S1 IEEE Lecture Notes 2024 Scheme Corrected

GXEST104 IEEE (2024 scheme) Lecture Notes by T.G.
Sanish Kumar, GEC Thrissur
GXEST104
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
MODULE 1: Elementary concepts of DC electric circuits:
Current and Voltage Division Rule - Relative potential - Capacitors & Inductors: V-I relations and
Energy stored. Ohms Law and Kirchhoff's laws - numerical problems. Star-delta conversion
(resistive networks only - derivation not required) - numerical problems.
Analysis of DC Electric circuits: Mesh current method – matrix representation - Solution of
network equations. Node voltage methods-matrix representation-solution of network equations by
matrix methods - numerical problems.
Elementary Concepts of Magnetic circuits: Magnetic Circuits: Basic Terminology: MMF, field
strength, flux density, reluctance - Comparison between electric and magnetic circuits - Series and
parallel magnetic circuits with composite materials (numerical problems not needed)
MODULE 2:
Electromagnetic Induction: Faraday's laws, Lenz's law- statically induced and dynamically
induced emf – Self-inductance and mutual inductance, coefficient of coupling (numerical problems
not needed)
Alternating Current fundamentals: Generation of alternating voltages - Representation of
sinusoidal waveforms: frequency, period, average value, RMS value and form factor - numerical
problems AC Circuits: Phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities, Trigonometric, Rectangular,
Polar and complex forms.
Analysis of simple AC circuits: Purely resistive, inductive & capacitive circuits; Inductive and
capacitive reactance, concept of impedance - numerical problems. RL, RC and RLC series circuits-
power factor, active, reactive and apparent power. Simple numerical problems.
Three phase AC systems: Generation of three phase voltages, advantages of three phase systems,
star and delta connections (balanced only), relation between line and phase voltages, line and phase
currents- numerical problems
REFERENCE BOOKS
1 Basic Electrical Engineering D P Kothari and I J Nagrath Tata McGraw Hill
2 Electric Circuits Nilsson Riedel Pearson
3 Fundamentals of Electrical Ashfaq Husain Haroon Dhanpat Rain & Co.
Engineering Ashfaq
4 Engineering Network Analysis Gopal G. Bhise Umesh Publications
and Filger Design
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GXEST104 IEEE (2024 scheme) Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, GEC Thrissur
Course Assessment Method (CIE: 40 marks, ESE: 60 marks)

Continuous Internal Evaluation Marks (CIE):
Attendance Assignment/ Internal Examination-1 Internal Examination- Total
Microproject (Written) 2 (Written)
5 15 10 10 40
End Semester Examination Marks (ESE)
In Part A, all questions need to be answered and in Part B, each student can choose any one full
question out of two questions
Part A Part B Total
2 Questions from each Each question carries 9 marks. 60
module. Two questions will be given from each module, out of
Total of 8 Questions, each which 1 question should be answered.
carrying 3 marks Each question can have a maximum of 3 sub divisions.
(8 x 3 = 24 marks) (4 x 9 = 36 marks)
COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course students should be able to:
1 Apply fundamental concepts and circuit laws to solve simple DC/AC electric circuits
2 Classify series and parallel magnetic circuits
3 Analyse three phase AC systems
CO – PO MAPPING
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 2
CO2 2 2
CO3 3 2 2
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Elementary concepts of DC electric circuits:

Current and Voltage Division Rule - Relative potential - Capacitors & Inductors: V-I relations and
Energy stored. Ohms Law and Kirchhoff's laws - numerical problems. Star-delta conversion
(resistive networks only - derivation not required) - numerical problems.
NETWORKS
Network elements may be classified into four groups.
i) Active or passive
ii) Unilateral or bilateral
iii) Linear or nonlinear
iv) Lumped or distributed
ACTIVE & PASSIVE ELEMENT
Active Element: An active element is capable of delivering an average power greater than zero to
some external device over an infinite time interval. For example, ideal independent voltage or current
sources are active elements. (An element which is capable of increasing the level of signal energy is
called active element; hence transistor, FET, OP-Amps are also treated as active element)
Passive Element: A passive element cannot supply average power that is greater than zero over an
infinite time interval. Resistors, capacitors and inductors fall into this category.
BILATERAL & UNILATERAL ELEMENT

Bilateral element: In the bilateral element, the voltage-current relation is the same for current flowing
in either direction. Eg:- Resistance, inductance & capacitance.
Unilateral element: A unilateral element has different relations between voltage and current for the
two possible directions of current. Eg:- Diode.
LINEAR & NON-LINEAR ELEMENT

Linear element: An element is linear if its parameter (R, L or C) does not change with change in
applied voltage or current. A linear element is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e.,
the principle of homogeneity and additivity. In a linear element, the current and voltage relationships
is represented by a linear equation either algebraic, differential or integral type.
Nonlinear element: An element is non-linear if it parameter (R, L or C) change with change in
voltage or current. It does not satisfy the principle of superposition. Eg:- thermistor (temperature
dependent resistor), LDR (light dependent resistor)
CAPACITOR
Capacitance is the property of a circuit element to store electric charge. Two conductors separated
from each other by an insulating material form a capacitor. The insulating material is called the
dielectric.
If Q is the charge stored by the capacitor in coulombs, V is the applied voltage, then
Q  CV or
Q
C
V
Unit of capacitance is farad (F).
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ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR

When an uncharged capacitor is connected to a DC supply, the voltage across it rises gradually and
its starts storing energy. During this process it draws a current from the supply. This current is called
the charging current. It changes with time. When the voltage across the capacitor rises to fully supply
voltage, it is said to be fully charged. In this condition, no further current is drawn from the supply.
V 0 V
Since the voltages rises from zero to V volts, average value of the voltage = 
2 2
Energy supplied to charge the capacitor, E  voltage x current x time
V Q 1 1 1
E    t  QV   CV V  CV 2
2 t 2 2 2
v - i relationship in a capacitance is given by
dv
i C
dt
INDUCTANCE
Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit that resists changes in current. The SI unit of
inductance is henry (H). It is difficult to change the current flowing in a circuit with a large inductance
compared to a circuit with a smaller inductance. It stores energy in a magnetic field when current
flows through it.
v – i relationship in an inductance is given by
di
vL
dt
ENERGY STORED IN INDUCTOR
Consider an inductor of inductance L henry in which the current rises uniformly from zero to I in
time t seconds.
I 0 I
Average current = 
2 2
I
Rate of change of current =
t
LI
Voltage induced =
t
Energy stored in the magnetic field of inductor = voltage x average current x time
LI I 1
E    t  LI 2
t 2 2
NETWORK & CIRCUIT

The interconnection of two or more circuit elements (resistor, inductor, capacitor, voltage source,
current source) connected in any manner is called a network.
If the network contains at least one closed path, it is called an electric circuit.
Every circuit is a network, but all networks are not circuits.
INDEPENDENT SOURCES
An ideal independent voltage/current source can deliver any amount of current for any duration at a
specified constant voltage.
For an ideal voltage source, voltage is constant for all values of current.
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For an ideal current source, current is constant for all values of voltage.
Passive Element: Resistance cannot deliver energy; inductance and capacitance can deliver energy
temporarily; but not for indefinite time.
Node: A node is a junction where two or more network elements are connected together.
Branch: An element or number of elements connected between two nodes constitute a branch.
Electrical network: An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical elements.
Electrical circuit: Electric circuit is an electrical network with atleast one closed path.
All circuits are networks; but, all networks are not circuits.
Loop: A loop is any closed part of the circuit.
Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other loops.
All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes.
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the current through any conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends. It is assumed that the physical conditions of the conductor do not
change. That is, temperature, length and cross-sectional area of the conductor are unchanged.
V
I
R
Where R is the resistance of the conductor in ohms, V = voltage between the two ends of the
conductor in volts and I = current through the conductor in amperes
Resistance is the electrical property of a material which opposes the current.
KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed path in a circuit is
always zero at all instants of time.
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Our sign convention for applying signs to the voltage polarities in our KVL equations will be as
follows:
While traversing the loop, if the positive terminal is encountered before the negative terminal, the
voltage is interpreted as positive in the KVL equation. If the negative terminal is encountered first,
the voltage is interpreted as negative in the KVL equation. We use this sign convention for
convenience.
In the above circuit,
If we travel in clock-wise direction,
V  IR1  IR2  IR3  IR4  0
Now consider the following circuit.
-2 + 1 + 2 + 3 – 4 = 0V
Find the voltage between the terminals A & B in figure (1) and figure (2).
Ans:
In figure (1), calculating the voltage from A to B (moving from A to B),
VAB  2 1  5  3V
In figure (2), there is no voltage drop across 2Ω resistor since there is no current. Potential at both
ends of the 2Ω resistor is zero.
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Find the voltage between the terminals A & B in figure (1), figure (2), figure (3) and figure (4).
In figure (1), VAB  6V (no voltage drop across 1Ω resistance as there is no current)
In figure (2), VAB  3  6  9V
In figure (3), VAB  11  6  5V
In figure (4), VAB  3  11  6  2V
VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE
V  R1
VR1 
R1  R2  R3
V  R2
VR 2 
R1  R2  R3
V  R3
VR 3 
R1  R2  R3
Voltage across any resistor is equal to the ratio of that resistance to the total resistance multiplied by
the source voltage.
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

Kirchoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of all the currents entering a node is always
zero at all instants of time.
Note: If entering currents are assigned positive sign, leaving currents will be given negative sign.
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Note: KCL is applicable for ac circuits also, if the currents are instantaneous values.
In the example below,
IT  I1  I 2  I 3  0
IT  I1  I 2  I3
In the example below,
I1  I5  I 2  I 3  I 4  0
I1  I5  I 2  I3  I 4
CURRENT DIVISION RULE
I  R1 R2 V V
V ; I1  ; I 2 
R1  R2 R1 R2
I  R2
I1 
R1  R2
I  R1
I2 
R1  R2
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Current in any branch is equal to the ratio of the other branch resistance to the total resistance,
multiplied by the total current in the circuit.
SERIES & PARALLEL CONNECTION

SERIES PARALLEL
V  VR1  VR 2  VR3
I  I1  I 2  I3
Current through each resistance is I.
V  IR1  IR2  IR3 Voltage across each resistance is V.
V  I ( R1  R2  R3 ) V V V V
  
V R e q R1 R2 R3
 R1  R2  R3
I 1 1 1 1
  
R e q  R1  R2  R3 R e q R1 R2 R3
If 2 resistances are in series, If 2 resistances are in parallel,
R e q  R1  R2 R1  R2
Req 
R1  R2
Determine the current in all resistors in the circuit.
Ans:
I1  I 2  I 3  50
V V V
   50
2 1 5
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1.7V  50
V  29.41V
V
I1   14.7 A
2
V
I 2   29.41A
1
V
I 3   5.88 A
5
Ans:
Total current, I = 10 + 20 - 5 = 25A
I1  I 2  I 3  25
V V V
   25
2 1 5
1.7V  25
V  14.7V
V
I1   7.35 A
2
V
I 2   14.7 A
1
V
I 3   2.94 A
5
Determine the currents in each branch.
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Ans:
Applying KVL in loop 1
4  2 I1  4( I1  I 2 )  0
6 I1  4 I 2  4 --- (1)
2  I 2  4( I1  I 2 )  0
4 I1  5I 2  2 --- (2)
I1  0.857 A I 2  0.286 A
Determine the currents in each branch.
Ans:
4  2 I1  2( I1  I 2 )  2  0
4 I1  2 I 2  2 --- (1)
4  I 2  2( I1  I 2 )  2  0
2 I1  3I 2  2 --- (2)
I1  0.25 A I 2  0.5 A
Find the voltage V in the circuit shown in figure below.
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Ans:-
1  I 1 (I 1)1  0
1 I  I 1  0
2I  0
I 0
V  (I 1) 1  1V
Find the voltage between points A and B.
Ans:-
Using KVL in loop 1,
5  (3  2)I1  0
5
I1   1A
23
16  (3  5)I2  0
16
I2   2A
35
Writing KVL equation for the path from A to B,
V AB   3 I1  4  3 I 2   3  1  4  3  2   1V
Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B in figure (1) and (2).
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Ans:-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In figure (1),      
R e q R1 R2 R3 3 6 9
R e q  1.636
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In figure (2),      
R e q R1 R2 R3 3 3 3
R e q  1
Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.
Ans:- 0 Ω
Ans: I1 = 0A, I2 = 0A, I3 = 5A
Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B in figure (a) and (b).
Ans:- (a) 1.5Ω (b) Zero
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Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.
Ans:- 2.5Ω
Find the current through 20Ω resistance and also find the current drawn from the source.
Ans:-
50
I2   2.5 A
20
50 50 50
I    10 A
10 20 20
Using network reduction technique, find the voltage V x.
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Ans:
The equivalent circuit using network reduction technique is
I1  I 2  I 3  1
V V V
  1
6 9 13
0.3547V  1
V  2.819V
Using network reduction technique, find the voltage V x.
5
I  0.625 A
8
V  0.625  2  1.25V
Page 15 of 111
Find the equivalent resistance across AB.
(APJAKTU July 2023)

Ans:-
Page 16 of 111
Find the equivalent resistance between A and B in figure (a), (b) and (c).
Ans:- (a) 3Ω, (b) 3Ω, (c) 1Ω
Determine the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit below.
Ans:- I1 = 0.15A, I2 = 0.15A, I3 = 0.3A
Determine the current drawn from the supply.
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In Loop L1,
2( I  I1 )  8( I  I1  I 2 )  50  0
10 I  10 I1  8I 2  50 --- (1)
In Loop L2,
5I1  3I 2  2( I  I1 )  0
2 I  7 I1  3I 2  0 --- (2)
In Loop L3,
5( I1  I 2 )  8( I  I1  I 2 )  3I 2  0
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8I  13I1  16 I 2  0 --- (3)

I  10.63 A; I1  3.94 A; I 2  2.11A
Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in figure and hence find the total power drawn
from a 230V supply.
Ans: -
Req = 10Ω, I = 23A, P = 5290W
Find the current I.
Ans:-
In loop L1,
12  4( I  3  I1 )  3I  0
7 I  4 I1  24
In loop L1,
24  8I1  4(3  I1 )  4( I  3  I1 )  0
4 I  16I1  48
I  2 A; I1  2.5 A
Find the current I.
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Ans:- I = 4A
Find Req for the network shown in figure at points (a) AB (b) BC (c) CA.
Ans:- (a) 50Ω (b) 18Ω (c) 48Ω
For the circuit shown in figure, find (a) R and (b) the power supplied by the 125V source.
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STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMATION
DELTA to STAR TRANSFORMATION STAR to DELTA TRANSFORMATION

R AB RCA RA RB  RB RC  RC RA
RA  RAB 
R AB  RBC  RCA RC
RBC RAB R A RB  RB RC  RC RA
RB  RBC 
R AB  RBC  RCA RA
RCA RBC RA RB  RB RC  RC RA
RC  RCA 
RAB  RBC  RCA RB
Use star-delta transformation, to find the equivalent resistance between C & D. Also, find the
current from the source.
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R AB RCA 53
RA    1.5
R AB  RBC  RCA 5  3  2
RBC RAB 3 2
RB    0.6
R AB  RBC  RCA 5  3  2
RCA RBC 5 2
RC    1
R AB  RBC  RCA 5  3  2
6.5  8.6
Req  1   4.7
6.5  8.6
50
Current drawn from the supply I   10.64 A
4.7
For the network shown in figure, determine the equivalent delta network using delta – star and star-
delta transformations and hence find currents I1, I2 and I3.
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Ans: -
Using delta to star transformation,
10 20
I1    10 A
3 3
10 10
I2    0
3 3
10 20
I3     10 A
3 3
Using delta-star transformation, find the voltage VBD.
Ans:
R AB RCA 1 2
RA    0.25
R AB  RBC  RCA 1  2  5
RBC RAB 1 5
RB    0.625
R AB  RBC  RCA 1  2  5
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RCA RBC 5 2
RC    1.25
R AB  RBC  RCA 1  2  5
4
Current drawn from source, I   0.6586 A
4.625  7.25
3  0.25 
4.625  7.25
7.25
Current through 4Ω resistance, I 4    0.6586  0.402 A
4.625  7.25
VBD  4  I 4   4  0.402  1.608V
Using star-delt transformation, determine the equivalent resistance R AB.
(APJAKTU December 2019)

Ans:
8 4
RC   1.778
468
6 4
RD   1.333
468
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68
RE   2.667
468
9.333  6.667
Req  4  1.778   9.667
9.333  6.667
Find the source current I in the below figure using star-delta transformation.

