TOPIC 2. GENERAL THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING & L2 ACQUISITION. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE & TREATMENT OF ERRORS.

INTRODUCTION: I will start telling you about the justification of this topic. According to our current 2. LINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE
legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020, the teaching of a foreign language must be based on the - THE BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: 1950s. Bloomfield. Traditional behaviourists
communicative approach and communication must be the essential part of a language learning hypothesized that when children imitated the language produced by those around them, their
process, in this way the methodology used for the teaching of a foreign language must be based on this attempts to reproduce what they heard received positive reinforcement. This could take the
communicative approach to make our students not only knowing about language but knowing how to form of praise or just successful communication. Thus, encouraged by their environment,
use it. Once the justification is done, we are ready to start… children would continue to imitate and practice these sounds and patterns until they
formed ‘habits’ of correct language use. Brooks and Lado were 2 proponents of the
1. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AUDIOLINGUALISM which consists of classroom activities emphasizing mimicry and
- we will talk about 1st language acquisition: we listen with pleasure to the sounds made by a memorization and students learned dialogues and sentence patterns by heart. Because
3month old baby. He says ba ba ba; a 1-year-old baby says mommy, daddy, ball, bye, hi, no, dog, baby, language development was viewed as the formation of habits, it was assumed that the
woof woof, and banana. But what enables a child to learn words & put them together? Children build method’s insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of
their abilities to put words together upon their experiences of playing, listening and understanding context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was
words and sentences. Young children start by using single words and gradually put two words discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that
together then three and four, using the words they know. The first 3 years there are predictable errors were not necessarily bad. Mechanical drills can be boring and learners can be
patterns in the development of a language described in terms of ‘developmental sequences’ frustrated in writing skill.
considered as stages. They don’t use adverbs until they have some notion of time. - THE INNATIST PERSPECTIVE: 1960s. Noam Chomsky is one of the most influential
- In terms of 2nd language acquisition: we need to distinguish between a bilingual child that acquires figures in linguistics. The innatist perspective is related to Chomsky’s hypothesis that all
human languages are based on some innate universal principles. According to Chomsky,
a Mother Tongue and L2 without effort because that happened simultaneously and the older learner of
children are biologically programmed for language, and that language develops in the child
a L2 that won’t speak until they have enough knowledge of L2. in just the same way that other biological functions develop. The child doesn’t have to be
- Like L1 learners, L2 learners don’t learn language simply through imitation. They produce taught and the environment makes only a basic contribution. Chomsky argued that the
sentences that are not exactly like those they had heard. behaviourist idea failed because children are able to produce utterances that they have
- Learning a language is different in each learner depending on their characteristics: never heard before. He concluded that children are born with a specific innate ability to
• Intelligence. Some scholars believe that intelligence affects language learning, while others claim discover for themselves the rules of a lg system. This innatism contains the principles of the
that intelligence and foreign language learning are not related. What we are sure about is that no Universal Grammar. According to this theory children are equipped with UG & what they
negative effect of intelligence on language learning is expected. Studies show that children who have a learn is the use of these principles.
low IQ or are born with some mental delay learn language just as well as any other child. According to The innatism perspective is often linked to the Critical Period Hypothesis: humans are
Gardner, there are eight types of intelligence known as the multiple intelligence: linguistic, logical genetically programmed to acquire certain kinds of knowledge and skill at specific time in
mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. So maybe if life. Beyond this ‘critical period’ it is either difficult or impossible to acquire those abilities.
someone has developed the linguistic intelligence would be easier for her to learn a language. It suggests that children who aren’t given access to lg in infancy & early childhood will never
• Aptitude, the ability to learn quickly. A student with high aptitude may learn with greater ease and acquire lg if this deprivation is too long.
speed. As with many measures of aptitude, language learning aptitude is thought to be relatively stable In 1799, Victor was found wandering naked in the woods in France. Victor was captured
once a person matures. when he was 12 and he was completely wild, apparently having had no contact with human.
• Learning styles, just like there are different teaching methods, many individuals also believe there A doctor accustomed to work with deaf children devoted 5 years to socialization Victor and
are different ways to learn and understand new information. Visual learners are those who prefer trying to teach him language, there was very little progress in his language ability.
learning by observing things. Using pictures, images, diagrams, whiteboards and more helps these The best-known model of L2 acquisition influenced by Chomsky’s theory of 1st language
types of learners understand information better. Aural (auditory) Learner Sound and music are a acquisition is STEPHEN KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL 1982. Krashen described his model
strong suit for these types of learners who typically have a good sense of rhythm. Physical in terms of 5 The acquisition-learning hypothesis, Krashen suggests that we ‘acquire’
(kinesthetic) Learner by using their body or hands, these learners are all about the sense of touch. language as we are exposed to samples of lg that we understand in much the same way that
Physical activities and sports play a big part in these student’s lives. children pick up their 1 st language withno conscious attention to language form. We ‘learn’
• Personality, extroverted and self-confident people are well-suited for lg learning. Many second language through conscious attention to form and rule learning.
teachers feel that students with outgoing personalities are more likely to be successful as a second The monitor hypothesis, L2 users use what they have acquired when they are in
language learner than a less outgoing personality. People who are afraid of taking risks will be less spontaneous communication. They may use rules and patterns that have been learned as an
likely to put themselves in situations where they could fail or feel uncomfortable, and language - editor or ‘monitor’ allowing them to make minor changes and polish what the acquired
learning is, of course, a giant leap into a sea of awkwardness. Self-esteem and anxiety are also system has produced. The relationship btw learning and acquisition.
important. The natural order hypothesis was based on the finding that, as in L1 acquisition, L2
- Attitudes & motivation, Motivation is one of the most important factors which influence language acquisition unfolds in predictable sequences. The lg rules that are easiest to estate are not
learners’ success or failure in learning the language. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation to necessarily the 1st to be acquired. The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a
engage in an activity for its own purpose. People who are motivated work on tasks intrinsically natural order, some tend to be acquired at early stages and other later.
because they find them enjoyable. Extrinsic motivation is motivation which is engaged in an activity The comprehensible input hypothesis is that acquisition occurs when one is exposed to
as a means to an end. Individuals who have extrinsic motivation work on tasks because they believe language that is comprehensible. Exposed to comprehensible input.
that participant will result in desirable outcomes such as a reward, teacher praise, or avoidance of The affective-filter hypothesis, learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a low level
punishment. of anxiety and extroversion are better equipped for success in L2 acquisition.
 TOPIC 2. GENERAL THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING & L2 ACQUISITION. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE & TREATMENT OF ERRORS.

3. SOCIOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE 4. NEUROLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE

It is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural
norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on
- HEMISPHERE DOMINANCE: left hemisphere is the one responsible for linguistic skill. Broca’s
area is the frontal lab which is related to speech production, language processing has been linked
language. Sociocultural theory views speaking as related but independent processes,
to Broca’s area since Piece Broca reported impairments in 2 patients. They had lost the ability to
sociocultural theory views speaking & thinking as tightly interwoven. The internalizing is
speak after injuring this area of their brains. Linked to articulation of speech, semantic
thought to occur when an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his zone of
processing and meaning of words. The Wernicke’s area deals with the semantic processing area
proximal development (ZPD)
and memory. Language comprehension. Spoken and written language and signed language.
-DISCOURSE THEORY. This theory is proposed by Halliday (1975) and his view of first
language acquisition. It is believed, according to discourse theorists, that language acquisition Wernicke’s area is responsible for incoming speech together with Broca’s area which controls
will successfully take place when language learners "know" how and when to use the outgoing speech. Left hemisphere has to do with the 1st language acquisition; Right hemisphere
language in various settings and when they have successfully "cognized" various forms of deals with L2 acquisition. Children have shown righter hemisphere dominance. Adults have
competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and shown more left hemisphere dominance.
pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). A language learner needs to "know" conversational - AGE HYPOTHESIS. The ability to acquire a language is biologically linked to age. An ideal time to
strategies to acquire the language. for example, conducted a study on his own son's first acquire a language & after this, lg acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.
language acquisition experience and asserted that basic language functions arise out of The years before puberty, after which, probably as a result of maturational processes in the
interpersonal uses and social interaction. brain, this ability disappears. Young learners are more likely to attain a proficiency inL2 because
- VYGOTSKYAN theory has also been compared to the interaction hypothesisbecause of of:
the interlocutor's role in helping learners understand and be understood. Sociocultural Psychological reasons: adults’ sense of identity their accent provides.
theory holds that people take control and reorganize their cognitive processes during Cognitive factors: adults have greater cognitive abilities than children but these abilities ended
social activity. Practically speaking, developmental processes take place through up in a less successful L2 learning.
participation in cultural, linguistic, and historically formed settings such as family life and Neurological changes: prevent adults from using their brains the same way children do.
peer group interaction, and in institutional contexts like schooling, organized sports
activities, and workplaces, to name only a few. 5. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
- LABOVIAN PARADIGM, relationship between language and society. He developed - THE INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS is a theory of second-language acquisition which states
variationist sociolinguistics. The language is spoken and differs across individuals as well that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to- face interaction and
as situations:
communication. Its main focus is on the role of input, interaction, and output in second
Style shifting: speaker shifts style in order to converge and diverge.
language acquisition. It posits that the level of language that a learner is exposed to must be such
Attention to shifty: to achieve goals. that the learner is able to comprehend it, and that a learner modifying their speech so as to make
The vernacular language: is the one used without paying attention to shifting. it comprehensible facilitates their ability to acquire the language in question. Comprehensible
Formality: the more formal the more converge. input is a requirement for second language acquisition, and Input is made comprehensible to
It requires a good amount of data. the learner via negotiations for meaning in conversations.
- ACCOMMODATION THEORY: This theory derives from the research of Giles and focuses on - THE NOTICING HYPOTHESIS is a theory within second-language acquisition that a learner
the uses of language in multilingual communities such as Britain. It operates within a socio- cannot continue advancing their language abilities or grasp linguistic features unless they
psychological framework and its primary concern is to investigate how inter-group uses of consciously notice the input. The theory was proposed by Richard Schmidt in 1990. The
language reflect basic social and psychological attitudes in interethnic communication. This noticing hypothesis explains the change from linguistic input into intake and is considered a
theory shows how people consciously or unconsciously converge (or accommodate) or
form of conscious processing. It is exclusive from attention and understanding, and has been
diverge with standards of the dominant community according to social, political or personal
criticized within the field of psychology and second language acquisition.
aspects.
SWAIN 1985 proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis, states that learning takes
place when learners encounter a gap in their linguistic knowledge of the L2. By noticing this gap,
learners become aware of it and may be able to modify their output so that they learn something
new about the language. Under some conditions, CO facilitates second language learning in ways
that differ from and enhance input due to the mental processes connected with the production of
language. This hypothesis is closely related to the Noticing hypothesis. Swain defines three
functions of output.
 TOPIC 2. GENERAL THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING & L2 ACQUISITION. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE & TREATMENT OF ERRORS.

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS was used extensively in the field of second language
6. INTERLANGUAGE acquisition (SLA) in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of a
Interlanguage is the study of the ways non-native speakers acquire, comprehend, and use target language were more difficult to acquire than others. According to the behaviourist theories
linguistic patterns or speech acts in a second language. The behaviourist and prevailing at the time, language learning was a question of habit formation, and this could be
structuralist's view that language was learnt by habit formation led them to establish that reinforced or impeded by existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in
the L1 was a source of interference as a result of negative transfer onto the L2. This view a second language (L2) depended on the difference between the learners' mother language (L1) and
was challenged by those studies that showed that children learning their mother tongue the language they were trying to learn.
followed a predictable "natural route". In the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourist accounts approached the concept of error as
Chomsky was about the first to criticize the habit formation theory. He formulated his a sign of non-learning, as they were thought to interfere with the acquisition of second language
theory of L1 acquisition. He talked of innateness, rule governed process and of a language habits.
acquisition device that allowed us to learn our L1. The counterpart of this acquisition One of the dominant figures in this field, Corder (1981), helped to give this error treatment a new
device in SLA was that of the " creative construction". As we have mentioned before direction, elevating the status of errors from undesirability to that of a guide on language learning
transfer could not account for all Second learner's language. There were other cognitive process. According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, proposed by Krashen (1983), the
processes responsible for generating this interlanguage. acquisition of grammatical structures takes place in a predictable order in which errors are signs
Selinker noted that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are of naturalistic developmental processes.
Errors are no longer seen as 'unwanted forms' but an active learner's contribution to second
different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same
language acquisition.
meaning. Selinker (1972) suggested that five principal processes operated in Selinker. errors are seen as a positive contribution to language learning, and give LOMLOE
interlanguage: students an active role in the language learning process. Error analysis serves therefore a
1. language transfer, use of native words in place of L2 ones. twofold purpose; on the one hand it serves to understand the underlyingprocesses the learners go
2. overgeneralization, -ed flied, flew regularize the lg. through so that we can better understand the construction of learners’ interlanguage. On the
3. transfer of training, teacher’s mistakes: fossilization of errors other hand, it will guide us on the teaching-learning process.
4. strategies of L2 learners: hype regularization or imitation. Teachers should treat the errors depending on what they are looking for: fluency oraccuracy.
5. strategies of L2 communication, improvise.
This interlanguage theory was the result of cognitive and mentalist views on L2 learning. CONCLUSION: All the attempts to create an artificial language have been failed and this
One of the most visible results of this theory on language teaching and learning was that no is because we do not know exactly how languages are learned. We have some ideas that linguists
longer were errors seen as a sign of faulty productions but as a source of progress and have been studying for a long time. The different perspectives show us explanation about the
processing. Error analysis" becomes a way of investigating the processes underlying the attempts to explain how languages are learned.
learner's production. Errors unlike other behaviourist views are treated as evidence of the
active contribution of the learner to acquisition. Errors are the external manifestation of the
hypothesis testing process which is responsible for the continual revision of the BIBLIOGRAPHY:
interlanguage system. • Lightbow and Spada. How Languages Are Learned. Oxford University Press,2006.
• Zheng, X. Language Theories and Second Language Learning. Celea Journal.
2005.
7.TREATMENT OF ERRORS
Furthermore, errors under this perspective will also be an important source for the study of • www.britannica.com,
student's interlanguage. Error analysis, therefore, will substitute contrastive analysis and the • The Oxford English Dictionary
study of learner's errors will serve us, one in order to understand cognitive processes that
our students undergo, and two, as our starting point in the planning of remedial teaching.
Children entering "grammar schools" were initially given a rigorous introduction to Latin
grammar (Howatt 1984) and errors were often met with brutal punishment.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, contrastive analyses were conducted, in which two languages
were systematically compared. Researchers at that time were motivated by the prospect of
being able to identify points of similarity and difference between native languages (NLs) and
target languages (TLs). There was a strong belief that a more effective pedagogy would result
when these were taken into consideration. This type of error analysis was known as
Contrastive Analysis