Course Title: Differential Calculus

The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Let 𝑓 be a continuous function on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and let W be any number between 𝑓(𝑎) and
𝑓(𝑏), then, there exist at least one number 𝐶 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑊. Consider the illustration
below.

Remarks:

i. If the function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) differ in
sign, then the IVT guarantees the existence of at least one zero of 𝑓 in the closed interval. i.e
at 𝐶, 𝑓(𝐶) = 0 where 𝐶 can be one or many values.
ii. A function that is not continuous does not necessarily possess the IVT property.

Example 5.1: Use the IVT to show that the polynomial function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 has a zero in the
interval [0,1].

Solution:
 𝑓 (𝑎 ) = 𝑓 (0) = (0)2 + 2(0) − 1 = −1 < 0

And
𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑓 (1) = (1)2 + 2(1) − 1 = 2 > 0

Since 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(1) differs in sign, then by IVT, there exist at least one number 𝐶, 0 < 𝐶 < 1 such that
𝑓(𝐶) = 0. Thus, 𝑓 (𝐶 ) = 𝐶 2 + 2 − 1 = 0. We can solve for the value of C and find that it will be within
the interval [0,1].

Task: Use the IVT to show that polynomial the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 has a zero in the interval [−1,2]
and hence solve for the value of 𝐶.

Differentiation of Functions of a Single Variable

Notations for differentiation.

When we differentiate a function, we get what we call the derivative or the gradient function. As
it is known that various letters can be used to denote a function, then notation for the derivative
depends with letter used to denote the differentiated function.

The functions are differentiated with respect to the independent variable.

Derivatives can be done all the way from the first to the nth derivative. For instance, consider the
following table showing notations for derivatives for different functions

Fun First Derivative 2nd Derivative 3rd Derivative

ctio
n
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦 ′ 𝑑 2 𝑦 Δ2 𝑦 ′′ 2 𝑑 3 𝑦 Δ3 𝑦 ′′′ 3
, , 𝑦 , ∆𝑥 [ 𝑦 ] , , 𝑦 , ∆ 𝑥 [𝑦 ] , , 𝑦 , ∆ 𝑥 [𝑦 ]
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) Δ𝑓(𝑥) ′ 𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑥) Δ2 𝑓(𝑥) ′′ 2 𝑑 3 𝑓(𝑥) Δ3 𝑓(𝑥) ′′′ 3
, , 𝑓 , ∆𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)] , , 𝑓 , ∆ 𝑥 [ 𝑓(𝑥) ] , , 𝑓 , ∆ 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 3
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥) Δ𝑔(𝑥) ′ 𝑑 2 𝑔(𝑥) Δ2 𝑔(𝑥) ′′ 2 𝑑 3 𝑔(𝑥) Δ3 𝑔(𝑥) ′′′ 3
, , 𝑔 , ∆𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] , , 𝑔 , ∆ 𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] , , 𝑔 , ∆ 𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 3

ℎ(𝑥) 𝑑ℎ(𝑥) Δℎ(𝑥) ′ 𝑑 2 ℎ(𝑥) Δ2 ℎ(𝑥) ′′ 2 𝑑 3 ℎ(𝑥) Δ3 ℎ(𝑥) ′′′ 3

, , ℎ , ∆𝑥 [ℎ(𝑥)] , , ℎ , ∆ 𝑥 [ ℎ(𝑥) ] , , ℎ , ∆ 𝑥 [ℎ(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 ∆𝑥 3
Note: The derivatives on the table are with respect to 𝑥 since it the independent variable on the
functions.

Differentiation from the First Principle of Differential Calculus

Consider the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

From the graph above, we let ∆𝑥 = ℎ. The gradient of the secant line is given by,

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 Δ𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= = = =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 Δ𝑥 ℎ (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑥 ℎ

Now, as point Q moves closer to P, ℎ → 0 and the gradient PQ of the secant approaches the
gradient of the curve.

At the limit, the gradient of the secant becomes equal to the gradient of the curve at P. i.e

∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

Therefore, given the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then, the derivative of the function with respect to x by
the first principle of differential calculus is given by

𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim .
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
The above formula is applied to get the first derivative of a given function.