Ans:
Using delta to star transformation,
2 2
Star Resistance, RA   0.667
222
20
Current drawn from source, I   11A
1.667  3.667
0.667 
1.667  3.667
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PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVES
A human body acts as a conductor of current. The arms A, legs L, neck N and trunk T (chest and
abdomen) each have a characteristic resistance. Figure (a) shows a human body with a voltage
difference between one arm and one leg and figure (b) shows a simplified model of the human body
with a voltage difference between one and one leg.
Physiological reactions to current levels in humans

Physiological reaction Current
Barely perceptible 3 – 5 mA
Extreme pain 35 – 50 mA
Muscle paralysis 50 – 70 mA
Heart stoppage 500 mA
The resistance of human body is 1000-100,000Ω depending on various conditions such as the
dryness of the skin.
Generation in Kerala - Installed capacity - 3514.81MW (2022 – 23)

Generating voltages – 11kV
Transmission voltages – 400kV, 220kV, 110kV, 66kV, 33kV
Installed Capacity of major generating stations in Kerala:
Station Capacity Type
Idukki 780MW Hydroelecric
Sabarigiri 340MW Hydroelecric
Kuttiadi 225MW Hydroelecric
Lower Periyar 180MW Hydroelecric
Brahmapuram 64MW Diesel Power Plant
Kanjikode 2MW Wind
Pothencode 2MW Solar
CIAL 29MW Solar
Page 26 of 111
TARIFF – KSEB, KERALA

Monthly Fixed Charge
Energy
Consumption
Rs./Consumer /Month Charge
Charge
Single Three
Phase Phase
0-40 Nil 1.50
0-50 40 100 3.25
51-100 65 140 4.05
101-150 85 170 5.10
151-200 120 180 6.95
201-250 130 200 8.20
0-300 150 205 6.40
0-350 175 210 7.25
0-400 200 210 7.60
0-500 230 235 7.90
Above 500 260 260 8.80
POWER CONSUMPTION OF VARIOUS HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES

32 Inch LED TV 20 - 60W
LED bulb (100W equivalent) 23W
Iron Box 1000W
Washing machine Automatic 500W
Ceiling fan 50W
Well pump (1/3 to 1 HP) 480 to 1200W
Laptop 20 – 50W
Personal Computer 80 – 150W
Refrigerator 1200 watt-hours / day
Page 27 of 111
Analysis of DC Electric circuits: Mesh current method – matrix representation - Solution of

network equations. Node voltage methods-matrix representation-solution of network equations by
matrix methods - numerical problems.
MESH ANALYSIS
Mesh and nodal analysis are two basic important techniques used in finding solution for a network.
Loop: A loop is any closed part of the circuit.
Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into other loops.
All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes.
Let us consider the following electric circuit.
There are two meshes in the network. Let us assume I1 and I2 be the mesh currents. Now apply KVL
in terms of I1 and I2 in mesh 1 and mesh 2.
In mesh 1,
I1R1  ( I1  I 2 ) R2  Vs
I1 ( R1  R2 )  I 2 R2  Vs
In mesh 2,
I 2 ( R3  R4 )  ( I 2  I1 ) R2  0
 I1R2  I 2 ( R2  R3  R4 )  0
Writing the equations in matrix form,
 R1  R2  R2   I1  Vs 
 R 
 2 R2  R3  R4   I 2   0 
By solving the above equations, we can find the currents I1 and I2.
Using mesh analysis, find V.
Ans:
In mesh 1,
I1 1  ( I1  I 2 )  1  6
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2 I1  I 2  6
In mesh 2,
I 2  ( I 2  I1 )  3
 I1  2 I 2  3
Solving the equations,
I1  5 A I2  4 A
Hence, V  ( I1  I 2 ) 1  1V
Using mesh analysis, find current through 2Ω resistance.
Ans:
In mesh 1,
6I1  ( I1  I 2 ) 1  10
7 I1  I 2  10 --- (1)
In mesh 2,
2 I 2  3( I 2  I3 )  ( I 2  I1 )  0
 I1  6 I 2  3I 3  0 --- (2)
In mesh 3,
10 I 3  3( I3  I 2 )  20
3I 2  13I 3  0 --- (3)
I1  1.34 A I 2  0.617 A I3  1.68 A
Current through 2Ω resistance = -0.617A
Using mesh analysis, find the voltage VBD.
Ans:
Page 29 of 111
In mesh 1,
3I1  ( I1  I 2 )  4( I1  I 3 )  4
8I1  I 2  4 I 3  4 --- (1)
In mesh 2,
2 I 2  5( I 2  I3 )  ( I 2  I1 )  0
 I1  8I 2  5I 3  0 --- (2)
In mesh 3,
6 I 3  5( I 3  I 2 )  4( I 3  I1 )  0
4 I1  5I 2  15I 3  0 --- (3)
I1  0.6586 A I 2  0.2426 A I 3  0.2565 A
VBD  4( I1  I 3 )  4  (0.6586  0.2565)  1.608V
MESH ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

The equations for a 3-mesh network can be expressed in the matrix form as
 R11  R12  R13   I1   Vs1 
 R    
 21 R22  R23   I 2    Vs 2 
  R31  R32 R33   I 3   Vs 3 
R11 = Sum of all resistances in mesh 1
R12 = Resistance common to mesh 1 and mesh 2 (its sign is positive if both mesh currents flow in
same direction and sign is negative if both mesh currents flow in opposite directions)
R22 = Sum of all resistances in mesh 2
R21 = Resistance common to mesh 2 and mesh 1 (its sign is positive if both mesh currents flow in
same direction and sign is negative if both mesh currents flow in opposite directions)
Note: If all the mesh currents are clockwise (or anti-clockwise), all the diagonal elements will be
positive and all the off-diagonal elements will be negative.
VS1 = Sum of all the independents sources present in mesh 1 (The positive sign is used if mesh
current flows from – to + through the voltage source.)
For the network shown in figure below,
 R1  R2  R2  R1   I1  Vs1  Vs 2 
 R R2  R3  R3    I   V  V 
 2   2   s3 s2 
  R1  R3 R1  R3  R4   I 3   Vs 4 
Page 30 of 111
Using mesh analysis by inspection, find current through 5Ω resistance.
Ans:
 20 10 10   I1   160 
 10 25 5    I 2    120 

 10 5 18   I 3   20 
I1  14.5 A I2  3 A I3  10 A
I 5  I 3  I 2  10  3  7 A
Calculate the current in each branch of the following circuit using mesh analysis.
(APJAKTU July 2021)
NODAL ANALYSIS
In this method, one of the independent nodes is taken as reference node and the voltages of the
remaining independent nodes are assumed. Equations are written as per Kirchoff’s current law. The
solution of these equations gives node voltages. From the values of node voltages, branch currents
are calculated.
Node is meeting point of 2 or more branches. But, usually node is taken as the meeting point of 3 or
more branches.
Consider the following circuit. The circuit has 3 independent nodes A, B and C. Let C be the reference
node. Let VA and VB be the potential of A and B with respect to reference node.
Page 31 of 111
Applying KCL at node A,

VA  V1 VA VA  VB
  0
R1 R2 R3
Applying KCL at node B,
VB  V2 VB VB  VA
  0
R5 R4 R3
By solving the two equations, we can determine V A and VB.
Using nodal analysis, find current through 2Ω resistance.
Ans:-
VA  10 VA VA  VB
  0
6 1 2
1 1 V 10
VA   1    B 
6 2 2 6
1.667VA  0.5VB  1.667 --- (1)
VB  20 VB VB  V A
  0
10 3 2
V  1 1 1  20
 A  VB     
2  10 3 2  10
0.5VA  0.933VB  2 --- (2)
Page 32 of 111
VA  1.957V VB  3.192V
VA  VB 1.957  3.192
I   0.617 A
2 2
Using nodal analysis, find voltage across 5Ω resistance.
Ans:-
VA  VB VA  VC
 1
5 1
1.2VA  0.2VB  VC  1 --- (1)
VB VB  V A
  2
4 5
0.2VA  0.45VB  2 --- (2)
Applying KCL at node C,
VC  V A
 22
1
VC  VA  4 --- (3)
VA  37V VB  12V VC  41V
Vx  VA  VB  37  12  25V
Using nodal analysis, find the voltage VBD.
Ans:
Take D as reference.
Page 33 of 111

VA  4 VA  VB VA  VC
  0
3 1 2
1.833VA  VB  0.5VC  1.333 --- (1)
VB VB  VA VB  VC
  0
4 1 5
VA  1.45VB  0.2VC  0 --- (2)
Applying KCL at node C,
VC VC  VA VC  VB
  0
6 2 5
0.5VA  0.2VB  0.867VC  0 --- (3)
VA  2.024V VB  1.608V VC  1.538V
VBD = VB = 1.608V
NODAL ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

The equations for a 3-node network can be expressed in the matrix form as
 G11 G12 G13  V1    I s1 
 G G22 G23  V2     I s 2 
 21    
 G31 G32 G33  V3    I s 3 
G11 = Sum of all the conductances connected to node 1
G12 = Conductance between node 1 and node 2
Note: Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance
Note: All the diagonal elements will be positive and all the off-diagonal elements will be negative.
IS1 = Sum of currents of all the independents current sources connected to node 1 (The positive sign
is used if the current flows towards the node)
For the network shown in figure below,
1 1 1 1 
      I 
 R1 R4 R1 R4 
VA   s1 
 1 1 1 1 1     Vs 
       VB 
 R1 R1 R2 R3 R3     R2 
 VC   
1 1 1 1    I s 2 
    
 R4 R3 R3 R4 
Page 34 of 111
Using nodal analysis, find voltage VA, VB and VC by inspection.
Ans:-
 6 2 0  VA   6 
 2 6 2   V    0 
   B  
 0 2 6  VC   4 
VA  1.238V VB  0.714V VC  0.905V
For the network shown in figure, determine the determine the currents I1, I2 and I3 using i) mesh
analysis by inspection and ii) node analysis by inspection.
Ans: -
i) Mesh Analysis by inspection
Let IA, IB and IC be the mesh currents.
 28 2 24   I A  100 
 2 28 24    I B   100 

 24 24 72   I C   0 
I A  10 A I B  10 A IC  6.67 A
I1  I A  10 A
I2  IB  I A  0
I3   I C  10 A
Page 35 of 111
ii) Nodal Analysis

 1 1 1 1 1   
 2  24  24 
24

24   0 
  VA   
 1 1 1 1 1     100 
     VB 
 24 24 2 24 24     2 
 1 1 1 1 1  VC   100 
       
 24 2 24 24 24   2 
 0.5833 0.0417 0.0417  VA   0 
 0.0417 0.5833 0.0417   V    50 
   B  
 0.0417 0.0417 0.5833  VC   50 
VA  0 VB  80V VC  80V
VB  100 80  100
I1     10 A
2 2
V
I2  A  0
2
V  100 80  100
I3   C   10 A
2 2
Find the node voltages v1 and v2 in the circuit given in figure. Also find the power dissipated in the
4Ω resistor.
(APJAKTU June 2022)

Ans:-
At node 1,
V1  3 V1 V1  V2
  0
2 3 4
1.083V1  0.25V2  1.5
At node 2,
V2  2 V2 V2  V1
  0
1 2 4
0.25V1  1.75V2  2
V1  1.705V V2  1.386V
Use nodal analysis to find V1 in the given circuit.
Page 36 of 111
(APJAKTU July 2021)

Ans:-
At node 1,
V1 V V
1 1 2  0
3 2
0.833V1  0.5V2  1
At node 2,
V2 V2 V V
 3 2 1  0
2 2 2
0.5V1  1.5V2  3
V1  3V V2  3V
Use the nodal analysis to find voltages Va, Vb, Vc and Vd.

Ans:-
At node 1,
V1 V1  V2 V1  V3
  0
10 5 20
0.35V1  0.2V2  0.05V3  0
Page 37 of 111
At node 2,
V2  V1 V2  V3
  10  0
5 10
0.2V1  0.3V2  0.1V3  10
At node 3,
V3 V3  V1 V3  V2
  0
5 20 100
0.05V1  0.1V2  0.35V3  0
V1  45.45V V2  72.73V V3  27.27V
Va  V3  27.27V
Vb  V2  72.73V
Vc  V1  V3  45.45  27.27  18.18V
Vd  V3  V2  27.27  72.73V  45.46V
Page 38 of 111
Elementary Concepts of Magnetic circuits: Basic Terminology: MMF, field strength, flux
density, reluctance - Comparison between electric and magnetic circuits - Series and parallel
magnetic circuits with composite materials (numerical problems not needed)
Magnetic fields act as a medium in the energy conversion and transfer process. In most electrical
machines, except permanent magnet machines, the magnetic field is produced by passing an electrical
current through coils wound on ferromagnetic materials. Energy transfer takes place in transformers
and rotating electrical machines with the help of magnetic fields.
The number of flux lines per unit area is called the flux density. Its unit is weber / m 2 or tesla.

B where Φ is the number of flux lines passing through the area A. Unit of flux is webers.
A
A parameter that characterizes the property of magnetic material is permeability.
The permeability of a material, is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can be
established in the material. It is similar in many respects to conductivity in electric circuits.
B  H
where
μ is the permeability of the magnetic material
B is the magnetic flux density
H is the magnetic field intensity
The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of free space is called its relative permeability

r 
o
where
μo is the permeability of the vaccum (free space)
μr is the relative permeability of the magnetic material
o  4 10 7 Henry / meter
Practically speaking, the permeability of all nonmagnetic materials, such as copper, aluminum, wood,
glass, and air, is the same as that for free space. Materials that have permeabilities slightly less than
that of free space are said to be diamagnetic, and those with permeabilities slightly greater than that
of free space are said to be paramagnetic. Magnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, steel, cobalt, and
alloys of these metals, have permeabilities hundreds and even thousands of times that of free space.
Materials with these very high permeabilities are referred to as ferromagnetic.
The reluctance of a material to the setting up of magnetic flux lines in the material is determined by
the following equation:
l
S where S = reluctance, l = length of magnetic path, A = cross sectional area
A
Materials with high permeability, such as the ferromagnetics, have very small reluctances and will
result in an increased measure of flux through the core.
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Page 39 of 111
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux ϕ. The
flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to a path by magnetic
cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other materials
in the path.
Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric
motors, generators, transformers, relays, solenoids, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines.
MAGNETOMOTIC FORCE (MMF)

In an electric circuit, the current is induced due to the existence of an electromotive force (emf E,
battery voltage). By analogy, we say that in a magnetic circuit the magnetic flux is induced due to the
existence of a magnetomotive force (mmf F) caused by a current flowing through one or more turns
of coil.
The value of the mmf F is proportional to the current flowing through the coil and to the number of
turns in the coil, and is expressed in units of “ampere-turns” (or amperes as number of turns is
unitless)
F  N I
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH

The magnetomotive force per unit length of the magnetic circuit is termed the magnetic field
strength/intensity (H).
F NI
H  where l is the length of the magnetic circuit
l l
Unit of H is ampere-turns / metre (or amperes / metre)
LAWS GOVERNING MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

It is sometimes convenient to compare magnetic circuits with DC electric circuits for simplifying the
calculations of magnetic circuits. There is a close mathematical analogy between magnetic and DC
electric circuits.
emf E
For electric circuit, the ohm’s law is given by current  = 
resistance R
mmf F
For magnetic circuit, Flux  = 
reluctance S
Mmf is the external force required to set up the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material and
reluctance is the opposition to the setting up of the flux Φ.
Hence, there is a broad similarity between the analyses of electric and magnetic circuits.
Page 40 of 111
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

E F
I Φ
R S
The equivalent of the two Kirchoff’s laws for the magnetic circuit are as follows:
Algebraic sum of the rises and drops of the mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal
to zero.
F 0
NI  H ablab  H bclbc  H ca lca  0

Algebraic sum of the fluxes entering a junction is equal to zero.
At junction a or b,  a  b   c
COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC & ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Parameter Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Definition A closed path in which electric A closed path in which magnetic flux
current flows is called electric flows is known as magnetic circuit.
circuit
Circuit quantities EMF, current, resistance, MMF, magnetic flux, reluctance, etc.
capacitance and inductance, etc.
Ohm’s law emf E mmf F
Current  =  Flux  = 
resistance R reluctance S
Driving force The EMF is the driving force in MMF is the driving force, which
an electric circuit, which causes causes the flow of magnetic flux
the flow of current
Opposition Resistance opposes flow of Reluctance opposes flow of flux
current l
S
l o  r A
R
A
Page 41 of 111
Energy required In an electric circuit, the energy In a magnetic circuit, once the
must be expended continuously magnetic flux is set up in the circuit, no
as long as the electric current energy need to be expended.
flows.
Circuit laws Kirchoff’s voltage law & current mmf law and flux law
law
Density I NI
Electric Current density J  Magnetic field intensity H
A l
2
A/m Ampere-turns / meter
Flow of flux / current Magnetic lines of flux starts from Electric current starts from positive
north pole and ends at south pole charge and ends on the negative
charge.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MAGNETIC & ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
In the electric circuit, the current actually flow – Due to mmf, flux is just established and does not
there is movement of electrons flow in the sense in which current flows.
For electric current, there are no. of perfect For magnetic flux, there is no perfect insulator.
insulators like glass, rubber, PVC etc. It can set in even non-magnetic materials like
air, rubber, glass etc.
Energy must be supplied to the electric circuit to Energy is required to create the magnetic flux,
maintain the flow of current but it is not required to maintain it
Resistance is almost constant. It can change Reluctance is not a constant rather it varies with
slightly with change in temperature. flux density.
An iron ring of mean diameter 10cm is uniformly wound with 2000 turns. When a current of 0.25A
is passed through the coil, a flux density of 0.4T is set up in the iron. Find (a) the magnetizing force
and (b) the relative permeability of the iron under these conditions.
Ans:
l   D    10  102  0.314m
NI 2000  0.25
Magnetizing force, H    1592 AT / m
l 0.314
B 0.4
Relative permeability,  r    200
 o H 4  107  1592
An iron ring of cross-sectional area l cm2 is wound with a coil of 2000 turns. Calculate the
magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0.1 mWb in the iron path if mean length of the
path is 30cm and relative permeability of iron is 2500. Neglect magnetic leakages and fringing.
(APJAKTU July 2021)
Ans:
 0.1  10 3
B   1T
A 1  10 4
Page 42 of 111
B 1
H   318.3 AT / m
o r 4  10  2500
7
NI
H  318.3 AT / m
l
Hl 318.3  30  102
I   0.048 A
N 2000
A rectangular shaped core wound with a coil of 150 turns and l.2A is made of mild steel plate l0
mm x 20 mm cross-section. The mean length of the magnetic path is l5cm. Calculate i. magnetizing
force ii. flux density iii. reluctance iv. flux of magnetic circuit. Assume relative permeability of
mild steel as 940.
(APJAKTU July 2023)
Ans:
NI 150  1.2
H   1200 AT / m
l 0.15
B  o  r H  4  10 7  940  1200  1.417T
  o  r  4  10 7  940  0.00118
  BA  1.417  10  20  10 6  2.834  10 4 Wb
LEAKAGE FLUX & FRINGING

The flux that does not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is called a leakage flux.
In most of practical magnetic circuits, a large part of flux path is through a magnetic material and the
remainder part of flux path is through air. The flux in the air gap is known as useful flux because it
can be utilised for various useful purposes. Figure shows an iron ring wound with a coil and having
a narrow air gap. The total flux produced by the coil does not pass through the air gap as some of it
leaks through the air (path at 'a') surrounding the iron. These flux lines as at 'a' are called leakage flux.
When crossing an air gap, magnetic lines of force tend to bulge out such as lines of force at
bb in figure. It is because lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material
such as air. This effect is known as fringing. The result of bulging or fringing is to increase the
effective area of air gap and thus decrease the flux density in the gap. The longer the air gap, the
greater is the fringing and vice-versa.
SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Page 43 of 111
When the same magnetic flux Φ flows through each part of the magnetic circuit, then the circuit is
called as series magnetic circuit.
Consider a composite series magnetic circuit (a series magnetic circuit that has parts of different
dimensions and materials is called a composite series magnetic circuit) consisting of two different
magnetic materials of different relative permeability. Each part of this series magnetic circuit will
offer reluctance to the magnetic flux Φ. Since the different parts of the magnetic circuit are in series,
the total reluctance is equal to the sum of reluctances of individual parts.
The total MMF required to set up the magnetic flux in a series magnetic circuit is the sum of MMF
required by individual parts of the circuit.
PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

A magnetic circuit having two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is called a parallel
magnetic circuit. Its behaviour can be compared to the parallel electric circuit. The parallel magnetic
circuit contains different dimensional areas and materials having various numbers of paths.
The figure below shows a parallel magnetic circuit.
Here,
 a  b  c
In a parallel magnetic circuit, the MMF required for the whole parallel magnetic circuit is equal to
MMF required for any one of the parallel paths.
VARIOUS MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND ITS ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENTS
F

Si
Page 44 of 111
li lg
Total reluctance, S  
 o  r Ai  o Ag
F

S
la lb
Total reluctance, S  
 o  r Aa o  r Ab
F

S
la lb lc lg
Total reluctance, S    
o  r Aa o  r Ab o  r Ac  o Ag
F

S
Page 45 of 111
Sb Sc
Total reluctance, S  S a 
Sb  Sc
la lb lc
Sa  Sb  Sc 
 o  r Aa o  r Ab o  r Ac
F
a 
S
S 2 ( S3  S g  S 4 )
Total reluctance, S  S1 
S 2  S3  S g  S 4
l1 l2 l3 l4 lg
S1  S2  S3  S4  Sg 
o  r A1  o  r A2  o  r A3  o  r A4  o Ag
F
a 
S
A closed magnetic circuit of cast steel contains a 6 cm long path of cross-sectional area 1 cm 2 and
a 2 cm path of cross-sectional area 0.5cm2. A coil of 200 turns is wound around the 6 cm length
of the circuit and a current of 0.4A flows. Determine the flux density in the 2 cm path, if the
relative permeability of the cast steel is 750.
Ans:
Page 46 of 111
Total reluctance,
la lb 6  10 2 2  10 2
S     1061032 AT/Wb
o  r Aa o r Ab 4    10 7  750  1 10 4 4   107  750  0.5  10 4
F  NI  200  0.4  80 AT
F 80
   7.54  10 5Wb
S 1061032
 7.54  105
Flux density in 2cm path, Bb   4
 1.508Wb / m 2
A 0.5  10
An iron ring has a cross sectional area of 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 25cm. An airgap of 0.5mm
is cut across the section of the ring. The ring is wound with coil of 200 turns through which a
current of 3A is passed. If the total magnetic flux is 0.28 mWb, find the relative permeability of
iron, assuming no magnetic leakage.
Ans:
Mean length of iron ring l   D    25  10 2  0.7854m
Length of air-gap l g  0.5 103 m
Mean length of iron li  0.7854  0.5  10 3  0.7849m
Total reluctance,
li lg 0.7849 0.0005 2084664496
S      1326291 AT/Wb
o  r Ai o Ag 4 10   r  3  10
7 4
4  10  3  10
7 4
r
Page 47 of 111
F NI
 
S S
200  3
0.28  10 3  (Note: Use calculator to solve using keys ALPHA, =, SHIFT,
2084664496
 1326291
r
SOLVE)
r  2552.96
An iron ring of cross-sectional area 6cm2 is wound with a wire of 100 turns and has a saw cut of
2mm. Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0.1mWb if mean length of
magnetic path is 30cm and relative permeability of iron is 470.
(APJAKTU June 2022)
Ans:
Length of air-gap l g  2  103 m
Mean length of iron li  0.3m
li lg 0.3 2  103
Total reluctance, S      3499151
o  r Ai o Ag 4  10 7  470  6  104 4  10 7  6  10 4
AT/Wb
NI

S
S 0.1 10 3  3499151
I   3.5 A
N 100
The magnetic circuit shown in figure has the following dimensions l1 = 10 cm, l2 = 18 cm, l3 = 18
cm, cross-sectional area of l1 path = 6.25 x 10-4 m2, cross-sectional area of l2 and l3 path = 3 x 10-4
m2, length of air-gap = 2mm. Taking μr = 800, find the current in the 600 turn exciting coil to
establish a flux of 100 x 10-6 Wb in the airgap.
Page 48 of 111
Ans:
l1 10 102
S1    159155 AT/Wb
o  r A1 4  10 7  800  6.25  10 4
lg 2  103
Sg    2546479 AT/Wb
 o Ag 4  107  6.25  10 4
l2 18  10 2
S 2  S3    596831 AT/Wb
o  r A2 4  10 7  800  3 104
S 596831
Total reluctance, S  S1  S g  2  159155  2546479   3004050 AT/Wb
2 2
NI 600  I
1  
S 3004050
1S 100  10 6  3004050

I   0.5 A
N 600
A core forms a closed magnetic loop of path length 32 cm. Half of this path has a cross-sectional
area of 2cm2 and relative permeability 800. The other half has a cross-sectional area of 4 cm 2 and
relative permeability 400. Find the current needed to produce a flux of 0.4Wb in the core if it is
wound with 1000 turns of insulated wire. Ignore leakage and fringing effects.
(APJAKTU June 2022)
Ans:
Total reluctance,
l1 l2 16 102 16  10 2
S     1591550 AT/Wb
o  r A1 o  r A2 4    10 7  800  2 104 4    107  400  4  104
F  S  0.4 1591550  636620 AT
Page 49 of 111
F 636620
I   636.62 A
N 1000
A ring composed of 3 sections. The cross-sectional area is 0.001 m 2 for each section. The mean arc
length are Ia = 0.3m, Ib = 0.2m, Ic = 0.1m. An air-gap length of 0.1mm is cut in the ring. Relative
permeability of sections a, b, c are 5000, 1000 and 10000 respectively. Flux in the air-gap is 7.5 x
10-4 Wb. Find i) mmf ii) exciting current if the coil has 100 turns iii) reluctances of the sections.
Ans:
la 0.3
Sa    47746 AT/Wb
o  r Aa 4    10  5000  0.001
7
lb 0.2
Sb    159155 AT/Wb
 o  r Ab 4   10  1000  0.001
7
lc 0.1
Sc    7958 AT/Wb
 o  r Ac 4    10  10000  0.001
7
lg 0.1103
Sg    79577 AT/Wb
o Ag 4    10 7  0.001
Total reluctance S = 294436 AT/Wb
Mmf, F  S  7.5  104  294436  220.8 AT
F 220.8
I   2.208 A
N 100
An iron ring has a cross-section of 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. An air-gap of 0.4mm has
been cut across the section of the ring. The ring is wound with a coil of 200 turns through which a
current of 2A is passed. If the total magnetic flux is 0.24 mWb, find the relative permeability of
iron, assuming no magnetic leakage.
Ans:
Mean length = 0.7854 – 0.0004=0.785

NI 200  2
S   1666667 AT / Wb
 0.24  10 3
li lg 0.785 0.4  10 3 2082277172
S      1061033
o  r Ai o Ag 4 10   r  3  10
7 4
4  10  3  10
7 4
r
2082277172
1666667   1061033 r  3438 (Since length of air-gap is too small
r
compared to iron path, it is not needed to deduct 0.0004 from mean length of iron)
Page 50 of 111
Electromagnetic Induction: Faraday's laws, Lenz's law- statically induced and dynamically
induced emf – Self-inductance and mutual inductance, coefficient of coupling (numerical problems
not needed)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit an emf is produced. This
emf is known as the induced emf and the current that flows in the closed circuit is called induced
current. The phenomenon of producing an induced emf due to the change in the magnetic flux
associated with a closed circuit is known as electromagnetic induction. Faraday discovered the
electromagnetic induction by conducting several experiments.
Figure consists of a cylindrical coil C made up of several turns of insulated copper wire connected in
series to a sensitive galvanometer G. A strong bar magnet NS with its north pole pointing towards the
coil is moved up and down. The following inferences were made by Faraday
(i) Whenever there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet, the galvanometer
shows deflection indicating the flow of induced current.
(ii) The deflection is momentary. It lasts so long as there is relative motion between the coil
and the magnet.
(iii) The direction of the flow of current changes if the magnet is moved towards and
withdrawn from it.
(iv) The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster, and less when the magnet is
moved slowly.
(v) However, on reversing the magnet (i.e) south pole pointing towards the coil, same
results are obtained, but current flows in the opposite direction.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Based on his studies on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Faraday proposed the
following two laws.
First Law Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is always
induced in it.
Second Law The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the time rate of change flux
linkages.
Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes form an initial value of Φ 1 to the final value
of Φ2 in time t seconds.
N  2  N 1
Induced emf, e  (Note: Flux linkage = No. of turns x Flux = NΦ)
t
In differential form,
Page 51 of 111
d ( N ) d
e N
dt dt
LENZ’S LAW
The induced emf sets up a current in such a direction so as to oppose the very cause producing it.
d (N )
e
dt
Consider a magnet is moving towards a coil. This motion of the magnet creates a changing magnetic
field around the coil. According to Lenz’s Law, an emf will be induced in the coil, and the direction
of the induced current will be such that it generates its magnetic field, opposing the motion of the
approaching magnet.
In other words, the induced current creates a magnetic field that tries to stop the change in the
original magnetic field.
DYNAMICALLY & STATICALLY INDUCED EMFS

When a magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil changes, an emf is induced in the conductor or
coil, is known as induced EMF. Depending upon the way of bringing the change in magnetic flux,
the induced EMF is of two types −
1. Statically induced emf and
2. Dynamically induced emf
Statically Induced EMF
This type of EMF is generated by keeping the coil and the magnetic field system stationary at the
same time; that means the change in flux linking with the coil takes place without either moving the
conductor (coil) or the field system.
This change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is obtained by changing the
electric current in the field system.
It is further divided in two ways
 Self-induced emf (When emf is induced in a conductor or coil due to change of its own
magnetic flux linkage, it is known as self-induced emf.)
Consider a coil of N turn as shown in figure.
The current flowing through the coil establishes a magnetic field in the coil. If the current in the coil
changes, then the magnetic flux linking the coil also changes. This changing magnetic field induces
an emf in the coil according to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This emf is known
as self-induced EMF and the magnitude of the self-induced EMF is given by,
d di
eN L where L is the self-inductance.
dt dt
Example: Emf induced in secondary of a transformer due to change in current in primary
Page 52 of 111
 Mutually induced emf (The emf induced in a coil due to the changing magnetic field of a
neighbouring coil is known as mutually induced emf)
Consider two coils placed adjacent to each other as shown in figure.
Here, a fraction of the magnetic flux produced by the coil 1 links with the coil 2. This magnetic flux
of coil 1 which is common to both coils 1 and 2 is known as mutual flux (Φ m).
If the current in coil 1 is changed, then the mutual flux also changes and hence emf is induced in both
the coils. Where, the emf induced in coil 1 is known as self-induced emf and the emf induced in
coil 2 is called mutual induced emf.
The magnitude of the mutual induced EMF is given by
dm di
em  N 2  M 1 where M is the mutual inductance.
dt dt
Dynamically Induced EMF
In dynamically induced emf, the magnetic field system is kept stationary, and the conductor is
moving, or the magnetic field system is moving, and the conductor is stationary. Thus, by following
either of the two process the conductor cuts across the magnetic field and the emf is induced in the
coil.
(Note: The emf induced in the coil due to physical movement of the magnetic field or coil is known
as dynamically induced emf.)
Example: Emf generated in generator
Consider a conductor of length l meters moving with a velocity of v m/s at right angles to a uniform
stationary magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m 2.
Let the conductor moves through a small distance dx in time dt seconds. Then,
Area swept by conductor, a =l×dx m2
Magnetic flux cut by conductor, dΦ = Magnetic Flux Density × Area Swept
d   Bldx Wb
Now, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced EMF will be,
d  Bldx dx
eN   Blv since  v = velocity
dt dt dt
e  Blv volts
Page 53 of 111
Equation gives the dynamically induced emf when the conductor moves at right angle to the magnetic
field.
If the conductor moves at an angle  to the magnetic field, then the EMF induced due to only the
perpendicular component of the velocity to the magnetic field.
e  Blv sin 
The direction of the induced emf is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
Fleming’s Right-hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the
right-hand perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the motion of
the conductor relative to the magnetic field, the forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic
field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the induced current.
SELF INDUCTANCE & MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

In a coil, whenever an effort is made to increase or decrease the current or flux through it, it is always
opposed by the instantaneous production of a counter emf which is called self-induced emf.
The property of a coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease in current or flux through it
is called self-inductance. This property is analogous to inertia of a material body. Initially it is difficult
to set a heavy body into motion but once in motion, it is difficult to stop it. Similarly, in a coil with
large self-inductance, initially it is difficult to establish current, but once established, it is equally
difficult to withdraw it.
SELF-INDUCTANCE
Consider a solenoid of N turns and carrying a current of I amperes. If the flux produced is Φ webers,
N
Self-inductance, L  . Unit is Henry.
I
NI l
But,   and S 
S o r A
N 2 o  r AN 2
L  H
S l
Page 54 of 111
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Mutual inductance is the ability of one coil to produce an emf in a nearby coil by induction when
the current in the first coil changes. This action being reciprocal, the second coil has also induce an
emf in the first coil when the current in the second coil changes.
Let there be two magnetically coupled coils having N1 and N2 turns respectively. Let a current I1
amperes when flowing in the first coil produce a flux Φ1 in it. It is supposed that the whole of this
flux links with the turns of the second coil.
N
Mutual inductance, M  2 1 . Unit is Henry
I1
N1 I1 l
1  and S 
S o  r A
N1 N 2  o  r AN1 N 2
M   H
S l
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
Consider two magnetically coupled coils having N 1 and N2 turns respectively. When current flows
through one coil it produces flux; the whole flux may not link with the other coil coupled, and this
is because of leakage flux by a fraction (k) known as coefficient of coupling.
Let Φ1 be the flux produced in coil 1 due to a current I1.
NI
1  1 1
S
Suppose a fraction k of this flux Φ1 links with the second coil.
N k
M  2 1 ----- (1)
I1
Let Φ2 be the flux produced in coil 2 due to a current I2.
N I
2  2 2
S
Suppose a fraction k of this flux Φ2 links with the first coil.
N k
M  1 2 ----- (2)
I2
Multiplying equations (1) & (2),
N N 
M 2  k 2 1 1 2 2  k 2 L1 L2
I1 I2
M  k L1 L2
The coefficient of coupling is always less than ‘1’ & its highest value is ‘1’only.
k=1, when the flux produced by one coil, completely links with the other coil and is called
magnetically tightly coupled.
k=0, when the flux produced by one coil, does not link at all with the other coil and thus the coils
are said to be magnetically isolated.
N  N 2  o  r AN 2 M  k L1 L2
L  
I S l
Page 55 of 111
N 2 k  1 N 1k  2 kN1 N 2
M   M 
I1 I2 S
d di di1
eN L em  M
dt dt dt
A coil of 50Ω resistance is placed in a magnetic field of 1mWb. The coil has 50 turns and a
galvanometer of 400Ω resistance is connected in series with it. Find the average induced emf and
the resulting current if the coil is moved in 0.1 sec from the given field to another field of 0.2mWb.
Ans:
d 1  103  0.2  10 3
Average induced emf, e  N  50   0.4V
dt 0.1
0.4
Current, i   8.89  10 4 A
400  50
An air solenoid has 300 turns, its length is 25 cm and cross-sectional area of 3 cm 2. calculate the
self-inductance. If the coil current of l0A is completely interrupted in 0.04 s, calculate the induced
emf in the coil.
(APJAKTU July 2023)
Ans:
N 2  o AN 2 4  10 7  3  10 4  300 2
L    135.7  H
S l 25  10 2
di 10  0
e  L  135.7  10 6   0.034V
dt 0.04
A coil of 180 turns is linked with a flux of 0.03Wb when carrying a current of 10A. Calculate the
inductance of the coil. If the current is uniformly reversed in 0.04sec, calculate the emf induced
in the coil.
An
N  180  0.03
L   0.54 H
I 10
di 10  (10)
e  L  0.54   270V
dt 0.04
Calculate the inductance of a ring-shaped coil having a mean diameter of 200 mm wound on a
wooden core of diameter 20mm. The winding is evenly wound and contains 500 turns. If the
wooden core is replaced by an iron core which has a relative permeability of 600 when the current
is 5A, calculate the new value of inductance.
Ans:
Case 1: Wooden Core
Mean length, l   D  0.2 m 2
Page 56 of 111
 
Area, A  D2   (20  10 3 ) 2    10 4 m 2
4 4
N 2
 AN 4  10 7    104  500 2
2
L  o   157  H
S l 0.2
Case 2: Iron Core
o  r AN 2 4  10 7  600    10 4  500 2
L   94.25mH
l 0.2
di 10  0
e  L  135.7  10 6   0.034V
dt 0.04
Two coils having 150 and 200 turns respectively are wound side by side on a closed magnetic
circuit of cross-section 1.5 x 10-2 m2 and mean length 3m. The relative permeability of the magnetic
circuit is 2000. Calculate: (a) the mutual inductance between the coils (b) the voltage induced in
the second coil if the current changes from 0 to 10A in the first coil in 20 milliseconds.
Ans:
N1 N 2 o  r AN1 N 2 4  10 7  2000  1.5  10 2  150  200
M     0.377 H
S l 3
di 10  0
e2  M 1  0.377   188.5V
dt 0.02
Two coils A and B of 500 and 750 turns respectively are connected in series on the same magnetic
circuit of reluctance 1.55 x 106 AT/Wb. Assuming that there is no flux leakage, calculate i) self-
inductance of each coil and ii) mutual inductance between coils.
(APJAKTU June 2022)
Ans:
N 12 500 2
L1    161.3mH
S 1.55  10 6
N22 7502
L2    362.9 mH
S 1.55  10 6
N N 500  750
M  2 2   241.9mH
S 1.55  106
Coils A and B having 100 and 150 turns respectively, are wound side by side on a closed magnetic
circuit of cross-section 125cm2 and mean length 2m. Determine a) the self-inductance of each coil
b) the mutual inductance between the coils c) the voltage induced in the second coil if the current
changes from zero to 5A in the first coil in 0.02 s. The relative permeability of the magnetic circuit
is 2000.
Ans: a) 0.157H, 0.3534H b) 0.2356H c) 58.9V
Two coils A and B have 12000 turns and 14000 turns respectively. 80% of the flux produced by
coil A links with coil B. A current of 6A in coil A produces 0.05mWb in coil A while the same
current in coil B produces 0.085mWb in coil B. Calculate i) mutual inductance and ii) Coefficient
of coupling.
(APJAKTU Jan 2021)
Ans:
Page 57 of 111
N 2 k11 14000  0.8  0.05  103

M    93.3mH
I1 6
N11 12000  0.05 10 3
L1    0.1H
I1 6
N 2  2 14000  0.085  10 3
L2    0.198 H
I2 6
M 0.0933
k   0.663
L1 L2 0.1  0.198
Page 58 of 111
Alternating Current fundamentals: Generation of alternating voltages - Representation of

sinusoidal waveforms: frequency, period, average value, RMS value and form factor - numerical
problems AC Circuits: Phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities, Trigonometric, Rectangular,
Polar and complex forms.
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE
The basic principle of an alternator is electromagnetic induction. Whenever there is a relative motion
between the conductor and the magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity symmetrically between the poles
of a magnet as shown in figure. The two ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings mounted on
the shaft. Two carbon brushes are resting on the slip-rings. Both coil and slip-rings are rotating, but
brushes are stationary. Both slip-rings and brushes collect the current from the coil and make it
available to stationary external load resistance.
Let us assume that the coil is rotated in the anti-clockwise direction. Emf induced in the coil depends
on the position of the coil in the magnetic field.
When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux lines, the two coil-sides move parallel to the
flux lines and there cannot be the cutting of flux lines. No emf is generated in the conductors.
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the flux lines, the two coil-sides cut the flux lines at its
maximum. Hence the emf induced will be maximum.
Hence, when the plane of the coil rotates from perpendicular to parallel position, emf induced
increases from zero to maximum value sinusoidally. When the coil rotates further, emf induced
decreases from maximum to zero as shown below.
Page 59 of 111
The expression for generated emf will be e  Blv sin t  Em sin t .

FREQUENCY & TIME PERIOD
Alternating current is an electric current that periodically reverses its direction of flow. When a
waveform reaches a complete set of positive and negative values, it is called one cycle.
The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency (f). The unit of frequency is
hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec
The time required to complete one cycle is called the period (T). Period is measured between two
points in a similar position on the waveform.
1
T
f
2
Angular frequency,    2 f . Unit is rad/sec.
T
VALUES OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
The value of an alternating quantity is continuously changing. It varies in magnitude and reverses its
direction at regular intervals. Thus, it is not possible to state the value of an alternating quantity so
simply as it is stated for a direct current. Four different values of an alternating quantity are commonly
indicated. These values are
(1) Instantaneous value
(2) Maximum or peak value
Page 60 of 111
(3) Average or mean value

(4) Effective or RMS value
INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The value of the alternating quantity at a given instant is called the instantaneous value. It varies from
instant to instant.
MAXIMUM OR PEAK VALUE
This is the maximum value of the alternating quantity attained by it in a cycle. It is the highest of the
instantaneous values. Maximum value is also called the peak value or amplitude.
An alternating current is given by i  50 sin 314t . Find (a) the maximum value (b) frequency (c)
time period of the current.
(APJAKTU July 2023)
Ans:
Maximum value I m  50A
 314
Frequency, f    50 Hz
2 2
1
Period, T   0.02s
50
An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz has an rms value of 20A.
i) Write down the equation for the instantaneous current
ii) Find the instantaneous value of current at 0.0025s.
iii) Find the instantaneous value of current 0.125s after passing through a positive
maximum value.
iv) At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the instantaneous current
be 14.14A?
Ans:
Instantaneous current, i  2  20sin 2  50t  28.28sin100 t
180
Instantaneous current at t = 0.0025s, i  28.28sin(100  0.0025  )  20 A

Maximum value occurs at 90▫ ie. at t = 0.02/4 = 0.005s. (Period is 0.02 s)
180
Instantaneous current at t = (0.005 + 0.125)s, i  28.28sin(100  0.13  )  0A

 180 
i  28.28sin 100  (0.005  t )   14.14 A
  
 180 
sin 100  (0.005  t )   0.5
  
180
100  (0.005  t )   150

t  0.00333s
Instantaneous current will be maximum at t = 0.00333 measured from positive maximum value
Page 61 of 111
AVERAGE VALUE
Consider one cycle of a sinusoidal wave.
From this it is apparent that the area under the curve in the positive half is exactly the same as that
for the negative half. Thus, the average value over one complete cycle must be zero. For this reason,
the average value is taken to be the average over one half cycle.
Average value of alternating current is that value of steady current which sends the same amount of
charge through a circuit in a certain time interval as is sent by an alternating current through the same
circuit in the same time interval.
In case of symmetrical waves,
Area of half cycle
Average Value=
Half period
In case of unsymmetrical waves,
Area of a cycle
Average Value=
Period
Average value of AC,

V m sin tdt
Vav  0

Vm
  cos t 0



Vm
1  cos  0



2Vm
  0.637V
 m
RMS VALUE
The Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective Value of a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) is the value
of DC which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of
heat as produced by the AC when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
RMS value = square 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭 of 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 of the 𝐬𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐬 of the current
i12  i2 2  i3 2  ....... in 2
I rms 
n
Note: For symmetrical waveforms, the RMS value can be calculated by considering half cycle or
full-cycle. But, in case of unsymmetrical waveforms, full-cycle should be considered.
Area of squared wave
RMS Value=
Period
For sine wave,
Page 62 of 111
 (Vm sin  t ) 2 d t
Vrms  0


Vm 2
2 0
 (1  cos 2t )d t

Vm 2  sin 2 t 
  t  
2  2 0 
Vm 2  sin 2 

2   2 
Vm
  0.707Vm
2
FORM FACTOR
As the name implies, this factor gives an indication of the form or shape of the waveform. It is defined
as the ratio of the RMS value to the average value.
RMS value
Form Factor =
Average value
0.707Vm
For a sine wave, form factor =  1.1
0.637Vm
Note: Form factor depends only on the shape not on its period or amplitude.
For a sine wave, if the rms value is 230V, average value will be 209V.
For a rectangular waveform (a square wave), form factor = 1, since the RMS value, the peak value,
and the average value are all the same.
PEAK FACTOR
This is defined as the ratio of the peak or maximum value to the RMS value, of a waveform.
Maximum value
Peak Factor =
RMS value
Vm
For a sine wave, Peak Factor =  2  1.414
0.707Vm
Find the form factor of the following wave.
Page 63 of 111
Area of squared wave V 2    ( V ) 2  

RMS Value=  V
Period 2
Since symmetrical wave,
Area of half cycle V  
Average Value=  V
Half period 
RMS value
Form Factor = 1
Average value

Ans:-
Period = 
Equation of straight line,

y  y1 y2  y1

x  x1 x2  x1
e0 E 0
Equation of e for half period,  m
t  0  / 2  0
2 Em
e  t

Area of squared wave for half period
RMS Value=
Half period
 /2
4 Em 2
 2
 (t ) 2 d (t )
 0
 /2
2 Em 2( / 2)3 Em
    0.577 Em
 3 3
Area of full cycle
Average Value= 
Period
 /2
2 Em
2  
 td t
4 Em ( / 2)2 Em
 0
    0.5Em
 2 2 2
Page 64 of 111
RMS value 0.577 Em

Form Factor =   1.154
Average value 0.5 Em

Ans:-
Period = 
i  5 10  5
Equation of e for half period, 
t 0 T 0
5t
i  5
T
Area of squared wave
RMS Value=
Period
T 2
 5t 
0  5  T  dt

T
T
 50t 25t 2 
0  25 
T
 2  dt
T 

T
T
 25t 2 25t 3 
 25t   2
 T 3T  0

T
 25  T 2 25  T 3 
 25  T   
 T 3T 2 

T
25
 25  25   7.637 A
3
Area of full cycle
Average Value= 
Period
T
 5t 
  5  T  dt
 0
Page 65 of 111
T
5t 2
5t 
2T
 0
T
5T 2
5T 
 2T  5  5  7.5 A
T 2
RMS value 7.637
Average value 7.5
Find the form factor and peak factor of the following wave.
 (V m sin  t ) 2 d t
Vrms  0
2
2 
Vm

4  (1  cos 2t )dt
0

Vm 2  sin 2 t 
  t  
4  2 0 

Vm 2  sin 2 

4   2 
Vm
  0.5Vm
2

Vav  0
2
Vm
  cos  t 0


2
V
 m 1  cos  0

2
V
 m  0.318Vm

RMS value 0.5
Average value 0.318
Page 66 of 111
Maximum value V
Peak Factor =  m 2
RMS value 0.5Vm
Find the form factor and peak factor of the following wave.
 (V m sin  t ) 2 d t
Vrms  0


Vm 2
2 0
 (1  cos 2t )d t

Vm 2  sin 2 t 
   t  
2  2 0 
Vm 2  sin 2 

2   2 
Vm
  0.707Vm
2

Vav  0

Vm
  cos t 0



Vm
1  cos  0



2Vm
  0.637Vm

RMS value 0.707
Average value 0.637
Maximum value Vm
Peak Factor =   2  1.414
RMS value 0.707Vm
Page 67 of 111
Ans:-
Period = 2
t; 0  t  1
Equation of e for half period, e 
1: 2  t  2
1 2
1
 (t ) dt   1dt
2
1
Erms  0 1
 3  0.8165
2 2
1 2
1
 tdt   1dt
1
Eav  0 1
2  0.75
2 2
RMS value 0.8165
Average value 0.75
A certain waveform has a form factor of 1.2 and a peak factor of 1.5. If the maximum value is 100,
find the RMS value and the average value.
Ans:
Maximum value
Peak Factor =
RMS value
RMS value = 100/1.5 = 66.6V
RMS value
Form Factor =
Average value
Average value = 66.6 / 1.2 = 55.5V
PHASOR REPRESENTATION
We can represent an alternating quantity by means of a phasor. Phasor is a rotating vector. The length
of the phasor represents the amplitude. Its angle, with respect to some reference axis, will represent
its phase angle.
Consider two phasors with magnitudes Vm1 and Vm2 rotating in anticlockwise direction with same
angular velocity. Let the angle of phasor 1 with respect to positive X-axis be t and the angle of
phasor 2 with respect to positive X-axis be t - 90▫. The vertical component of phasor 1 and phasor
2 will be Vm1 sin t and Vm 2 sin(t  60) respectively.
If we plot the instantaneous vertical height of each phasor for one complete revolution, the result will
be the two sinewaves. Peak of the sine waves correspond to the magnitudes of the phasors. Here, the
two sine waves represent two alternating voltages or currents.
Page 68 of 111
Hence, we can represent an alternating quantity by means of a phasor. Magnitude of the phasor
represents the amplitude and its angle with respect to some reference axis (here, positive X-axis)
represents its phase angle.
Let v1  Vm1 sin t and v2  Vm 2 sin(t  60) be two ac voltages. The two voltages have a phase
difference of 60▫.
Due to the inconvenience of representing AC quantities in graphical form, we can use a simpler means
of providing visual representation called phasor diagram.
The above two alternating quantities can be represented by a phasor diagram as shown below.
Phasor rotation is anticlockwise and hence, here, Vm2 is lagging behind Vm1 by 60▫.
Note:
1. Any AC quantity can be represented by a phasor, provided that it is a sinewave.
2. Any number of AC voltages and/or currents may be shown on the same phasor diagram,
provided that they are all of the same frequency.
3. Phasor rotation is anticlockwise.
4. It is normal to draw the phasors to lengths that correspond to RMS values instead of peak
values. But, its vertical projection will not give the actual instantaneous value of the
alternating quantity.
Representation of the above two alternating quantities using RMS values shown in figure below:
Four currents are shown below. Draw the corresponding phasor diagram using RMS values.
i1  2.5sin(t  45)
i2  4sin(t  60)
i3  6sin t
i4  3cos t
Ans: -
Page 69 of 111
RMS values are

2.5
I1   1.77 A
2
4
I2   2.83 A
2
6
I3   4.24 A
2
3
I4   2.12 A
2
i4  3cos t  3sin(t  90)
Take I3 as reference.
REPRESENTATION OF PHASORS – POLAR FORM, RECTANGULAR FORM,

EXPONENTIAL FORM
In the rectangular coordinate system, a phasor can be divided into two components, represented
as a  jb . The two components are the real part and the imaginary part.
In polar coordinate system, the phasor is represented as R    . Here R is the magnitude of the
phasor and  is the angle made by the phasor with respect to the reference axis.
For the phasor, R  , the real part is a  R cos  and the imaginary part is b  R sin  .
We can represent a phasor in exponential form also.
Re j  R(cos   j sin  )
e j  cos   j sin 
a  R cos 
b  R sin 
R  a2  b2
Page 70 of 111
b
tan  
a
e j  cos   j sin   1 a  R cos  R  a 2  b2
b  R sin 
b
tan  
a
190  j 1  90   j 1180  1  180  1
R11  R22  R1R2 (1  2 )  a1  jb1    a2  jb2   (a1  a2 )  j (b1  b2 )
R11 R1
 (1   2 )
R2  2 R2
Four currents are shown below.

i1  2.5sin(t  45)
i2  4sin(t  60)
i3  6sin t
i4  3cos t
Find i1  i2  i3  i4 .
Ans:
We can express the phasor representation of above currents using RMS values as shown below.
I1  1.7745 A
I 2  2.83  60 A
I 3  4.240 A
I 4  2.1290 A
I  1.7745  2.83  60  4.240  2.1290  6.977.6 A
i  2  6.97 sin(t  7.6)  9.85sin(t  7.6) A
3 alternating currents expressed by i1  20sin t , i2  30sin(t   / 4) and i3  40cos(t   / 6)

are flowing in the three branches of a parallel circuit fed from single phase ac supply. Find the
expression for the resultant current drawn by the circuit.
Ans:
20
I1  0  14.1420 A
2
30
I2    45  21.213  45 A
2
40
I3  90  30  28.28460 A
2
I  I1  I 2  I3  14.1420  21.213  45  28.28460  44.31312.37 A
i  2  44.313sin(t  12.37)  62.67 sin(t  12.37) A
Page 71 of 111
Find the following in polar form and rectangular form.

1. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)
2. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)
3. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)
4. (6  j8) / (3  j 4)
Ans:
1. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)  9  4i  9.8523.96
2. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)  3  j12  12.37 75.96
3. (6  j8)  (3  j 4)  50
4. (6  j8) / (3  j 4)  0.56  j1.92  2106.26
Find the following in polar form.
545  (3  j 4)
1.
(1  j 2)(1  j 2)
(3  j 4)  (3  j 4)
2.
(3  j 4)  (3  j 4)
545  3  45
3.
5 45  3  45
(2  j 4)  (2  j 6)
4.
330  290
Ans:
545 (3  j 4)
1.  598.13
(1  j 2)(1  j 2)
(3  j 4)  (3  j 4)
2.  0.3290
(3  j 4)  (3  j 4)
5 45  3  45
3.  0.38914
5 45  3  45
(2  j 4)  (2  j 6)
4.  4.7115
330  290
Page 72 of 111
Analysis of simple AC circuits: Purely resistive, inductive & capacitive circuits; Inductive and
capacitive reactance, concept of impedance - numerical problems. RL, RC and RLC series circuits-
power factor, active, reactive and apparent power. Simple numerical problems.
In a DC circuit, there is one basic type of load, which is resistive. This is not true in AC circuit. AC
circuits have three different types of loads: resistive, inductive, and capacitive. Each of these loads
produces a different circuit condition. Voltage divided by current in DC circuits is called resistance.
However, for AC circuits it is called impedance. The impedance is the opposition an element offers
to a sinusoidal current. It is a phasor quantity.
AC VOLTAGE ACROSS R
Vm
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t . Then, the current i  sin  t  I m sin  t . Hence both voltage and
R
current are in phase for a pure resistive load.
Phasor representation of voltage and current in a pure resistance will be as shown below:
V 0 I  0
Here, V and I are RMS values.

AC VOLTAGE ACROSS L
di
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t . Voltage across inductance is v  L
dt
1 1 V V
Then, the current i 
L  vdt   Vm sin tdt   m cos t  m sin(t  90)
L L XL
Here, XL = inductive reactance = L = 2fL. Unit is ohms.
Hence, the current lags behind the voltage by 90▫ in a pure inductance.
Phasor representation of voltage and current in a pure inductance will be as shown below:
Page 73 of 111
V 0
I  90

AC VOLTAGE ACROSS C
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t .

Current through capacitance,
dv d (Vm sin t ) Vm V
i C C  CVm cos t  sin(t  90)  m sin(t  90)
dt dt  1
C  XC
1 1
Here, XC = capacitive reactance =  . Unit is ohms.
C 2 fC
Hence, the current leads the voltage by 90▫ in a pure capacitance.
Phasor representation of voltage and current in a pure capacitance will be as shown below:
V 0
I90
INSTANTANEOUS & AVERAGE POWER

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The average
power is more convenient to measure. The wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power,
responds to average power.
The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period.
T 2
1 1
Average power, P 
T 0 p (t )dt  2  p(t )d (t )
0
Note: p(t) is time-varying while P does not depend on time.

