Germany: Marburg MG742017 MG742037 MG742066 MG742094
C. palaeotropicum PREM 62142 South Africa MG741978 MG742038 MG742067 MG742095
C. palaeotropicum PREM 62145 South Africa MG741982 MG742039 MG742068 MG742096
C. palaeotropicum HKAS 93747 Benin: Okpara MG741983 MG742040 MG742069 MG742097
C. pseudoglobosum AM155 India: West Bengal KP642506 KR080484 N/A N/A
C. rhacodes AF482849 AY176345 N/A HM488885
C. rhacodes U85312 U85277 HM488803 KC884736
C. sphaerosporum HMAS 66153 China: Neimenggu MG742011 MG742043 MG742072 MG742100
C. sphaerosporum HMAS 71683 China: Neimenggu MG742012 MG742044 MG742073 MG742101
C. subrhacodes Z. W. Ge 3411 USA: Florida MG741975 MG742045 MG742074 MG742102
C. subrhacodes Z. W. Ge 3232 USA: Florida MG741973 MG742046 MG742075 MG742103
C. subrhacodes Z. W. Ge 3385 USA: Florida MG741972 MG742048 MG742077 MG742105
C. subrhacodes Z. W. Ge 3242 USA: Florida MG741974 MG742047 MG742076 MG742104
Outgroups
Agaricus campestris KM657927 KR006607 KT951556 KR006636
Clarkeinda trachodes HM488751 KY418837 HM488802 N/A
Coniolepiota
png012 Thailand HM488756 HM488774 HM488796 HM488883
spongodes
Eriocybe chionea HM488753 HM488772 HM488800 N/A
Heinemannomyces
HM488760 HM488769 HM488793 KT951657
splendidissimus
Pseudolepiota
Z. W. Ge 2175 China: Yunnan KY768928 MG742049 KY768929 MG742106
zangmui
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 71

Figure 2. ML tree inferred from the combined alignment based on ITS, nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1. Bootstrap
values >50 % are indicated at internodes. Names of new taxa are shown in bold.
72 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Endoptychorum clade, Rhacodium clade, Parvispororum clade and Sphaerospororum clade.

Each of these clades received 100 percent maximum boot strap (ML-BP) support in the
combined data set and strong support (≥87 % boot strap support) in the individual data
sets (ITS-nrLSU, rpb2 and tef1 respectively). Species relationships within these six clades
are largely resolved, but relationships amongst all clades were not resolved with confidence.
Emphasising both molecular data and morphological characters, a new infrage-
neric classification for Chlorophyllum and two new distinct species, C. africanum and
C. palaeotropicum are proposed.

Taxonomy
Infrageneric classification of Chlorophyllum

The genus Chlorophyllum is divided into six sections: sect. Chlorophyllum, Sect. El-
lipsoidospororum, sect. Rhacodium, sect. Parvispororum, sect. Endoptychorum and sect.
Sphaerospororum.

Chlorophyllum sect. Chlorophyllum Massee

Type. Chlorophyllum molybdites (G. Mey.) Massee. Bull. Misc. Inf., Kew: 136. 1898.
≡ Agaricus molybdites G. Mey., Prim. fl. esseq.: 300. 1818.
Description. Basidiocarps medium to large sized, stout, agaricoid, with obvious
plate-like squamules. Basidiospores olive to greenish-white, thick-walled, ellipsoid to
amygdaliform with a truncate apex, except for C. palaeotropicum, which produce subglo-
bose basidiospores without germ pore. Cheilocystidia broadly clavate to sphaeropedun-
culate. Pileipellis is a palisade of hyphae with terminal elements clavate to subfusiform.
Discussion. This section contains the type species of this genus, C. molybdites and
also C. globosum, C. pseudoglobosum, as well as the novel taxon C. palaeotropicum.

Chlorophyllum sect. Ellipsoidospororum Z.W. Ge, sect. nov.

MycoBank MB 823853

Diagnosis. Differs from other sections by the slender basidiocarps with furfuraceous
squamules on the pileus, the non-pored, ellipsoid basidiospores and subcylindric to
slightly fusiform cheilocystidia.
Type. Chlorophyllum hortense (Murrill) Vellinga, Mycotaxon 83: 416. 2002.
≡ Lepiota hortensis Murrill, N. Amer. Fl. (New York) 10 (1): 59. 1917.
Description. Basidiocarps agaricoid, small to medium sized, with furfuraceous squa-
mules. Basidiospores ellipsoid to ovoid without germ pore. Cheilocystidia narrowly clavate
to subcylindrical. Pileipellis a loose hymeniderm made up of clavate to subfusiform hyphae.
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 73

Discussion. This section is represented by C. hortense, C. demangei and the new

taxon C. africanum. Chlorophyllum alborubescens (Hongo) Vellinga, C. humei (Mur-
rill) Vellinga, C. mammillatum (Murrill) Vellinga, C. subfulvidiscum (Murrill) Vellinga,
Leucoagaricus bisporus Heinem., which were treated as synonyms of C. hortense (Mur-
rill) Vellinga (Vellinga 2003; Akers and Sundberg 1997) also belong here (Figure 1).

Chlorophyllum sect. Endoptychorum (Czernajew) Z.W. Ge, comb. & stat. nov.
MycoBank MB 823854

Basionym. Endoptychum Czern., Bull. Soc. Imp. nat. Moscou 18(2, III): 146 1845.
Type. Chlorophyllum agaricoides (Czern.) Vellinga, Mycotaxon 83: 416. 2002.
≡ Endoptychum agaricoides Czern., Bull. Soc. Imp. nat. Moscou 18(2, III): 148. 1845.
Description. Basidiocarps secotioid, with inconspicuous squamules. Basidiospores
thick-walled, without germ pore.
Discussion. This section currently contains only one species (C. agaricoides),
known from America, Asia and Europe.

Chlorophyllum sect. Parvispororum Z.W. Ge, sect. nov.

MycoBank MB 823859

Diagnosis. Differs from other sections by the relatively smaller, porous basidiospores
(less than 10 μm long) and a pileipellis composed of a palisade of hyphae with cylindri-
cal terminal elements.
Type. Chlorophyllum subrhacodes (Murrill) Vellinga, Mycotaxon 83: 416. 2002.
≡ Lepiota subrhacodes Murrill, Lloydia 6: 223. 1943.
Description. Basidiocarps small to medium-sized, agaricoid, covered with large
squamules contrasting in colour with the background. Basidiospores relatively small
(less than 10 μm long), with germ pore, forming a truncated apex. Cheilocystidia
clavate to mucronate clavate. Pileipellis a palisade of hyphae with cylindrical terminal
elements. Hyphae without clamp connections.
Discussion. This section contains the species from south-eastern North America (C. sub-
rhacodes) and east Asia (C. neomastoideum) displaying an America-Asia disjunct distribution.

Chlorophyllum sect. Rhacodium Z.W. Ge, sect. nov.

MycoBank MB 823865

Diagnosis. Differs from other sections by the stout basidiocarps with plate- like
squamules on the pileus and white lamellae, basidiospores with wide germ pore and
pileipellis composed of a tightly packed hymeniderm of cylindrical and flexuous, or
narrowly clavate or narrowly lageniform elements.
74 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Type. Chlorophyllum rhacodes (Vittad.) Vellinga, Mycotaxon 83: 416. 2002.

≡ Agaricus rhacodes Vittad. [as ‘rachodes’], Descr. fung. mang. Italia: 158. 1835.
Description. Basidiocarps medium to large sized, stout, agaricoid, with plate like
squamules, basidiospores with wide germ pore, forming a truncated apex. Cheilocys-
tidia clavate to sphaeropedunculate. Pileipellis a tightly packed hymeniderm of cylin-
drical and flexuous, or narrowly clavate or narrowly lageniform elements.
Discussion. This section contains C. nothorhacodes, C. brunneum, C. rhacodes, C.
olivieri and C. venenatum (Bon) C. Lange & Vellinga. There was controversy over the
spelling of the species epithet ‘rhacodes’ (originally published as ‘rachodes’). The Nomen-
clature Committee for Fungi debated the issue for years and the General Committee
made the final decision that the epithet of Agaricus rhacodes Vittad. (Descr. Fung. Mang.:
158. 1833) is to be so spelled, even though it was originally spelled ‘rachodes’, which was
approved by the International Botanical Congress in Shenzhen, China (Wilson 2017).

Chlorophyllum sect. Sphaerospororum Z.W. Ge, sect. nov.

MycoBank MB 823860

Diagnosis. Differs from other sections by the nonporous, globose to subglobose ba-
sidiospores and gasteroid basidiocarps or globose to subglobose basidiospores and a
hymenodermal pileipellis made up of loosely arranged clavate to broadly clavate ele-
ments when the basidiocarps are agaricoid.
Type. Chlorophyllum sphaerosporum Z.W. Ge & Zhu L. Yang, Mycotaxon 96: 187. 2006.
Description. Basidiocarps agaricoid or gasteroid, covered with inconspicuous
squamules. Basidiospores subglobose to globose without germ pore (with rounded
apex). Cheilocystidia (if present) clavate to broadly clavate. Pileipellis a hymeniderm
made up of loosely arranged clavate to broadly clavate elements.
Discussion. This section contains the agaricoid C. sphaerosporum and two hypo-
geous taxa, C. arizonicum and C. lusitanicum. It is so far the only clade containing
gasteroid species.

Recognition of two new species and the transfer of Lepiota demangei from Lepiota
to Chlorophyllum

Chlorophyllum africanum Z.W. Ge & A. Jacobs, sp. nov.

MycoBank MB 823861
Figs 3A, 4

Diagnosis. This species is distinguished from other Chlorophyllum species by relatively

small basidiocarps with yellow grey to grey orange (5B4) furfuraceous squamules, the
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 75

Figure 3. Basidiocarps of representative species of Chlorophyllum. A Chlorophyllum africanum (PREM

62141) B Chlorophyllum demangei (HKAS 89157) C Chlorophyllum globosum (PREM 62152) D Chloro-
phyllum palaeotropicum (HKAS 60195).

squamules composed of a hymenidermal layer made up of greyish-yellow to dull yel-

low, narrowly clavate to clavate elements, the hyaline ellipsoid basidiospores without a
germ pore and the hyaline, cylindric to slightly fusiform cheilocystidia.
Type. SOUTH AFRICA. 2229 BB Beit Bridge, Farm Matolege 133 MS
(−22°14.91'S, 29°47.29'E), alt. ca. 560 m, growing in disturbed area with large vol-
ume of animal droppings, 9 February 2014, Van Der Walt, R 885 (holotype: PREM
62143!; isotype: HKAS!). ITS barcoding sequence: MG741962.
Description. Pileus 30–50 mm broad, hemispherical to convex when young, ex-
panding to broadly convex or applanate with age, sometimes with a prominent umbo;
margin sulcate striate; surface covered with thin, yellow grey (4B2–4B3), orange grey
(6B2) to grey orange (5B4) furfuraceous squamules, these remaining intact on the disc
but elsewhere diffracted-scaly with expansion and receding from pileus margin. Lamel-
lae free and remote from stipe, white to off white, crowded, narrow, up to 6 mm deep,
with 1–2 series of lamellulae; edges entire, white. Stipe 35–60 × 3–6 mm, subcylindric,
slightly enlarged at base, glabrous, white to light brown, hollow, nearly stuffed, with a
simple annulus about 10–15 mm from top of the stipe. Context white, 1–2 mm thick
in pileus, discolouring brown to red where bruised or handled, with strong mushroom
odour, taste mild. Spore print white to cream.
76 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Basidiospores [100,5,2] (7.5)8.0–9.0 × (5.5) 6.0–6.5(7.0) μm (mean 8.2 ± 0.4 ×

6.2 ± 0.3 μm), Q = (1.2)1.3–1.4 (1.5), Qav = 1.3 ± 0.05, ellipsoid, occasionally ovoid
in side view or in frontal view, with rounded apex, smooth, hyaline, congophilous,
dextrinoid, with one guttule in most cases, without germ pore, slightly thick walled,
becoming purplish-red (14A6–14A7) in cresyl blue. Basidia 29–33 × 10.0–11.0 µm,
clavate, hyaline, 4-spored, rarely 2-spored. Cheilocystidia 28–50 × 6.0–10.0 µm, cy-
lindric to slightly fusiform, hyaline. Pleurocystidia not observed. Lamella trama regular
to slightly interwoven, made up of subcylindrical hyaline hyphae, 7.0–12.0 μm diam.
Pileipellis a hymenidermal layer made up of greyish-yellow (1B4, 2B3) to dull yellow
(3B3), clavate elements of 21–50 × 9.0–14.0(16.0) µm, slightly thick walled, with
greyish-yellow vacuolar pigments; wall greyish-yellow; terminal elements mostly nar-
rowly clavate. Clamp connections not observed.
Distribution. So far, only known from South Africa.
Ecology. Saprotrophic, solitary to scattered, terrestrial.
Etymology. (L.) in reference to Africa where it is collected.
Additional specimens examined. SOUTH AFRICA. 2229 BB Beit Bridge, Farm
Matolege 133MS, −22°14.66'S, 29°46.75'E, 574 m, on soil. 10 January 2014, Van
Der Walt, R787 (PREM 62140). 2229 BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163 MS
(Farm Yard), −22°16.64'S, 29°48.22'E, alt. ca. 610 m, 9 March 2014, Van Der Walt,
R935 (PREM 62141). Scattered in sandy soil of semi-shade to full sun, cleared area.
Discussion. Chlorophyllum africanum is morphologically very similar to C. bharatense
Sathe & S.M. Kulk. Both species have a small-sized convex to applanate pileus covered with
pale olivaceous brown squamules, clavate cheilocystidia and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores.
However, C. bharatense differs from C. africanum by the umbonate pileus, lamellae that
become reddish- brown on drying, basidiospores with an indistinct or absent germpore and
squamules composed of a trichodermal layer (Sathe et al. 1981 (‘1980’)).
Chlorophyllum africanum is also similar to C. hortense on account of the small-
sized basidiocarps, ellipsoid basidiospores and subcylindrical cheilocystidia. However,
C. hortense differs from C. africanum by 2-spored basidia and the whitish context of
the stipe becoming reddish where bruised (Akers and Sundberg 1997; Vellinga 2003b).
Chlorophyllum demangei (see below) is characterised by the frequent and obviously
umbonate pileus and large basidiospores measuring (7.5) 8.0–10.5 (12.5) × (5.0) 5.5–
7.0 (7.5) µm. Molecular phylogenetic results clearly support the recognition of the two
as separate species.
Leucocoprinus zeylanicus (Berk.) Boedijn, described from Sri Lanka, is also similar
to C. africanum due to the small-sized pileus with a distinct umbo, the subcylindric
cheilocystidia and the short ellipsoid basidiospores (Pegler 1986). However, the finely
radially silky-striate pileus of Lc. zeylanicus beset with sparse, minute, blackish-brown
repent squamules and the basidiospores with a small germ pore (Pegler 1986), differ-
entiate this species from C. africanum.
Lepiota zeyheri (Berk.) Sacc., a species also found in South Africa, is somewhat
similar to C. africanum on account of the whitish pileus with a clay brown umbo that
is elsewhere covered with cream or brown squamules and the ellipsoid basidiospores.
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 77

Figure 4. Micro-morphological features of C. africanum (PREM 62143, type). A Basidiospores B Basidia

C Cheilocystidia D Elements of squamules on pileus. Scale bars: 10 μm (A, D); 20 μm (B, C).

However, L. zeyheri has much larger basidiocarps measuring 10–22 cm or larger, a pale
pink spore deposit, larger broadly ellipsoid basidiospores (15.0–17.0 × 10.0–12.0 µm)
with a germ pore and clavate cheilocystidia (Pearson 1950).

Chlorophyllum palaeotropicum Z.W. Ge & A. Jacobs, sp. nov.

MycoBank MB 823862
Figs 3D, 5

Diagnosis. This species is distinguished from other Chlorophyllum species by medium-

sized basidiocarps with distinct brownish squamules composed of a trichodermal layer
of subcylindrical brownish hyphae and slightly enlarged terminal elements, the green-
ish subglobose basidiospores without a germ pore and the clavate to narrowly clavate
cheilocystidia with brownish to fuscous brown vacuolar pigments.
Type. SOUTH AFRICA. 2229 BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163MS
(−22°15.39'S, 29°47.48'E), alt. 582 m, near open area along dirt road, growing in
loam soil, compost-rich – mopane (Colophospermum mopane) leaf layer, 30 November
78 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Figure 5. Micro-morphological features of C. palaeotropicum (PREM 62142, type). A Basidiospores

B Basidia C Cheilocystidia D Elements of squamules on pileus. Scale bars: 10 μm (A, D); 20 μm (B, C).

2013, Van Der Walt, R 715 (Holotype: PREM 62142!; isotype: HKAS!). ITS barcod-
ing sequence: MG741978.
Description. Pileus 50–100 mm broad, hemispherical to convex at first, expanding
to convex to broadly convex with age; surface covered with fibrillose, tufted, reddish-white
(7A2) to brownish-orange (6C3) squamules at the margin and brownish-grey (6C2), or-
ange grey (6B2), to greyish-brown (7D3) plate-like squamules at the centre. Lamellae free
and remote from stipe; white to off-white when young, whitish to greenish-white (26A2)
when mature, crowded, 6–11 mm deep, with 1–2 series of lamellulae. Stipe 16–90 ×
3.5–8 mm, subcylindrical, with slightly enlarged base, straight or curved, white; hollow,
nearly stuffed, with an annulus at the middle part of the stipe. Context white, 4–6 mm
thick in pileus, white in pileus and stipe, discolouring pastel pink (7A4) when drying, with
a distinct mushroom smell, taste mild. Spore print greyish-green (30B3–30B4).
Basidiospores [100,5,3] (8.0)8.5–11.0(12.0) × (6.0)7.0–9.0(10.0) μm (mean 9.8
± 0.9 × 8.0 ± 0.8 μm), Q = 1.0–1.4, Qav = 1.2 ± 0.05, ellipsoid, oblong in side view
or in frontal view, with rounded apex, smooth, hyaline when young, greenish-white
(27A2), olive to brownish (in KOH) when mature, congophilous, dextrinoid, without
germ pore, slightly thick-walled; mature basidiospores staining purplish-red (14A6–
14A7) in cresyl blue; immature basidiospores staining bluish-violet (18B7) in cresyl
blue. Basidia 29–33 × 10.0–12.0(15.0) µm, clavate, hyaline, 4-spored. Cheilocyst-
idia (13)20–55(63) × 10.0–15.0(20.0) µm, clavate, rarely broadly clavate or narrowly
clavate, brownish to fuscous brown, sometimes septate. Pleurocystidia absent. Lamella
trama slightly interwoven, made up of subcylindrical hyaline hyphae, 8–14 μm diam.
Pileipellis a trichoderm made up of filamentous or cylindrical hyphae, slightly inter-
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 79

woven, interspersed with brown to tea brown hyphae, 8–14 µm in diam., thick-walled,
with brownish vacuolar pigments; wall brownish-yellow; terminal elements mostly
slightly enlarged to narrowly clavate, rarely cylindrical. Clamp connections present on
basal septa of young basidia and tissue of annulus, but not common.
Distribution. Known from Benin and South Africa in Africa and from China in Asia.
Ecology. Saprotrophic, solitary to scattered, terrestrial.
Etymology. (L.) with reference to distribution of this species in the Old World tropics.
Additional specimens examined. BENIN. Okpara: countryside of North-eastern
Parakou, 15 km from Parakou, alt. ca 330 m, 18 June, 2015, G. Wu 1370 (HKAS
93747). CHINA. Hainan Province: Sanya, Yalongwan, on man-made lawn near sea-
side, 29 June 2010, Z.W. Ge 2519 (HKAS 60195). SOUTH AFRICA. 2229 BB
Beit Bridge, Farm Wimpsh 139 MS, 12 February 2014, Van Der Walt, R891 (PREM
62144), growing in cleared area, near water hole, among Bulbostylis hispidula; 2229
BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163 MS (farm yard), −22°16.64'S, 29°48.22'E, alt.
606 m, growing in loam soil in cleared area, in semi-shade to full sun, 9 March 2014,
Van Der Walt, R 938 (PREM 62145); 2229 BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163MS
(−22°16.64'S, 29°48.22'E), alt. ca. 610 m, growing in loam soil in cleared area, 14
February 2014, Van Der Walt, R 905 (PREM 62146).
Discussion. Chlorophyllum palaeotropicum is very similar morphologically to C.
shimogaense Sathe & S.M. Kulk. Both species have medium-sized, hemispherical to
convex pilei covered with reddish-white to brownish-orange squamules composed of
a trichodermal layer. Both species also possess clavate cheilocystidia and subglobose
basidiospores. However, C. shimogaense possesses an umbonate pileus, basidiospores
with an indistinct or absent germ pore, much smaller basidia (13–24 × 6–8.5 μm) and
no clamp connections (Sathe et al. 1981 (‘1980’)).
Chlorophyllum palaeotropicum is also similar to C. molybdites, C. globosum and C.
pseudoglobosum in general appearance due to the brownish to reddish discolourations
where bruised, but C. palaeotropicum differs from these three species in having subglo-
bose to globose basidiospores without a germ pore (apex rounded), while C. molybdites,
C. globosum and C. pseudoglobosum have amygdaliform basidiospores with large germ
pores (apex truncate).
Chlorophyllum palaeotropicum also resembles C. sphaerosporum on account of the
basidiocarps bearing similar subglobose basidiospores without a germ pore. However,
the squamules of C. sphaerosporum are made up of a hymenidermal layer composed of
clavate to broadly clavate terminal elements. Furthermore, the context of C. sphaero-
sporum does not change colour when bruised. So far, C. sphaerosporum has only been
recorded from temperate regions in northern China. These two species also belong to
two different sections (Figure 1).
Chlorophyllum palaeotropicum is somewhat similar to L. zeyheri on account of
the overall appearance, the broadly ellipsoid basidiospores and clavate cheilocystidia.
However, L. zeyheri has much larger basidiocarps measuring 10–22 cm or larger and
pale pink spore prints (Pearson 1950). Furthermore, L. zeyheri has larger basidiospores
(15.0–17.0 × 10.0–12.0 µm) with a germ pore (Pearson 1950).
80 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Figure 6. Micro-morphological features of C. globosum (HKAS 52741). A Basidiospores B Basidia

C Cheilocystidia D Elements of squamules on pileus. Scale bars: 10 μm (A, D); 20 μm (B, C).

Chlorophyllum demangei (Pat.) Z.W. Ge & Zhu L. Yang, comb. nov.

MycoBank MB 823863

Basionym. Lepiota demangei Pat., Bull. trimest. Soc. mycol. Fr. 23(2): 78. 1907.
Type. VIETNAM. Hanoi: Tonkin, M. Demange 236 (Herb. Patouillard, FH
4244–holotype!).
Description. Pileus small to medium-sized, 2.5–8.5 cm in diam. (Figure 3B),
umbonate, white to cream coloured, covered with concentrically arranged, ochraceous
to yellowish-brown squamules; margin finely striate. Lamellae free, white to cream-
coloured, 5–7 mm in height. Stipe 5–6 × 0.2–0.5 cm, whitish, becoming yellowish to
brownish on bruising, slender, annulus 1–1.5 cm below apex of the stipe, persistent.
Context of pileus and stipe white, becoming reddish, pinkish or orange red when cut,
thin in pileus. Spore print white.
Basidiospores [45/2/1] (7.5) 8.0–10.0 (12.5) × (5.0) 5.5–7.0 (7.5) μm, 8.7 ± 0.4 ×
6.3 ± 0.3 μm, Q= (1.3)1.4–1.7 (1.8), Qav =1.5 ± 0.09; ellipsoid, hyaline, strongly dex-
trinoid, slightly thick-walled, apex lacking germ pore but somewhat thinner than other
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 81

areas. Basidia 25–30 × 7–9 μm, clavate, 4-spored. Squamules on pileus (pileus disc of
the smaller slice of the holotype) composed of clavate to narrowly clavate cells, 45–66
× 11–15 μm, hyaline to very pale brownish in KOH. Clamp connections not observed.
Distribution. Known from China and Vietnam in Asia.
Ecology. Saprotrophic, solitary to scattered, terrestrial.
Additional specimens examined. CHINA. Yunnan Province: Xishuanbangna
Prefecture, Mengla County, Mengyuan, alt. ca. 770 m, July 2, 2014, Z.W. Ge 3574
(HKAS 84412); same locality, K. Zhao 494 (HKAS 89157); Honghe Prefecture, Gejiu
City, Manghao town, September 25, 2011, Z.W. Ge 3112 (HKAS 70616).
Discussion. The distinctive characters of Chlorophyllum demangei are the discol-
ouration of basidiocarps when bruised, the ellipsoid basidiospores without a germ pore
and the pileal squamules composed of clavate to narrowly clavate elements. From the
examination of specimens newly collected from southern Yunnan in China, not far
away from the locality where the type of Lepiota demangei was collected, the distinctive
characters were found that fit the description of Lepiota demangei (Yang 2000) very
well. Thus, Lepiota demangei is transferred from Lepiota to Chlorophyllum.

Chlorophyllum globosum (Mossebo) Vellinga

Type. CAMEROON. Yaoundé, alt. 780 m, growing on humus in shade under tree,
1 November, 1996, D. C. Mossebo, D. C. Mossebo 98-1 kept in the Herbarium of
University of Yaoundé I (non vide).
Description. Basidiocarps medium to large-sized (Figure 3C). Pileus 5.0–20.0 cm
broad, ovoid to subglobose when young, expanding to parabolic, convex to broadly con-
vex with age; margin inflexed, with short, fine striations; surface covered with yellowish-
white (3A2) to yellowish-grey (4A2), greyish-yellow (4B3–4B4), brownish-orange (6C6)
to greyish-brown (5D3) squamules. The squamules remain intact at disc, but elsewhere
diffract with expansion and recede from pileus margin, displaying the white to yellowish-
white (2A2, 3A2, 4A2) felted or fibrillose background which turned pastel red to red
(9A4–6) when touched. Lamellae free and remote from stipe with obvious gutter, white
to orange-white (5A1–2) when young, turning pastel red to red (9A4–6) when touched,
pastel green to greyish-green (29A4, 29B4) when fully mature, crowded, ventricose and
narrow near pileal margin, crowded, up to 8 mm wide, with 1–2 series of lamellulae; edge
finely fimbriate, white to yellowish-grey (4A2). Stipe 8.5–28.0 × 1.0–3.1 cm, subcylin-
dric, tapering to apex, with bulb-like, 3.0–3.4 cm wide; glabrous, white to brownish-
orange (6C3–6), hollow, nearly stuffed, with an annulus about 1/3 away from the stipe
apex (Figure 3C); sometimes with distant white fibrillose at apex zone, turning pastel red
to red (9A4–6) when touched, with white rhizomorph connected to substrate. Context
thick, white in pileus and stipe, brownish-orange (6C3–6) at apex zone, paler to middle
zone and white downward base, discolouring pastel red to red (9A4–6) in both pileus and
stipe context when bruised, with mushroom odour. Taste mild. Spore print yellowish-
white (2A2) to pale yellow (2A3) to greyish-green (29D3–5, 29D5–6).
82 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

Basidiospores [40,2,2] (10.5)11.5–12.0 (12.5) × (8.0) 8.5–9.0 μm (mean 11.8 ±

0.4 × 8.7 ± 0.3 μm), Q = 1.3–1.4 (1.5), Qav = 1.4 ± 0.05, broadly amygdaliform in
side view, ovoid in frontal view, with truncate apex, smooth, greenish-white (28A2),
congophilous, dextrinoid, thick-walled (Figure 6A), becoming purplish-red (14A6–
14A7) in cresyl blue. Basidia 29–38 × 12.0–14.0 µm, clavate, hyaline, 4-spored, some-
times 2-spored, rarely 1-spored. Cheilocystidia 42–65 × (15.0)18.0–29.0 µm, clavate
occasionally with slightly long stalk, hyaline, sometimes with greyish-yellow vacuolar
pigments. Pleurocystidia absent. Pileipellis a hymenidermal layer made up of subcy-
lindrical hyphae (5.0–11.0 µm in diam.), slightly thick walled, with dull yellow (3B3)
vacuolar pigments; terminal elements with rounded or attenuate apex, mostly nar-
rowly clavate. Clamp connections not observed.
Distribution. Known from Cameroon, Nigeria and South Africa in Africa and
from China, India and Thailand in Asia.
Ecology. Saprotrophic, solitary to scattered, terrestrial.
Specimens examined. CHINA. Yunnan Province: between Yuanmou and Yon-
gren, 28 June 2006, Z.W. Ge 2006-1 (HKAS 52741). SOUTH AFRICA. 2229
BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163 MS, −22°16.27'S, 29°49.02'E, alt. ca. 580
m, 12 March 2014, Van Der Walt, R 957 (PREM 62147), growing in sandy soil
under Sickle bush (Dichrostachys cinerea) and Umbrella thorn trees (Vachellia tor-
tilis, formerly Acacia tortilis); 2229 BD Kamkusi, Farm Ludwigslust 163 MS, alt.
584m, growing in sandy soil under Sickle bush and Umbrella thorn trees, 7 Febru-
ary 2014, Van Der Walt, R 869 (PREM 62148); same locality, 9 March 2014, Van
Der Walt, R 936 (PREM 62149); 2229 BB Beit Bridge, Farm Matolege 133 MS,
alt. ca. 580m, shady area under blue thorn (Senegalia erubescens, formerly Acacia
erubescens), compost-rich, adjacent to lawn in hunting camp, 12 February 2014,
Van Der Walt, R 892 (PREM 62150); 2229 BB Beit Bridge, Farm Wimpsh 139
MS, alt. ca. 604 m, loam soil, amongst grass – adjacent to seasonally waterlogged
pan, 12 January 2014, Van Der Walt, R 821 (PREM 62151); same locality, 14
February 2014, Van Der Walt, R 900 (PREM 62152). THAILAND. Chiang Mai
Province: Mae Taeng District, Pongduad Village, 16°06'N, 99°43'E, 780–810 m, 16
June 2010, P. Sysouphanthong, P37 (MFLU100555); Chiang Rai Province: Muang
District, Ratjabhat University campus, 30 August 2012, P. Sysouphanthong, 2012-
21 (MFLU121815).
Discussion. Chlorophyllum globosum was originally described from Cameroon in
the genus Macrolepiota. It was said to differ from Macrolepiota odorata “by the globose
pileus and the ochraceous spore print” (Mossebo et al. 2000). In fact, the pileus does
not stay globose during maturation but becomes broadly convex (Figure 3C). Based
on the morphological characters such as the truncate basidiospores and its phyloge-
netic position, Vellinga (2002) transferred it to Chlorophyllum. The authors’ molecular
phylogeny confirms that C. globosum nests in Chlorophyllum close to C. molybdites, but
it differs from the latter in having a pale yellow spore print and clavate cheilocystidia.
This species was first described from Africa, but its presence in several Asian countries
is confirmed.
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 83

Key to the 17 species of Chlorophyllum included in the present study

1 Basidiocarps sequestrate (either secotioid or gasteroid), basidiospores statis-
mosporic......................................................................................................2
– Basidiocarps agaricoid, basidiospores ballistosporic......................................4
2 Basidiocarps secotioid, the margin of the pileus does not break free from the
stipe, hymenophore (gleba) labyrinthiform to sub-lamellate... C. agaricoides
– Basidiocarps gasteroid, stipe absent or rudimentary with a thick whitish my-
celial cord, gleba crossed by a columella and capillitium..............................3
3 Columella not fully developed; basidiospores 7–12 µm in diam.... C. arizonicum
– Columella well-developed, reaching halfway up the basidiocarp; basidi-
ospores 10–14(–15) × 10–13(–14) µm.................................. C. lusitanicum
4 Basidiocarps overall white; basidiospores without germ pore, with rounded
apex.............................................................................................................5
– Basidiocarps with distinct dark brown patches and squamules; basidiospores
with germ pore; apex truncated....................................................................9
5 Basidiospores subglobose to globose; cheilocystidia clavate to broadly clavate..... 6
– Basidiospores ellipsoid; cheilocystidia subcylindric to slightly fusiform........7
6 Spore print greyish-green, known from the palaeotropical regions.................
........................................................................................C. palaeotropicum
– Spore print white, known from temperate region in Northern China............
.........................................................................................C. sphaerosporum
7 Basidia 2-spored; widely distributed in Africa, America and Asia...................
....................................................................................................C. hortense
– Basidia 4-spored; known from palaeotropics................................................8
8 Pileus with obvious umbo, basidiospores measuring (7.5) 8.0–10.5 (12.5) ×
(5.0) 5.5–7.0 (7.5), known from Southeast Asia........................C. demangei
– Pileus without obvious umbo, basidiospores (7.5) 8.0–9.0 × (5.5) 6.0–
6.5(7.0) μm), known from South Africa.................................. C. africanum
9 Basidiospores less than 10 µm long; terminal elements of pileipellis cylindri-
cal, basidiocarps grown in bamboo forest in east Asia or under oaks of Florida
in south-eastern U.S.A...............................................................................10
– Basidiospores longer than 10 µm; terminal elements of pileipellis clavate to
narrowly clavate; basidiocarps in various habitats (meadows, pastures, lawns,
greenhouse, natural forests)........................................................................11
10 Cheilocystidia clavate, without apical excrescences; clamp connections present at
base of basidia and cheilocystidia; distributed in Asia........... C. neomastoideum
– Cheilocystidia clavate, some mucronate or with apical excrescences; clamp
connections absent at base of basidia and cheilocystidia; distributed in North
America.................................................................................C. subrhacodes
11 Spore print green; lamellae completely greenish with age......... C. molybdites
– Spore print white or off-white; lamellae whitish or brownish with age, never
totally green; sometimes a bluish-green shade is present near the stipe.......12
84 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

12 Cheilocystidia sphaeropedunculate to broadly clavate, often catenate........13

– Cheilocystidia narrowly clavate to clavate..................................................14
13 Pileus squamules of similar colour as background, olivaceous brown to grey-
ish-brown......................................................................................C. olivieri
– Pileus squamules brown (different shades) on white to cream background,
which is distinctly paler than squamules..................................... C. rhacodes
14 Clamp connections absent at base of basidia and cheilocystidia, cheilocystidia
clavate to fusiform; annulus relatively simple..................... C. nothorhacodes
– Clamp connections present at base of basidia and cheilocystidia, cheilocyst-
idia narrowly clavate to fusiform; annulus relatively simple or complex......15
15 Basidiocarps with abruptly to marginately bulbous stipe base; annulus rela-
tively simple, without a double crown, but with a tough brown patch on the
underside................................................................................. C. brunneum
– Basidiocarps with widened base of stipe, but not abruptly so; annulus com-
plex, with double crown.............................................................................16
16 Spore print yellowish-white to pale yellow to greyish-green, basidiospores
greenish-white, 8–11 × 5–6 (7) µm............................................ C. globosum
– Spore print white, basidiospores hyaline, 10–10.7 (11) × (7) 8–8.5 (9.5) µm......
..............................................................................................C. pseudoglobosum

Discussion
Monophyly and infrageneric classification of Chlorophyllum

In the present study, based on the extensive dataset comprising 75 % of all known
species, four gene regions were used to clarify the evolutionary relationships of Chlo-
rophyllum, in separate and multi-locus analyses. Based on molecular data, the genus
Chlorophyllum is monophyletic and the genus Clarkeinda appeared to be the likely
sister clade to Chlorophyllum (Figure 2). A six-section infrageneric classification of
Chlorophyllum was proposed based on the demarked morphological characters of well-
supported clades. This phylogeny also elucidated the systematic positions of previously
not included taxa, such as C. demangei, C. sphaerosporum and C. subrhacodes (Figure
2). In addition, two new species, C. africanum and C. palaeotropicum have been added.

Useful morphological characters in delimitation sections and species within Chlorophyllum

The morphological diversity within Chlorophyllum is mainly reflected in the general
appearance of basidiocarp, colour reaction of context when bruised, the structure of pi-
leus squamules, colour, shape and size of basidiospores and presence / absence of germ
pore, shape of cheilocystidia and presence /absence of clamp connections. Based on the
morphological characters chiefly used for species delimitation, morphological features
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 85

in Chlorophyllum appear to be fast evolving and prone to shifts and no synapomorphic

characteristics have been found to consistently separate the sections. This is probably
due to the fact that major evolutionary radiations might have occurred in a relatively
short time as it can be seen that most of the deep branches in the phylogenies are short.
Nevertheless, several character combinations are phylogenetically informative thus are
useful for delineating sections and species.

1. General habitus of basidiocarps. The sequestrate (secotioid / gasteroid) form of

basidiocarps is considered to be the result of selective pressures (Bruns et al. 1989)
and the loss of forcible spore discharge has been found in several predominantly
agaricoid genera within the family Agaricaceae (Gube and Dörfelt 2012), e.g. Aga-
ricus (Vellinga 2004), Macrolepiota (Lebel and Syme 2012) and Lepiota (Ge and
Smith 2013; Vidal et al. 2015). The transition from agaricoid to secotioid or gas-
teroid is thought to be irreversible (Hibbett 2004). The majority of Chlorophyllum
species is agaricoid and the secotioid / gasteroid habit is an apomorphy for the genus
Chlorophyllum and consequently can be used together with other characteristics to
distinguish clades. These phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the secotioid C.
agaricoides forms an independent clade, while the gasteroid C. arizonicum and C.
lusitanicum jointly form a clade that is sister to the agaricoid C. sphaerosporum (Fig-
ure 2). These results suggest that the gasteroid C. arizonicum and C. lusitanicum de-
rived from the same ancestor as C. sphaerosporum, while the secotioid C. agaricoides
may have evolved independently from a different agaricoid ancestor in the genus.
2. Colour reaction of the context when bruised. The context of Chlorophyllum spe-
cies shows reddening changes when exposed to the air, from light sienna, pink-
ish, pinkish cinnamon, reddish, dull brownish-orange to orange red (Crous et al.
2015a; Crous et al. 2015b; Ge and Yang 2006; Vellinga 2003a, 2003b). These
changes are difficult to quantify and have not been uniformly recorded according
to the same criteria and thus, cannot be used to distinguish sections. Nevertheless,
this character can be used in combination with other characters in delimitation
of species as this character varies amongst species: some species have a strong red-
dening reaction, some only weakly change pinkish, in others the context becomes
reddish first, then changes to brown.
3. Structure of pileus squamules. The squamules in Chlorophyllum are considered to
be a hymeniform layer in general, but can be further divided into three different
types: i. a palisade of hyphae with terminal clavate to subfusiform elements; ii. a
tightly packed hymeniderm of cylindrical and flexuous, narrowly clavate or narrowly
lageniform elements; and iii. a hymeniderm of loosely arranged clavate to subfusi-
form hyphae. These different types of structure of squamules can be used to delimit
sections in combination with other characters. For instance, the squamules of species
in section Chlorophyllum are of type i, those of section Rhacodium are of type ii, while
those of section Ellipsoidosporum and section Sphaerosporum are of type iii.
4. Colour, shape and size of basidiospores and presence/absence of germ pore. The
basidiospores of Chlorophyllum vary from subglobose to globose without germ pore,
86 Zai-Wei Ge et al. / MycoKeys 32: 65–90 (2018)

ellipsoid without germ pore and amygdaliform to ellipsoid with large germ pore
that causes the spore apex to be obviously truncated. The “ellipsoid without germ
pore” shape is a conspicuous synapomorphy for the Ellipsoidospororum clade. Simi-
larly, “subglobose to globose basidiospores without a germ pore” is characteristic of
the Sphaerospororum clade, while all species in section Parvispororum have relatively
small (less than 10 μm long) basidiospores with a truncate apex. Basidiospores can be
hyaline or olive to greenish and this character can be used to separate certain clades:
species within the Chlorophyllum clade and Endoptychorum clade may have olive to
greenish basidiospores, while the remaining clades have hyaline basidiospores.
5. Shape of cheilocystidia. Shape of cheilocystidia within Chlorophyllum rang-
es from subcylindrical, slightly fusiform, narrowly clavate, clavate, mucronate
clavate, broadly clavate to sphaeropedunculate. These changes are informative in
recognising certain, but not all sections. For example, the cheilocystidia of species
in section Ellipsoidospororum are narrowly clavate to subcylindrical, while in other
sections, the cheilocystidia are clavate to sphaeropedunculate.
6. Presence/absence clamp connections. Amongst the species studied in the present
study, most species have clamp connections with the exception of the following
five species: C. agaricoides, C. africanum, C. demangei, C. nothorhacodes and C.
subrhacodes. Since clamp connections occur in five different sections, this character
is not informative at section level.

Conclusions and future directions

This study constitutes the first multigene molecular phylogenetic analysis of the ge-
nus Chlorophyllum. Previous analyses included only a limited number of ITS/nrLSU
sequences. This study significantly increased the molecular sampling for this group
and included a wider array of taxa from a broader geographic range. Several previously
unsampled species were included (i.e. C. africanum, C. demangei, C. palaeotropicum,
C. sphaerosporum and C. subrhacodes). Based on these results, the genus Chlorophyl-
lum is monophyletic and composed of six well-supported monophyletic groups that
were classified as sections (Figure 2). Each section is also characterised by several mor-
phological features. Although the relationships amongst all sections are not yet fully
resolved, relationships amongst species within sections are. The majority of Chloro-
phyllum species occurs in disturbed or arid habitats in subtropical to tropical regions
and many species have a wide distribution over more than one continent. The role of
humans in some of these distribution patterns should be investigated.

Acknowledgments
We are very grateful to Drs Z.H. Chen and P. Zhang of Hunan Normal University and
Drs G. Wu, K. Zhao and Q. Zhao of Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB), Chinese
 A multi-gene phylogeny of Chlorophyllum (Agaricaceae, Basidiomycota): new species... 87

Academy of Sciences for providing collections. We would like to thank Dr T.Z. Wei of
the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences for sending us specimens
on loan and Ms Shu Yao for assistance with lab work. This study was supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31461143031 and 31670024).

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Supplementary material 1
Figure S1. Maximum Likelihood tree showing the monophyly of Chlorophyllum
inferred from the rpb2 data set
Authors: Zai-Wei Ge, Adriaana Jacobs, Else C. Vellinga, Phongeun Sysouphanthong,
Retha van der Walt, Carmine Lavorato, Yi-Feng An, Zhu L. Yang
Data type: molecular data
Explanation note: Bootstrap values (>50) are indicated along nodes. The clade where
Chlorophyllum species are nested is highlighted in grey.
Copyright notice: This dataset is made available under the Open Database License
(http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/). The Open Database License
(ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and
use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the
original source and author(s) are credited.
Link: https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.32.23831.suppl1