Examples 5.1: Find the gradient function from the first principle

a. 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 3
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
2(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3 − (2𝑥 − 3) 2𝑥 + 2ℎ − 3 − 2𝑥 + 3
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
2ℎ
= lim = lim 2 = 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

b. 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 5
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ)3 + 5 − (𝑥 3 + 5)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 + 5 − 𝑥 3 − 5
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 )
= lim = lim 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 = 3𝑥 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

The gradient at 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑦
= 3(2)2 = 12.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2
c. 𝑦 = √𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
= lim = lim = lim ×
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
𝑥+ℎ−𝑥 1 1 1
= lim = lim = = .
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) ℎ→0 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) √𝑥 + 0 + √ 𝑥 2 √𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Exercise 5.1: Evaluate 𝑑𝑥 using the first principle of differential calculus.

a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
 b. 𝑦 = √2𝑥
1
c. 𝑦 =
√𝑥

d. 𝑦 = √5𝑥
1
e. 𝑦 =
√5𝑥
2
f. 𝑦 = 𝑥

g. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 3.

Differentiation Rules

1. The Constant Rule

The derivative of a constant function is zero i.e if 𝑦 = 𝐶 where 𝐶 is a real number, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐶
= =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Proof:

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐶, therefore 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝐶, thus from the first principle formulae,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐶 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐶−𝐶 0

= = lim = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

Hence proved.

2. The Constant Multiple Rule

If 𝑓 is a differentiable function and 𝐶 is a real number, then 𝐶𝑓(𝑥) is also differentiable and

𝑑 [𝐶𝑓(𝑥 )]
= 𝐶𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

Proof: We proof from the first principle as;

𝑑[𝐶𝑓(𝑥)] 𝐶𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝐶𝑓(𝑥) 𝐶 [𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim = lim = 𝐶 lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝐶𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )

Hence proved.
Similarly, the differential

1
𝑑[ 𝑓(𝑥)] 1
𝐶
= 𝐶𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ). (proof as an exercise)
𝑑𝑥 𝐶

3. The Sum and Difference Rule

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥 )] ± [𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔′ (𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Proof: We still proof from the first principle;

𝑑
[𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥
[𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
[𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] [𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
= lim [ + ]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
[𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)] [𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
= lim [ ] + lim [ ] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) + 𝑔 ′ (𝑥 ).
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

Hence proved. Proof for difference rule following the same procedure.

Derivative of Sine and Cosine Functions.

𝑑
a. [sin 𝑥 ] = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Proof: We proof from the first principle

Note: sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 and cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵.
Now,

𝑑 sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
[sin 𝑥 ] = lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ − sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin ℎ − sin 𝑥[1 − cos ℎ]
= lim [ ] = lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 sin ℎ sin 𝑥[1 − cos ℎ] sin ℎ 1 − cos ℎ
= lim − lim = cos 𝑥 lim − sin 𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= cos 𝑥 (1) − sin 𝑥 (0) = cos 𝑥
Hence proved.

𝑑
b. [cos 𝑥 ] = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Proof:

𝑑 cos(𝑥 + ℎ) − cos 𝑥
[cos 𝑥 ] = lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 cos ℎ − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ − cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥[cos ℎ − 1] −sin 𝑥 sin ℎ
= lim [ ] = lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥[cos ℎ − 1] sin 𝑥 sin ℎ cos ℎ − 1 sin ℎ
= lim − lim = cos 𝑥 lim − sin 𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= cos 𝑥 (0) − sin 𝑥 (1) = −sin 𝑥

Hence proved.

𝑑 𝑑
Exercise 5.2: Proof that 𝑑𝑥 [− cos 𝑥 ] = sin 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 [−sin 𝑥 ] = −cos 𝑥

Techniques of Differentiation

i. The Power Rule Technique

If 𝑛 is a rational number, then the function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 is differentiable and

𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
= = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Examples 5.2: evaluate the first derivatives of the following functions by power rule technique

1. 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
= (4 × 1)𝑥 4−1 + (3 × 2)𝑥 3−1 − (2 × 4)𝑥 2−1 − (1 × 5)𝑥 1−1 + (0 × 4)𝑥 0−1
𝑑𝑥
= 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 5
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
= (3 × 1)𝑥 3−1 + (2 × 2)𝑥 2−1 − (1 × 8)𝑥 −1 + (0 × 7)𝑥 0−1 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8
𝑑𝑥

Exercise 5.3: Find the gradient function of the following functions

a. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 11
1 4 5
b. 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥 2 − 6 𝑥 + 4

c. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
d. 𝑦 = −𝑥 −4 + 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 −2 − 6𝑥 + 10
5 2
e. 𝑦 = − 4 𝑥 4 + 3 𝑥 −3 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥.