Multiple Access Techniques

for Wireless
Communications
Wireless Communication and Satellite Communication

Reference:
Chapter 8: Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless
Communications, Wireless Communication Theodore
Rappaport
 Introduction
• Multiple access control channels
• Each node is attached to a transmitter/receiver which
communicates via a channel shared by other nodes
• Transmission from any node is received by other nodes

Node 3

Node 4
Node 2 Shared Multiple
Access Control

…
Channel to BS

Node 1 Node N
2
 Introduction
Multiple Access is a technique used to allow multiple users to
access the channel simultaneously without any interference.

Different types of Multiple Access Techniques are as follows:

I. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

II. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
III.Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
IV.Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that each
conversation is carried on a different frequency.
• Features:-
• The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
• If an FDMA channel is not in use, it sits idle and cannot be used by other
users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
• After assigning a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.

Example:
• In GSM system, entire frequency band of 25 MHz is divided into 124 RF carriers
of 200 KHz bandwidth each.
• In Satellite communication system, entire transponder band of 500 MHz is divided
into 24 channels having 40MHz bandwidth each (36 MHz useful BW, 4MHz guard
band).
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• The bandwidths of channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz) as each channel
supports only one circuit per carrier i.e. why, FDMA is usually implemented
in narrowband systems.
• The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay spread. This
implies that the amount of intersymbol interference is low and, thus, little or
no equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.
• Even though no two users use the same frequency band at the same time,
guard bands are introduced between frequency bands to minimize ACI.
• Since the user has his portion of the bandwidth all the time, FDMA does not
require synchronization or timing control, which makes it algorithmically
simple.
 Nonlinear Effects in FDMA
● FDMA: many channels share the same antenna at the base station.
● The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation
for maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear.
● The non linearities cause signal spreading in the frequency domain and generate
intermodulation (IM) frequencies.
● IM is undesired RF radiation which can interfere with other channels in the FDMA
systems.
● Spreading of the spectrum results in adjacent-channel interference.
● Intermodulation is the generation of undesirable harmonics.
FDMA usage by AMPS
● The first U.S. analog cellular system, the Advanced Mobile Phone
System(AMPS), is based on FDMA/FDD.
● A single user occupies a single channel while the call is in progress, and the
single channel is actually two simplex channels which are frequency duplexed
with a 45 MHz split.
● When a call is completed, or when a handoff occurs, the channel is vacated so
that another mobile subscriber may use it.
● Multiple or simultaneous users are accommodated in AMPS by giving each
user a unique channel.
● Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to mobile
unit, and on the reverse channel from the mobile unit to the base station.
● In AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation(NBFM) is used to
modulate the carrier.
 Number of Channels supported in FDMA System

The number of channels that can be simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is

given by

Where, Bt is the total spectrum allocation , Bguard is the guard band allocated at the
edge of the allocated spectrum, and Bc is the channel bandwidth.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of the time
● In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals called slots. User
data is transmitted in the slots. Several slots make up a frame.
● To prevent synchronization errors and inter-symbol interference due to signal
propagation time differences, guard intervals are introduced between time slots.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of
the time
● In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals,
called slots. User data is transmitted in the slots. Several slots
make up a frame.
● To prevent synchronization errors and inter-symbol
interference due to signal propagation time differences, guard
intervals are introduced between time slots.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● Each user is assigned a frequency and a time slot to transmit data.

● preamble carries the address and synchronization information that the

base station and mobile stations use for identification.
Efficiency of TDMA
Features of TDMA

● TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use of nonoverlapping time slots.
● The number of time slots per frame depends on several factors, such as
modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc.

● Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous but occurs in
bursts.
● results in low battery consumption since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in
use (which is most of the time).
Features of TDMA

● Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much

simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations
during idle time slots.
● High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst
transmissions.
● TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be
synchronized for each data burst.
● In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users, and this results in the
TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.
Features of TDMA

● TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different numbers of

time slots per frame to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on
demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slots based on
priority
FDMA vs TDMA
● DIY
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
● the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal
called the spreading signal.

● The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate
which is orders of magnitudes greater than the data rate of the message.

● All users in a CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously.

● Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is approximately

orthogonal to all other codewords.

● The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific
desired codeword.

● All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation.

● For detection of the message, the receiver needs to know the codeword used
by the transmitter.

● Each user operates independently with the knowledge of the other users.
Near Far Problem in CDMA
Near Far Problem in CDMA
● Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that
each mobile within the base station coverage area provides the same signal level to
the base station receiver.
● This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station
receiver and drowning out the signals of far-away subscribers.

● Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio
signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of each mobile and then sending a power
change command over the forward radio link.

● Despite the use of power control within each cell, out-of-cell mobiles provide
interference which is not under the control of the receiving base station.
Features of CDMA
• Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD or
FDD may be used.

• Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.

• Increasing the number of users in a system raises the noise floor in a
linear manner.
• Hence, there is no absolute limit on the number of users in CDMA.
• The system performance gradually degrades for all users as the number
of users increases and improves as the number of users decreases.
Features of CDMA
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread
over a large spectrum. If the spread spectrum bandwidth is greater than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel, the inherent frequency diversity will
mitigate the effects of small-scale fading.

• Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial diversity
to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base stations. The
MSC may choose the best version of the signal at any time without switching
frequencies.
Features of CDMA

● Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming arises from the

fact that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal,;
in the despreading of a particular PN code, non-zero contributions
to the receiver decision statistic for a desired user arises from the transmissions
of other users in the system.

● The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user has a

high detected power as compared to the desired user.
 Advantages of CDMA (Self Reading)

➔ 1. Increased Capacity:
▪ allows multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously.
▪ Each user's signal is spread with a unique code – which makes it possible to have
more users on the network compared to older technologies

➔ 2. Improved Call Quality:

▪ CDMA provides better call quality and reduced interference compared to analog
cellular systems.
▪ The technology can suppress background noise and interference effectively,
resulting in clearer voice calls.

➔ 3. Enhanced Security:
▪ Using unique spreading codes for each user makes it difficult for unauthorized users
to eavesdrop on conversations or gain access to the network without proper
authorization.
▪ provides an added layer of security.

➔.
 Advantages of CDMA (Self Reading)

➔ 4. Flexible Resource Allocation:

▪ can dynamically allocate bandwidth to users based on their needs.
▪ allows for efficient resource utilization and improved network performance.

➔ 6. Soft Handoffs:
▪ supports soft handoffs, where a mobile device can simultaneously connect to multiple
base stations, allowing for smoother transitions between cells.
▪ results in reduced call drops during handovers.

➔ 7. Support for Data and Voice:

▪ can support both voice and data services, making it suitable for a wide range of
applications, including text messaging, internet access, and multimedia services.

➔ 8. Spectral Efficiency:
▪ known for its spectral efficiency, as it allows for multiple users to share the same
frequency band without significant interference.
▪ results in more efficient use of the available spectrum.
 Disadvantages of CDMA
1.Complexity:
more complex to design and implement compared to other multiple access technologies like
TDMA or FDMA.
This complexity can result in higher infrastructure and handset costs.

2. Near-Far Problem:
can suffer from the "near-far problem," where a mobile device closer to a base station can
transmit with more power, potentially overwhelming signals from mobile devices farther away.
can impact the network's capacity and efficiency.

3. Limited Device Availability:

CDMA handsets and devices may have limited availability compared to GSM devices,
particularly in certain regions.
can limit consumer choice and may lead to compatibility issues when switching between
networks.

4. Bandwidth Allocation: CDMA networks allocate bandwidth to users dynamically, which can
lead to varying data rates for users depending on network conditions and the number of active
users in a cell.
 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Definition:
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
• SDMA serves different users by using spot beam
antennas.

• SDMA allocates a separate space to users in a wireless

network.

• follows a multiple input and multiple output architecture

(MIMO).

• What is MIMO: an antenna technology for wireless

communications in which multiple antennas are used at both the
source (transmitter) and the destination (receiver)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Since we want to have an interference free environment for the users

who want to transmit their information on the common medium.

Thus we want to make sure that at least one of the following occurs:
1. No two users transmit at the same time.
2. No two users use the same frequency.
3. No two users should transmit in the same space.

a. Multiple directional antennas

b. All users are separated by a
certain distance (spatially apart)
known as the reuse distance.
c. These users can transmit at the
same time using the same
frequency.
d. Directional antennas/Spot beams
are used.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

● Instead of having an omnidirectional antenna, we have multiple

directional antennas whose coverage is a spot beam

With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at
the same time using the same channel.
Role of SDMA in Wireless Communications

● SDMA can be used for mobile communication and satellite communication.

● The satellite dish antennas transmit signals to various zones on earth’s surface.
These antennas are highly directional.
● Hence same frequency can be used for multiple surface zones.

in Fig, area A1 and area A3 are physically apart. Hence, same channel-1 is used to
send signals to A1 and A3 with the help of highly directional antennas. There will
be no signal interface between the signals of areas A1 and A3.
Role of SDMA inWireless Communications

SDMA use smart antennas to establish narrow beamwidth.

Definitation of smart antenna: an antenna with a digital signal processing capability to
transmit and receive in an adaptive and spatially sensitive manner.

Some examples of smart antennas are the following:

Sectored antennas:
• simplest form of smart antenna.
• antenna provides significant capacity gains - by dividing the service area of each Base station into
more than three angular sections - significant amount of isolation between them.
Role of SDMA inWireless Communications

Switched beam antennas:

● have a number of fixed beams that cover 360
degree and are typically narrower than sectored
antennas.
● receiver selects the beam that provides the best
signal and interference reduction.

Adaptive antennas (High sensitivity reception):

• dynamically adjusts its pattern to minimize the

effects of noise, interference and multipath.

• With adaptive antenna , there is one beam for

each user.
 Advantages of SDMA
1. Improved Spatial Efficiency:
● allows for more efficient utilization of the spatial dimension in wireless
communication.
● By using multiple antennas, it's possible to serve multiple users simultaneously in
the same physical space without causing interference.

2. Increased Capacity:
● can significantly increase the capacity of a wireless communication system by
enabling concurrent transmissions to multiple users or devices.
● This results in higher data rates and a more efficient use of available spectrum.

3. Enhanced Throughput:
● the system can support multiple data streams to different users simultaneously.
● This means that more data can be transmitted and received in a given time period,
leading to higher throughput for each user.

4. Better Quality of Service (QoS):

● can improve the quality of service for users by reducing interference and
enhancing signal reliability.
● particularly important in scenarios where multiple users are in close proximity or
in environments with a lot of reflections and signal multipath.
 Advantages of SDMA

5. Enhanced Coverage and Range:

● can help extend the coverage area of a wireless network by using spatial diversity.
● By transmitting multiple copies of a signal from different antennas, it's possible to
improve signal reception at the user end, especially in challenging propagation
environments.

6. Improved Security:
● can enhance security by directing signals more precisely to intended recipients, making
it harder for eavesdroppers to intercept the communication.

Overall, SDMA is a valuable technique in wireless communication systems that can

lead to significant improvements in capacity, performance, and user experience by
harnessing the spatial dimension for more efficient data transmission. It is
particularly useful in scenarios with high user density and challenging wireless
environments.
 Disadvantages of SDMA
1. Complexity and Cost:
● Implementing SDMA in a wireless system requires multiple antennas at both the
transmitter and receiver, which can increase the complexity and cost of the
infrastructure.
● cost of deploying and maintaining multiple antennas and the associated signal
processing equipment can be a significant drawback.

2. Deployment Challenges:
● Deploying SDMA in real-world scenarios can be challenging. It may require careful
planning and site surveys to determine the optimal antenna placement and
beamforming strategies.
● can be especially difficult in environments with physical obstacles, such as buildings
or foliage.

3. Signal Interference:
● SDMA is designed to mitigate interference- still be susceptible to interference from
sources that are not easily controllable, such as external sources or reflections.

4. Limited in Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) Scenarios:

● relies on the spatial separation of users, which can be less effective in non-line-of-
sight scenarios where signals encounter obstacles and multipath propagation.
● In such cases, SDMA may not provide the expected performance gains.
Disadvantages of SDMA
5. Beamforming Overhead: The process of beamforming, which is
central to SDMA, requires additional computational resources and
signaling overhead. This can consume processing power and bandwidth,
impacting overall system efficiency.

6. Channel Variability: The effectiveness of SDMA can be affected by the

variability of the wireless channel. Users moving or changing their
positions can create challenges in maintaining optimal beamforming
configurations.

7. Limited User Density: The benefits of SDMA are more pronounced in

scenarios with a moderate to high user density. In sparsely populated areas,
the advantages of SDMA may not be as significant.

11. Regulatory Considerations: In some regions, regulatory constraints

on antenna heights and power levels may limit the practical deployment of
SDMA.
●
link - Mobile station will transmit to base station.
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
(Channelization)
Difference between Multiplexing and Multiple
Access
Multiplexing:
○ used to combine multiple data streams into a single data stream for
transmission over a shared communication channel.
○ allows multiple signals to share the same physical medium without
interfering with each other.
○ often used in scenarios where multiple data sources need to be
transmitted over a common link, such as in telecommunication systems.

Multiple Access:
○ a technique used to allow multiple users or devices to access and
transmit data over a shared communication channel
○ concurrently without causing collisions or interference. commonly used
in network communication, such as in wireless networks or Ethernet
LANs.
Difference between Multiplexing and Multiple
Access
2. Operation:
Multiplexing:
○ combines data streams by allocating specific time slots, frequency
bands, or code sequences to each source or user.
○ These allocated slots are used in a predetermined order to transmit
data over the shared medium.
○ Common multiplexing techniques include TDM, FDM, and CDM.

Multiple Access:
○ enable multiple users to share the medium simultaneously.
○ Users contend for access to the medium, and the method of
contention avoidance varies based on the multiple access scheme
in use.
○ Common multiple access techniques include CSMA, TDMA,
CDMA, and FDMA.
Difference between Multiplexing and Multiple
Access
3. Use Cases:
Multiplexing:
● typically used in scenarios where the multiple data sources do not
need to transmit data simultaneously and can take turns using the
shared medium.
● For example, in traditional telephony, TDM is used to combine
multiple voice calls into a single transmission line.