R circuit
Page 74 of 111
Vm
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t . Then, the current i  sin  t  I m sin  t .
R
For a pure resistive circuit, both voltage and current are in phase.
1  cos 2t 
p (t )  vi  Vm sin t  I m sin  t  Vm I m sin 2 t  Vm I m  
 2
2 2
1  cos 2t 
T
1 1 Vm I m
P 
T 0
p (t ) dt 
2 
0
p (t )d t 
2  
0
2  dt
2 2 2
Vm I m 1  cos 2t  Vm I m  

2 
0
 2 

d  t 
4  0
  1.d  t  0
cos 2 td t 

Vm I m V I
  2  m m  VI
4 2
T T T T
Note:  cos tdt  0
0
 sin tdt  0
0
 cos 2tdt  0
0
 sin 2tdt  0
0
V & I = RMS values

L circuit
Vm V
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t . Then, the current i  sin  t  m sin t  I m sin(t  90) .
XL L
For a pure inductive circuit, current lags behind the voltage by 90▫.
sin 2t V I
p (t )  vi  Vm sin t  I m sin( t  90)  Vm sin  t  I m cos  t  Vm I m   m m sin 2t
2 2
T 2 2
1 1 Vm I m
P
T  p (t )dt 
0
2 
0
p (t )d t  
4  sin 2tdt  0
0
Average power absorbed by a pure inductive load is zero.
Instantaneous power, p (t )  VI sin 2t
Page 75 of 111
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) inductor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is lost in
the transaction.
C circuit
Vm
Let the voltage be v  Vm sin t . Then, the current i  sin t  CVm sin t  I m sin(t  90) .
XC
For a pure capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage by 90▫.
sin 2 t Vm I m
p (t )  vi  Vm sin t  I m sin( t  90)  Vm sin  t  I m cos  t  Vm I m  sin 2 t
2 2
T 2 2
1 1 Vm I m
P
T  p (t )dt 
0
2 
0
p (t )d t 
4  sin 2tdt  0
0
Average power absorbed by a pure capacitive load is zero.
Instantaneous power, p (t )  VI sin 2t
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) capacitor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is lost in
the transaction.
Given that v (t )  120 cos(377t  45) and i (t )  10 cos(377t  10) . Find the instantaneous power
and the average power absorbed by the passive linear network.
Page 76 of 111
Note:
cos( A  B )  cos( A  B )
cos A cos B 
2
cos( A  B )  cos( A  B )
sin A sin B 
2
sin( A  B )  sin( A  B )
sin A cos B 
2
p (t )  vi  1200 cos(377t  45) cos(377t  10)

 600 cos(55)  cos(754t  35) 
T T
1 1
 p(t )dt  344.2  600 cos(754t  35)  dt  344.2W
T 0
P
T 0
Given that v(t )  80 cos(10t  20) and i (t )  15sin(10t  60) . Find the instantaneous power and
the average power absorbed by the passive linear network.
p (t )  vi  80  15  cos(10t  20) sin(10t  60)
 80  15 
sin(40)  sin(20t  80)
2
 385.67  600 sin(20t  80)
T
1
P   p (t ) dt  385.67W
T 0
SERIES RL CIRCUIT
Consider an electrical circuit consists of a resistor R and inductor L connected in series with an
alternating voltage v  Vm sin t .
v  Vm sin t
The voltage across the resistor is VR and across the inductor is VL.
The current flowing through the network is I. The voltage across resistor V R is in phase with I and
the voltage across inductor VL leads the current by 90◦. The phase diagram is shown below:
Resultant voltage, V  VR  jVL  IR  jIX L  I ( R  jX L )  IZ

Z = impedance = R  jX L
Z  Z 
Page 77 of 111
XL
 = phase angle between the voltage V and current I = tan 1
R
A resistance of 3Ω and inductive reactance of 4Ω are connected in series. Find the impedance and
the impedance angle.
Ans: -
Z  R  jX L  3  j 4  553.13
A resistance of 3Ω and inductive reactance of 4Ω are connected in series. Find the current if a
voltage of 25V (RMS) is applied across it.
Ans: -
Z  R  jX L  3  j 4
V 0 250
I   5  53.13 A
Z 3  j4
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER
The power which is actually consumed or utilised in an AC Circuit is called true power or active
power or real power. Active power is measured in watts.
The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the directions in the circuit is
called reactive power. Reactive power is measured in VAR.
The power is consumed only in resistance. A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any
power since in a half cycle whatever power is received from the source by these components, the
same power is returned to the source. This power which flows in both the direction in the circuit is
called reactive power. This reactive power does not perform any useful work in the circuit.
The current in phase with the voltage produces true or active power, whereas, the current 90▫ degrees
out of phase with the voltage contributes to reactive power in the circuit.
The reactive power is responsible for operation of all electromagnetic machines such as motors,
generators, etc., because it produces required magnetic excitation (or flux) in these machines.
Consider an inductive circuit where the current is lagging behind the voltage by an angle of  with
the following phasor diagram.
Complex power, S  VI *
Here, taking V as reference,
S  V 0 ( I   )*  V 0 I   VI 
P  jQ  VI   VI cos   jVI sin 
Hence,
P = active power = VI cos  (Unit: Watts)
Q = reactive power = VI sin  (Unit: VAR)
Apparent power, S  P 2  Q 2  VI (Unit: VA)
Consider a capacitive circuit where the current is leading from the voltage by an angle of  with the
following phasor diagram.
Page 78 of 111
Complex power, S  VI *
Here, taking V as reference,
S  V 0 ( I   )*  V 0 I     VI   
VI     VI cos   jVI sin   P  jQ
Hence,
P = active power = VI cos  (Unit: Watts)
Q = reactive power = VI sin  (Unit: VAR)
Apparent power, S  P 2  Q 2  VI (Unit: VA)
POWER FACTOR
The power triangle in inductive circuit is given below:
S  P  jQ
The power triangle in a capacitive circuit is given below:

S  P  jQ
Power factor of an AC circuit is defined as the ratio of the active power to the apparent power.
active power P VI cos 
Power Factor =    cos 
apparent power S VI
Hence, the power factor of an AC circuit is the cosine of phase angle between the voltage and current.
Importance of power factor:
Consider two loads – iron box operating at unity power factor and induction motor operating at 0.5
power factor. Both of them have power rating and voltage rating 1000W and100V respectively.
Page 79 of 111
For same power output, induction motor draws double the current from the supply since the power
factor is half of that of iron box.
POWER IN SERIES RL CIRCUIT
V 0 
Inductive reactance, X L   L  2 fL
Impedance, R  jX L  Z 
V  0
Current, I   I   
Z 
Complex power, S  V 0 ( I   )*  V 0 I   VI 
Active power = P  VI cos  (Unit: Watts)
Reactive power = Q  VI sin  (Unit: VAR)
P VI cos 
Power Factor =   cos 
S VI
From the phasor diagram,

V cos   IR
V sin   IX L
Active power = P  VI cos   IR  I  I 2 R
Reactive power = Q  VI sin   I  IX L  I 2 X L
For series RL circuit,
Active power, P  VI cos   I 2 R Reactive power, Q  VI sin   I 2 X L
XL R
Power factor angle,   tan 1 Power factor, cos  
R R  X L2
2
Impedance, R  jX L  Z  Inductive reactance, X L   L  2 fL
A sinusoidal voltage 23015 V of frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series RL circuit consisting of

R=5Ω and L=0.1 H. Calculate (i) rms current and its phase angle (ii) power factor (iii) average
power (iv) reactive power and (v) apparent power drawn by the circuit.
(APJAKTU July 2021)
Ans: -
Page 80 of 111
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.1  31.416
Impedance, Z  R  jX L  5  j31.416  31.8180.96
23015
I  7.23  65.96 A
31.8180.96
Power factor, cos   cos( 80.96)  0.157 lag
(Note: Power factor is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current; here, 15 – (-65.96) =
80.96▫ which is same as the impedance angle)
Complex power,
S  V  I *  23015  (7.23  65.96)*  23015 7.2365.96  261.28  j1642.24
P  jQ  261.28  j1642.24
Active power = P = 261.28W
Reactive power Q = 1642.24VAR
In a series RL circuit, R = 3.5Ω and L = 0.1H. If a 220V, 50Hz supplied is applied across it, find
i) the impedance, ii) the current and iii) the power factor.
Ans: -
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.1  31.416
Impedance, Z  R  jX L  3.5  j 31.416  31.6183.64
V  0 2200
I   6.96  83.64 A
Z 31.6283.64
Power factor, cos   cos( 83.64)  0.11lag
In a series RL circuit, R = 3.5Ω and L = 0.1H. Find i) the impedance, ii) the current and iii) the
power factor, if the supply voltage is 22030 V, 50Hz.
Ans: -
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.1  31.416
Impedance, Z  R  jX L  3.5  j 31.416  31.6183.64
V  0 22030
I   6.96  53.64 A
Z 31.6283.64
In an AC circuit, the impressed voltage is V  100  j 50 volts and the current in the circuit is
I  3  j 4 A. Find the active and reactive power in the circuit.
Ans: -
Complex power, S  V  I *  (100  j 50)  (3  j 4)*  (100  j50)  (3  j 4)  500  j 250
P  jQ  500  j 250
Active power = P = 500W
Reactive power Q = 250VAR
A choke coil takes a current of 2  60 A . Applied voltage is 2000V , 50Hz. Find R, L and Z.
Ans: -
2000
Z  R  jX L   50  j 86.6
2  60
R = 50Ω
XL = 86.6Ω
2 fL  86.6
Page 81 of 111
86.6
L  0.276 H
2  50
POWER IN SERIES RC CIRCUIT
V 0 
1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C  
C 2 fC
From phasor diagram,
Voltage, V  IR  jIX C  IZ   
Impedance, R  jX C  Z   
V 0
Current, I   I 
Z   
Complex power, S  V 0  ( I )*  V 0 I     VI   
VI     VI cos   jVI sin   P  jQ
Active power = P  VI cos  (Unit: Watts)
Reactive power = Q  VI sin  (Unit: VAR)
P VI cos 
S VI
From the phasor diagram,
V cos   IR
V sin   IX C
Active power = P  VI cos   IR  I  I 2 R
Reactive power = Q  VI sin   I  IX C  I 2 X C
For series RC circuit,
Active power, P  VI cos   I 2 R Reactive power, Q  VI sin   I 2 X C
XC R
Power factor angle,   tan 1 Power factor, cos  
R R  XC2
2
Impedance, R  jX C  Z    1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C  
C 2 fC
LEADING & LAGGING POWER FACTOR

A load in which the current lags the applied voltage is said to have a lagging power factor. However,
a load in which the current leads the applied voltage is said to have a leading power factor.
The current in an inductive load will lag the applied voltage by certain angle. Therefore, an inductive
load will have a lagging power factor. Good examples of inductive loads are transformers, motors,
generators, and typical residential loads.
Page 82 of 111
A leading power factor is one in which the current leads the applied voltage by certain angle. A power
factor correction capacitor is an example for a load having a leading power factor.
In a series RC circuit, R = 50Ω and C = 100μF. If a 100V, 50Hz supplied is applied across it, Find
i) the impedance, ii) the current and iii) the power factor.
Ans: -
1 1
XC    31.83
2 fC 2    50  100  10 6
Impedance, Z  R  jX C  50  j31.83  59.27  32.48
V 0  1000
I   1.687 32.48 A
Z 59.27  32.48
Power factor cos   cos(32.48)  0.844 lead
When an alternating voltage of (80+j60) V is applied to a circuit, the resulting current flow is (-
4+j10) A. Find the impedance, power consumed and the phase angle of the circuit.
Ans:
V  80  j 60  100 36.87V
I  4  j10  10.77 111.8 A
10036.87
Z  9.285  74.93 (Impedance angle negative means load is capacitive)
10.77111.8
Power factor, cos(74.93)  0.26 lead
Power consumed, P  VI cos   100  10.77  cos(74.93)  280W
POWER IN PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT
V 0 
Note: In parallel circuit, take V as reference and in series circuit, take I as reference.
R  jX L
Impedance,  Z 
R  jX L OR
V  0 V 0  V 0 
Current, I   I    I   I   
Z  R jX L
Complex power, S  V 0 ( I   )*  V 0 I   VI 
Active power = P  VI cos 
Page 83 of 111
Reactive power = Q  VI sin 

P VI cos 
S VI
POWER IN PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT
V 0 
R  (  jX C )
Impedance,  Z   
R  jX C OR
V 0 V 0  V  0 
Current, I   I  I   I 
Z    R  jX C
Complex power, S  V 0  ( I )*  V 0 I     VI   
VI     VI cos   jVI sin   P  jQ
P VI cos 

Power Factor =  cos 
S VI
POWER IN SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
V 0 
Impedance = R  j ( X L  X C )
V 0 
Current, I 
R  j( X L  X C )
Page 84 of 111
Active power = P  VI cos   I 2 R

Reactive power = Q  VI sin   I 2 ( X L  X C )
R
Power Factor = cos   (lag or lead or unity)
R  ( X L  X C )2
2
A resistance of 20Ω, inductance of 0.2H and capacitance of 150μF are connected in series across
a 230V, 50Hz supply. Find impedance, current, power factor, active power and reactive power.
Ans: -
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.2  62.83
1 1
XC    21.22
2 fC 2    50  150  10 6
Z  R  j ( X L  X C )  20  j (62.83  21.22)  46.1764.33
V  0 2300
I   4.98  64.33 A
Z 46.1764.33
Power factor cos   cos(64.33)  0.433 lag
Active power = P  VI cos   230  4.98  cos(64.33)  496.17W
Reactive power = Q  VI sin   230  4.98  sin(64.33)  1032.35VAR
A resistance of 20Ω, inductance of 0.2H and capacitance of 40μF are connected in series across a
230V, 50Hz supply. Find impedance, current, power factor, active power and reactive power.
Ans: -
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.2  62.83
1 1
XC    79.58
2 fC 2    50  40  106
Z  R  j ( X L  X C )  20  j (62.83  79.58)  26.1  39.95
V 0  2300
I   8.8139.95 A
Z 26.1  39.95
Power factor cos   cos(39.95)  0.767 lead
Active power = P  VI cos   230  8.81 cos(39.95)  1553.37W
Reactive power = Q  VI sin   230  8.81 sin(39.95)  1301.1VAR
A resistor of l0 Ω, an inductor of 0.3 H and a capacitor of 100 μF are connected in series across a
230V, 50 Hz, single phase ac supply. Determine (a) impedance (b) current (c) power in watts (d)
circuit power factor.
(APJAKTU July 2023)
Ans: -
X L  2 fL  2    50  0.3  94.25
1 1
XC    31.83
2 fC 2    50  100  10 6
Page 85 of 111
Z  R  j ( X L  X C )  10  j (94.25  31.83)  63.21680.9

V 0  2300
I   3.64  80.9 A
Z 63.21680.9
Power factor cos   cos( 80.9)  0.158 lag
Active power = P  VI cos   230  3.64  cos(80.9)  132.4W
Reactive power = Q  VI sin   230  3.64  sin(80.9)  826.66VAR
POWER IN PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
V  0
V  0 V 0  V  0
I  
R jX L  jX C
Power Factor = cos 
Page 86 of 111
Three phase AC systems: Generation of three phase voltages, advantages of three phase systems,
star and delta connections (balanced only), relation between line and phase voltages, line and phase
currents- numerical problems
3-PHASE AC SYSTEMS
Any system with more than one phase is referred to as a polyphase system.
In a balanced 2-phase system, there are 2 equal driving voltages with a phase difference of 90˚
electrical.
In a symmetrical 3-phase system, the phase difference between the driving voltages is 120˚
electrical.
In an n-phase system (n > 2), the relative phase difference is 360˚/n.
A 3-phase generator has 3 independent armature windings (with same number of turns) which are
120˚ apart in space and rotate in a uniform magnetic field.
Consider three identical coils aa’, bb’ and cc’ as shown in the above figure. In this figure a, b and
c are the starting terminals, whereas a’, b’ and c’ are the finish terminals of the three coils. The
phase difference of 120▫ has to be maintained between the start terminals a, b and c.
Now, let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated in an anticlockwise direction
at (ω) rad/sec keeping field stationary. Three EMFs are induced in the three coils respectively.
Instantaneous values of voltages are given by,

e A  E m sin  t
e B  E m sin( t  120  )
ec  E m sin( t  240  )  E m sin( t  120  )
The order in which the voltage attain their peak values is called phase sequence. Here, abc is the
phase sequence. If the direction or rotation is reversed, the phase sequence is reversed and becomes
acb.
Note: There are only 2 possible phase sequences – abc and acb.
Advantages of 3-phase system over 1-phase system:-
i) For same amount of power, 3-phase system is more economical (less amount of conductor
material)
ii) 3-phase induction motors are self-starting; but 1-phase induction motor (with single
winding) are not
iii) 3-phase machines are more efficient (for same output)
iv) 3-phase machines have lesser size (for same output)
Page 87 of 111
Three possible configurations of connections of voltages sources are i) star and ii) delta.
STAR CONNECTED SOURCE

In this connection, the finishing ends of the three windings are joined together at a common point n.
The other ends are connected to the external circuit. The point n is called neutral.
If Vp is the magnitude of the phase voltage,

V an  V p  0 
V bn  V p   120 
V cn  V p   120 
(Note: 3-phase supply is balanced, if the magnitudes of all the 3 voltages are equal and there is a
phase difference of 120▫ between 2 voltages)
Van  Vbn  Vcn  Vp 0  Vp 120  Vp   120  Vp 10  1 120  1  120  0
Page 88 of 111
Line voltage, Vab  Van  Vbn  Vp 0  V p   120  V p 10  1  120  3V p 30
Vbc  3V p (30  120)  3Vp   90
Vca  3V p (30  120)  3V p 150
Hence,
In star, Va  Vb  Vc  V p
In star, Vab  Vbc  Vca  VL  3V p
DELTA CONNECTED SOURCE

In delta connection, the start of one coil is connected to the finish of the next coil.
Taking Vab as reference,

V ab  V p  0 
V bc  V p   120 
V ca  V p   120 
Vab  Vbc  Vca  Vp 10  1120  1 120  0

In delta connection, line voltage = phase voltage.
In balanced delta, Vab  Vbc  Vca  VL  Vp
BALANCED LOAD
A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.
For a balanced star connected load, Z a  Z b  Z c  Z  
Page 89 of 111
Let VL be the line voltage and VP be the phase voltage. Let IL be the line current and IP be the phase
current. For star connected load, IL = IP.
Take VA as the reference voltage ie V P  0 
Va  0 
Ia   Ia  
Z a 
For balanced load, I a  I b  I c  I p and V a  Vb  V c  V p
In balanced star, VL  3Vp IL  I p
Power consumed by a 3-phase load (whether balanced or unbalanced) is equal to the sum of the
power of each phase. For a balanced load, the total power is equal to three times the power per
phase.
3-phase complex power, S  3V P  0   ( I P     ) *  3V P  0   I P     3V P I P   
3-phase active power, P  3V P I P cos   3 V L I L cos   3V L I L cos 
3
3-phase reactive power, Q  3V P I P sin   3 VL
I L sin   3V L I L sin 
3
For a balanced delta connected load, Z ab  Z bc  Z ca  Z   
Let IL be the line current and IP be the phase current. Let VL be the line voltage and VP be the phase
voltage. For delta connected load, VL = VP. Take Vab as the reference voltage ie V P  0 
VP  0
IP   IP  
Z  
In balanced delta, VL  Vp I L  3I p
3-phase complex power, S  3V P  0   ( I P     ) *  3V P  0   I P     3V P I P   

3-phase active power, P  3V P I P cos   3V L I L cos   3V L I L cos 
3
3-phase reactive power, Q  3V P I P sin   3V L IL
sin   3V L I L sin 
3
For balanced star or delta,

Active power (power consumed or absorbed), P  3V P I P cos   3V L I L cos 
Page 90 of 111
Calculate the line currents, active power, reactive power and power factor in the 3-wire star – star
system shown in figure.
Total impedance, Z  15  j 6 
1100
IA   6.8  21.8 A
15  j 6
110  120
IB   6.8  141.8 A
15  j 6
110120
IB   6.898.2 A
15  j 6
Active power, P  3V P I P cos   3  110  6.8  cos 21.8  2083.5W
Reactive power, Q  3V P I P sin   3  110  6.8  sin 21.8  833.3VAR
Power factor, cos 21.8  0.928 (lag)
3 identical resistors of 20Ω are connected in star to a 415V, 3-phase, 50Hz supply. (a) Calculate
the total power taken by the load (b) Also calculate the power consumed in the resistors if they are
connected in delta to the same supply.
Ans:-
Since the load is purely resistive, power factor cos   1
In star,
415
VP   239.6V
3
239.6
IP   11.98 A
20
Power consumed, P  3V P I P cos   3  239.6  11.98  1  8611W
(Also, power consumed = P  3 I P 2 R  3  11.98 2  20  8611W )
In delta,
VP  415V
415
IP   20.75 A
20
Power consumed, P  3V P I P cos   3  415  20.75  1  25834W
Page 91 of 111
A balanced 3-phase load has per phase impedance of (30+j50) Ω. If the load is connected across
400V, 3-phase supply, find i) phase current ii) line current and iii) power supplied to load when it
is connected in a) star b) delta. (APJAKTU December 2019)
Ans:-
Z  30  j50  58.359 Ω (Note: Load is inductive)
STAR CONNECTED LOAD
VL  400V
400
VP   230.94V
3
230.940
IP   3.96  59 A
30  j 50
Power factor, cos   cos 59  0.515lag
Power supplied to the load = 3VP I P cos   3  230.94  3.96  cos 59  1413W
DELTA CONNECTED LOAD
VL  VP  400V
4000
IP   6.86  59  A
30  j 50
I L  3  6.86  11.88 A (Note: Phase angle of IP and IL will be different).
Power factor, cos   cos 59  0.515lag
Power supplied to the load = 3VP I P cos   3  400  6.86  cos 59  4239.8W
(Note: The power in delta connected load with the same load impedance is 3 times that in star
connected load.)
Page 92 of 111
Three inductive coils, each with a resistance of 22Ω and an inductance of 0.05H are connected in
first in star and then in delta, to a 3-phase 415V, 50Hz supply. Calculate for both star and delta
connections, i) phase current and line current and ii) total power absorbed.
Ans:-
Z  22  j (2    50  0.05)  22  j15.7  2735.5 Ω
STAR CONNECTED LOAD
VL  415V
415
VP   239.6V
3
239.6 0
IP   8.865  35.5 A
22  j15.7
Power factor, cos   cos 35.5  0.814lag
Power supplied to the load = 3VP I P cos   3  239.6  8.865  cos 35.5  5187.68W
DELTA CONNECTED LOAD
VL  VP  415V
4150
IP   15.35  35.5 A
22  j15.7
I L  3  15.35  26.6 A
Power factor, cos   cos 35.5  0.814lag
Power supplied to the load = 3VP I P cos   3  415  15.35  cos 35.5  15558.36W
Calculate the line currents, active power, reactive power and power factor in the 3-wire star – star
system shown in figure.
Total impedance, Z  15  j 6 
1100
IA   6.8 21.8 A
15  j 6
110  120
IB   6.8  98.2 A
15  j 6
110120
IB   6.8141.8 A
15  j 6
Active power, P  3V P I P cos   3  110  6.8  cos 21.8  2083.5W
Page 93 of 111
Reactive power, Q  3V P I P sin   3  110  6.8  sin 21.8  833.3VAR

Power factor, cos 21.8  0.928 (lead)
Calculate the line currents, active power, reactive power and power factor in the 3-wire star
– star system if the load impedance is 15 – j6 per phase. Line voltage is 200V.
Phase voltage, VP  200  115.47V

3
Total impedance, Z  15  j 6 
115.470
IA   7.15 21.8 A
15  j 6
115.47   120
IB   7.15  98.2 A
15  j 6
115.47120
IB   7.15141.8 A
15  j 6
Active power, P  3V P I P cos   3  115.47  7.15  cos 21.8  2300W
(OR P  3V L I L cos   3  200  7.15  cos 21.8  2300W )
Reactive power, Q  3V P I P sin   3  115.47  7.15  sin 21.8  920VAR
Power factor, cos 21.8  0.928 (lead)
Calculate the line currents in the 3-wire star – star system shown in figure.
V ab  Van  Vbn  110  0   110   120   190.52  30 V
Page 94 of 111
Vab 190.52  30

I ab    3.175  15  A
Z ab 60  45 
I bc  3.175   15  120  A  3.175   135  A
I ca  3.175   15  120  3.175 105  A
I a  I ab  I ca  3.175  15   3.175 105   5.5  45  A
I b  5.5   45  120   5.5   165  A
I c  5.5   45  120   5.5  75  A
A balanced 3 phase load consists of 3 coils each of resistance 6 Ω and inductive reactance of 8 Ω.
Determine the line current and power absorbed when the coils are (i) star connected (ii) delta
connected across 400v, 3 phase supply. (APJAKTU July 2021)
Three impedances each having resistance 20Ω and an inductive reactance of 15Ω are connected in
star across a 400V, 3 phase, AC supply. Calculate (a) the line current (b) power factor (c) total
power. If the load is connected in delta, determine the total power consumed by the load.
(APJAKTU July 2023)
A balanced 3-phase load has per phase impedance of (30+j50) Ω. If the load is connected across
400V, 3-phase supply, find (i) phase current (ii) line current (iii) power supplied to the load when
it is connected in (a) star (b) delta. (APJAKTU July 2022)
Page 95 of 111
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
First Semester B.Tech Degree Examination (2024 scheme)
Course Code: GXEST104
Course Name: INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Max. Marks: 60 Duration: 2 HRS 30 MTS
PART 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Qn.No. Part A Marks
Answer all questions; each question carries 4 marks
1 A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two 3
resistances of 12 Ω and 8Ω respectively. The total power dissipated in the
circuit is 70 W when the applied voltage is 20V. Calculate R.
2 List any 3 differences between magnetic circuit and electric circuit. 3
3 The mutual inductance between two coils is 18mH. Calculate the steady rate 3
of change of current in one coil to induce an emf of 0.72V in the other.
4 A sinusoidally varying alternating voltage is given by, v (t )  Vm sin t . Find 3
the RMS value of the voltage in terms of maximum value.
Part B
(Answer one full question from each module, each question carries 9
marks)
Module 1
6 a) Derive the expression of energy stored in an inductance. 3
b) Apply Kirchoff’s laws and find the current I in the circuit shown in figure 6
below.
OR
7 a) Three resistance RAB=3Ω, RBC=6Ω and RCA=9Ω are connected in delta. 3
Determine its equivalent star resistances RA, RB and RC.
b) Using mesh analysis, find the current through 5Ω resistance for the circuit 6
shown in figure below.
Page 96 of 111
Module 2
8 a) State and explain Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. 3
b) The power taken by a series circuit containing resistance and inductance is 6
240W when connected to a 200V, 50Hz supply. If the current flowing is 2A,
find the values of the resistance and inductance.
OR
9 a) Define the terms i) instantaneous value, ii) maximum value and iii) RMS value 3
of an alternating voltage.
b) Three coils each having resistance 3Ω and inductive reactance 4Ω are 6
connected i) in star and ii) in delta to a 415V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for
each connection a) the line and phase voltages and b) the phase and line
currents.
Page 97 of 111
PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS

Second Semester B.Tech Degree Examination May 2024 (2019 scheme)
Course Code: EST130
Course Name: BASICS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hours
PART 1 – BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 Derive the expression for energy stored in the inductor. 4
2 A coil of 200 turns carrying a current of 4 A. The magnetic flux linkage with 4
the coil is 0.02 Wb. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If the current is
uniformly reversed in 0.02 s, calculate the self-induced emf in the coil.
3 Define the following terms: (a) magnetic flux density (b) reluctance (c) 4
magnetic field intensity (d) permeability.
4 Draw and explain the phasor diagram and impedance triangle of a series 4
resistive capacitive circuit excited by an AC source.
5 With neat sketch and equations explain the variation of voltage, current and 4
power in a pure capacitor excited by an AC source of v = Vm sin ꞷt.
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Using mesh analysis determine the currents in different resistors. 10
OR
7 Using nodal analysis, determine the voltage across various resistors. 10
Module 2
8 a) An iron ring of 0.15 m diameter and 0.001 m2 in cross-section with a saw cut 6
2 mm wide is wound with 300 turns of wire. The gap flux density is 1T. The
relative permeability of the iron is 500. Determine the exciting current and
inductance. Ignore leakage and fringing.
Page 98 of 111
b) State and explain Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. 4

OR
9 a) An alternating voltage is 𝑣 = 100sin100𝑡. Find (i) amplitude (ii) frequency (iii) 6
Time period (iv) angular velocity (v) form factor.
b) Determine the RMS and average value of a half wave rectified alternating 4
current.
Module 3
10 A resistor of 100 Ω in series with 50 µF capacitor is connected to a supply of 10
200 V, 50 Hz, single phase ac supply. Determine (a) impedance (b) current (c)
power factor (d) voltage across resistor and capacitor. Draw the phasor
diagram.
OR
11 A balanced star connected load of (8 + j 6) Ω per phase is connected to a 400V, 10
3-phase, AC supply. Find the (a) the line current (b) power factor (c) total
power in watts (d) total reactive power.
ANSWER KEY
2 L = 1 H; E =400 V
6 I1= 2.56 A, I2= 1.82 A, I3= -3.14 A
Current through 5Ω= 2.56 A, Current through 3 Ω = 0.74 A (from B to E)
Current through 4 Ω = 1.82 A, Current through 2 Ω = 4.96 A (from C to F),
Current through 8Ω= -3.14 A
7 V1= 12.07 V , V2= 5.1 V, V3= 3.81 V
Voltage across 2 Ω = 12.07V Voltage across 5 Ω = 5.1V
Voltage across 4 Ω = 3.81V Voltage across 3 Ω = 6.97V
Voltage across 1 Ω = 1.29V
Voltage across 5 Ω (connected between node 1 & 3) = 8.26V
8 a) Reluctance of iron ring Si = 746816.9 AT/Wb Reluctance of air gap Sg= 1591549 AT/Wb
Total reluctance S=Si + Sg = 2338365.9 AT/Wb
Flux ϕ=BA=1 mWb mmf=ϕ x S = 2338.366
Exciting Current, I= mmf/N=7.79 A Inductance = Nϕ /I = 38.48 mH
9 a) (i) amplitude=100 V (ii) frequency =15.92 Hz (iii) Time period=62.8 ms (iv) angular
velocity= 100 rad/s (v) form factor=1.1
b) RMS value = Vm/2 and average value = Vm/π
10 V = 200V, XC = 63.69 Ω Impedance = 118.54 Ω
Current, I = 1.69A; phase angle, ɸ =32.48° Pf =0.8435 lead, VR= 169 V, Vc = 107 V
11 Impedance per phase Zp= 10 Ω, Phase voltage Vp= 230.94 V
Phase current Ip= 23.09 A, Line current = 23.09 A
Pf = 0.8 lag, P = 12.7 kW
Reactive power = 9.6 kVAr
Page 99 of 111

Second Semester B.Tech Degree Examination July 2023 (2019 scheme)
Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws. 4
2 Find the equivalent resistance across AB. 4
3 An alternating current is given by i  50 sin 314t . Find (a) the maximum 4

value (b) frequency (c) time period of the current.
4 Explain the phasor diagram and impedance triangle of a series resistive 4
inductive circuit excited by an AC source.
5 Two impedances, Z1=(4+j3)Ω and Z2=(6 - j9)Ω are connected in series. Find 4
the equivalent impedance in polar form
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Solve for the mesh currents in the given circuit. 10
OR
7 Determine the node voltages in the given circuit. 10
Module 2
8 a) A rectangular shaped core wound with a coil of 150 turns and l.2A is made of 6
mild steel plate l0 mm x 20 mm cross-section. The mean length of the
Page 100 of 111

magnetic path is l5cm. Calculate i. magnetizing force ii. flux density iii.
reluctance iv. flux of magnetic circuit. Assume relative permeability of mild
steel as 940.
b) State and explain Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. 4
OR
9 Explain in detail the dynamically and statically induced emfs. An air solenoid 10
has 300 turns, its length is 25 cm and cross-sectional area of 3 cm2. calculate
the self-inductance. If the coil current of l0A is completely interrupted in 0.04
s, calculate the induced emf in the coil.
Module 3
10 A resistor of l0 Ω, an inductor of 0.3 H and a capacitor of 100 pF are connected 10
in series across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase ac supply. Determine (a)
impedance (b) current (c) power in watts (d) circuit power factor.
OR
11 Three impedances each having resistance 20Ω and an inductive reactance of 10
15Ω are connected in star across a 400V, 3 phase, AC supply. Calculate (a)
the line current (b) power factor (c) total power. If the load is connected in
delta, determine the total power consumed by the load.
Page 101 of 111


Second Semester B.Tech Degree Examination July 2021 (2019 scheme)
Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 A conductor of length 0.5m kept at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of 4
2
flux density 2wb/m moves with a velocity of 75 m/s at an angle of 600 to the
field. Calculate the emf induced in the conductor.
2 Define mutual inductance. Two coupled coils of self-inductance 0.8H and 4
0.35H have a coefficient of coupling 0.9. Find the mutual inductance between
the coils.
3 State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws with examples. 4
4 Find the trigonometrical, exponential and polar forms of the vector 8+j6. 4
5 Define (i) active power, (ii) reactive power, (iii) apparent power and (iv) 4
power factor of an ac circuit.
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Use nodal analysis to find V1 in the given circuit. 10
OR
7 Find the current in each branch of the following circuit using mesh analysis. 10
Module 2
Page 102 of 111

8 An iron ring of cross-sectional area l cm2 is wound with a coil of 2000 turns. 10
Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0.1 mWb in
the iron path if mean length of the path is 30cm and relative permeability of
iron is 2500. Neglect magnetic leakages and fringing.
OR
9 A full wave rectified sine function is clipped at 0.707 of its maximum value 10
as shown in figure. Find the average and rms values of the function.
Module 3
10 A sinusoidal voltage 23015 V of frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series RL 10
circuit consisting of R=5Ω and L=0.1 H. Calculate (i) rms current and its phase
angle (ii) power factor (iii) average power (iv) reactive power and (v) apparent
power drawn by the circuit.
OR
11 A balanced 3 phase load consists.of3 coils each of resistance 6 Ω and inductive 10
reactance of 8 Ω. Determine the line current and power absorbed when the
coils are (i) star connected (ii) delta connected across 400v, 3 phase supply.
Page 103 of 111


Second Semester B.Tech Degree Examination June 2022 (2019 scheme)
Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 Three resistors 6Ω,10Ω and 15Ω are connected in star configuration. Obtain 4
the equivalent resistance in delta configuration.
2 Two coils A and B of 500 and 750 turns respectively are connected in series 4
6
on the same magnetic circuit of reluctance 1.55 x 10 AT/Wb. Assuming that
there is no flux leakage, calculate i) self-inductance of the each coil and ii)
mutual inductance between coils.
3 Explain the concept of statically induced emf in a magnetic circuit. 4
4 Derive the relation between line and phase voltages in a 3-phase star connected 4
system.
5 Define the following terms with an example: 4
a) Phase b) Phase difference
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Find the mesh current i1, i2, i3 in the circuit shown in figure by performing mesh 10
analysis.
OR
7 Find the node voltages v1 and v2 in the circuit given in figure. Also find the 10
power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor.
Module 2
Page 104 of 111

8 a) A core forms a closed magnetic loop of path length 32 cm. Half of this path 6
has a cross-sectional area of 2cm2 and relative permeability 800. The other half
has a cross-sectional area of 4 cm2 and relative permeability 400. Find the
current needed to produce a flux of 0.4Wb in the core if it is wound with 1000
turns of insulated wire. Ignore leakage and fringing effects.
b) Compare electric and magnetic circuits. 4
OR
9 a) An iron ring of cross-sectional area 6cm 2 is wound with a wire of 100 turns 8
and has a saw cut of 2mm. Calculate the magnetising current required to
produce a flux of 0.1mWb if mean length of magnetic path is 30cm and relative
permeability of iron is 470.
b) Define the terms relative permeability and flux density and give the relation 2
between the two terms.
Module 3
10 Explain with phasor diagram instantaneous power when alternative current is 10
supplied through a series R-L circuit. Also draw the impedance triangle and
write an expression for active, reactive and apparent power in R-L circuit.
OR
11 A balanced 3-phase load has per phase impedance of (30+j50) Ω. If the load is 10
connected across 400V, 3-phase supply, find (i) phase current (ii) line current
(iii) power supplied to the load when it is connected in (a) star (b) delta.
Page 105 of 111


Second Semester B.Tech Degree Examination December 2021 (2019 scheme)
Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 A coil of 180 turns is linked with a flux of 0.03Wb when carrying a current of 4
10A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If the current is uniformly reversed
in 0.04sec, calculate the emf induced in the coil.
2 An alternating current is represented by i(t) = 14.14 sin (377t). Find i) rms 4
value ii) frequency iii) time period and iv) instantaneous value of the current at
t = 3ms.
3 Derive an expression for the energy stored in an inductor. 4
4 Derive the expression for the current in an ac series RLC circuit. 4
5 A resistance of 10Ω, and inductance of 0.3H and a capacitance of 100μF are 4
connected in series across 230V, 50Hz single phase power supply. Calculate
the impedance, current through and power factor of the circuit.
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Use nodal analysis, find the voltages Va, Vb, Vc and Vd. 10
7 Fin the equivalent resistance between terminal X-Y in the network. 10
Page 106 of 111

Module 2
8 An iron ring has a cross sectional area of 3 cm2 and a mean diameter of 25cm. 10
An airgap of 0.5mm is cut across the section of the ring. The ring is wound
with coil of 200 turns through which a current of 3A is passed. If the total
magnetic flux is 0.28 mWb, find the relative permeability of iron, assuming no
magnetic leakage.
OR
9 a) The instantaneous value of an alternative voltage is given by v = 110 sin(314t). 6
Find the angular velocity, frequency and time period of the voltage.
b) Differentiate between statically and dynamically induced emfs. 4
Module 3
10 A resistance of 10Ω, an inductance of 0.3H and a capacitance of 100μf are 10
connected in series across 230V, 50Hz single phase supply. Calculate: i) the
impedance of the circuit ii) current through the circuit iii) voltage across R,L
and C and iv) power consumed by the circuit.
OR
11 A balanced delta connected 3-phase load is fed from a 3-phase 400V, 50Hz 10
power supply. The line current is 20A and the total power absorbed by the load
is 10kW. Calculate i) the impedance in each branch ii) the power factor and iii)
the total power consumed if the same impedances are star connected.
Page 107 of 111


Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 What are statically and dynamically induced emfs? Explain. 4
2 Derive the expression for average value of a sinusoidal waveform. 4
3 Derive an expression for the energy stored in an inductor. 4
4 Prove that in a purely capacitive circuit the current leads the applied voltage by 4
90▫ and the power consumed is zero.
5 Derive the relation between line and phase currents in a 3-phase delta 4
connected system.
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Find the source current I in the below figure using star-delta transformation. 10
7 Use the nodal analysis to find voltages Va, Vb, Vc and Vd. 10
Module 2
8 Determine the average value and rms value of the current waveform shown in 10
figure below.
Page 108 of 111

OR
9 a) A coil of 50Ω resistance is placed in a magnetic field of 1mWb. The coil has 6
50 turns and a galvanometer of 400Ω resistance is connected in series with it.
Find the average induced emf and the resulting current if the coil is moved in
0.1 sec from the given field to another field of 0.2mWb.
b) Define rms value and average value of a time varying waveform. 4
Module 3
10 A resistor of 50Ω, an inductor of 0.1H and a capacitor of 40μf are connected 10
in series and the combination is connected across 220V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate i) the circuit impedance ii) resulting current iii) power factor iv)
phase angle and v) power consumed by the circuit.
OR
11 Three inductive coils, each with a resistance of 22Ω and an inductance of 0.05H 10
are connected in first in star and then in delta, to a 3-phase 415V, 50Hz supply.
Calculate for both star and delta connections, i) phase current and line current
and ii) total power absorbed.
Page 109 of 111


Course Code: EST130
Qn.No. Part A Marks
1 Define the terms i) mmf ii) magnetic field strength iii) magnetic flux and iv) 4
magnetic flux density.
2 State and explain i) Faraday’s laws and ii) Lenz’s law. 4
3 State and explain Kirchoff’s laws with examples. 4
4 Explain the advantage of 3-phase system of power supply compared to single 4
phase system of power supply.
5 When an alternating voltage of (80+j60) V is applied to a circuit, the resulting 4
current flow is (-4+j10) A. Find the impedance, power consumed and the phase
angle of the circuit.
Part B
marks)
Module 1
6 Calculate the current in each branch of the following circuit using mesh 10
analysis.
7 Using star-delt transformation, determine the equivalent resistance RAB. 10
Page 110 of 111

Module 2
8 An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz has an 10
rms value of 20A.
i) Write down the equation for the instantaneous current
ii) Find the instantaneous value of current at 0.0025s.
iii) Find the instantaneous value of current 0.125s after passing through
a positive maximum value.
iv) At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the
instantaneous current be 14.14A?
OR
9 a) Determine the average and rms values of the triangular voltage wave having 10
maximum value Em volt as shown in figure.
Module 3
10 Two impedances Z1 and Z2 when connected separately across a 220V, 50Hz 10
supply, consume 300W and 150W at a power factor of 0.4 lagging and 0.7
leading respectively. When the two impedances are connected in series across
the same supply, find total power consumed and overall power factor.
OR
11 A balanced 3-phase load has per phase impedance of (30+j50) Ω. If the load is 10
connected across 400V, 3-phase supply, find i) phase current ii) line current
and iii) power supplied to load when it is connected in a) star b) delta.
Page 111 of 111

S1 IEEE Lecture Notes 2024 Scheme Corrected

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GXEST104 IEEE (2024 scheme) Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, GEC Thrissur

Course Assessment Method (CIE: 40 marks, ESE: 60 marks)

Elementary concepts of DC electric circuits:

BILATERAL & UNILATERAL ELEMENT

LINEAR & NON-LINEAR ELEMENT

ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR

NETWORK & CIRCUIT

KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

In the example below,

CURRENT DIVISION RULE

SERIES & PARALLEL CONNECTION

Determine the current in all resistors in the circuit.

Determine the current in all resistors in the circuit.

Determine the currents in each branch.

Determine the current in all resistors in the circuit.

Ans: I1 = 0A, I2 = 0A, I3 = 5A

Ans:- (a) 1.5Ω (b) Zero

Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B.

Using network reduction technique, find the voltage V x.

Using network reduction technique, find the voltage V x.

Find the equivalent resistance across AB.

(APJAKTU July 2023)

Ans:- (a) 3Ω, (b) 3Ω, (c) 1Ω

Determine the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit below.

Ans:- I1 = 0.15A, I2 = 0.15A, I3 = 0.3A

Determine the current drawn from the supply.

8I  13I1  16 I 2  0 --- (3)

Ans:- (a) 50Ω (b) 18Ω (c) 48Ω

STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMATION

DELTA to STAR TRANSFORMATION STAR to DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Using delta-star transformation, find the voltage VBD.

(APJAKTU December 2019)

(APJAKTU December 2020)

Physiological reactions to current levels in humans

Generation in Kerala - Installed capacity - 3514.81MW (2022 – 23)

TARIFF – KSEB, KERALA

POWER CONSUMPTION OF VARIOUS HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES

Analysis of DC Electric circuits: Mesh current method – matrix representation - Solution of

Using mesh analysis, find V.

Using mesh analysis, find the voltage VBD.

MESH ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

For the network shown in figure below,

Using mesh analysis by inspection, find current through 5Ω resistance.

(APJAKTU July 2021)

Applying KCL at node A,

Using nodal analysis, find current through 2Ω resistance.

Using nodal analysis, find voltage across 5Ω resistance.

Using nodal analysis, find the voltage VBD.

Applying KCL at node A,

NODAL ANALYSIS BY INSPECTION

For the network shown in figure below,

Using nodal analysis, find voltage VA, VB and VC by inspection.

ii) Nodal Analysis

(APJAKTU June 2022)

Use nodal analysis to find V1 in the given circuit.

(APJAKTU July 2021)

(APJAKTU December 2020)