Multiple Access:
● is employed when multiple users or devices need to transmit data
simultaneously and independently over a shared medium, such as
in wireless communication networks.
The concept of Multiplexing
● Multiplexing refers to the combination of information streams from
multiple sources for transmission on a shared medium.
○ A multiplexor implements the concept

● Demultiplexing refer to the separation of combination into separate

information streams.
○ A Demultiplexor implements the concept.

• Each sender communicates with a single

receiver
• All pairs share a single transmission medium
• Multiplexor combines information from the
senders
• Demultiplexor can separate the information for
receivers
Basic Types of Multiplexing
● There are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each
have a set of variations and implementations –
○ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
○ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
○ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
○ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
● TDM and FDM are widely used
● WDM is a form of FDM used for optical fiber communication
● CDM is a mathematical approach used in cell phones
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
● Frequency division duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct bands of frequencies
for every user.
● The forward band provides traffic from the base station to the mobile, and the
reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to the base.
● In FDD, any duplex channel actually consists of two simplex channels, and
● a duplexer device is used inside each subscriber unit and base station to allow
simultaneous radio transmission and reception on the duplex channel pair.
● The frequency split between the forward and reverse channels is constant
throughout the system, regardless of the particular channel being used.

FDD provides two simplex

channels at the same time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
● A set of radio stations can transmit electromagnetic signals
simultaneously
– without interference provided they each use a separate channel
(i.e., carrier frequency)
● • A demultiplexer applies a set of filters that each extract a small
range of frequencies near one of the carrier frequencies.
● Figure 11.2 illustrates the concept –
● A key idea is that the filters used in FDM only examine
frequencies
● If a sender/receiver pair are assigned a particular carrier
frequency FDM mechanism will separate the frequency from
others
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
● Advantage of FDM is simultaneous use of a transmission
medium by multiple pairs of entities
● FDM provides each pair with a private transmission path
– as if the pair had a separate physical transmission medium
● Figure 11.3 illustrates the concept
● Practical FDM systems have some limitations.
– If the frequencies of two channels are too close, interference can occur
– Demultiplexing HW that receives a combined signal must be able to divide
the signal into separate carriers
– FCC (in the USA) regulates adequate spacing between the carriers
– Choosing a set of carrier frequencies with a gap between them is known as a
guard band
• Figures 11.3 & 11.4 show an example
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Advantages of FDD

Simultaneous communication:
● enables simultaneous two-way communication.
● With separate uplink and downlink frequency bands, devices can send and receive data
simultaneously without switching between transmit and receive modes.

Continuous communication:
● allows for continuous and uninterrupted communication.
● Since the uplink and downlink frequencies are separate, there is no need for time-sharing or frame-
based switching, ensuring a smooth data flow.

Predictable and stable performance:

● provides consistent and predictable performance because the uplink and downlink frequencies are
allocated in a fixed manner.
● This stability is important for applications where consistent data rates and low latency are critical,
such as voice calls and video streaming.
Advantages of FDD

Interference management:
● By allocating separate frequency bands for uplink and downlink, FDD can help manage interference
more effectively.
● Interference on one frequency band is less likely to affect the other, improving signal quality.

Flexibility in allocating bandwidth:

● allows for flexible allocation of bandwidth between the uplink and downlink, depending on the
specific needs of the communication system.
● This flexibility is beneficial for optimising network resources.
 Disadvantages of FDD
Fixed Bandwidth Allocation:

● allocates a fixed bandwidth for each channel.

● if a channel doesn't fully utilise its allocated bandwidth, the unused spectrum
cannot be easily allocated to other channels.

● can lead to inefficient use of available frequency bands.

Complex Equipment:
● implementing FDM systems often requires complex and expensive equipment,
such as filters, modulators, and demodulators, to separate and combine the
individual signals.
● can increase the cost and complexity of the communication system.
 Disadvantages of FDD
Inflexibility:
● are relatively inflexible when it comes to accommodating new channels or
changing the bandwidth allocation for existing channels.
● Modifying the system to adapt to changing requirements can be challenging and
may require significant reconfiguration.

Limited Scalability:
● may not be easily scalable for accommodating many channels.
● As the number of channels increases, the complexity of the equipment and the
demand for available frequency bands can become a limiting factor.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

● WDM refers to the application of FDM to optical fiber

● The inputs and outputs of such multiplexing are wavelengths of
light
– denoted by the Greek letter λ, and informally called colors
● When white light passes through a prism colours of the spectrum
are spread out
● If a set of colored light beams are each directed into a prism at
the correct angle, the prism will combine the beams to form a
single beam of white light
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Prisms form the basis of optical multiplexing/demultiplexing

– a multiplexor accepts beams of light (of various
wavelengths) and uses a prism to combine them into a single beam
– a demultiplexer uses a prism to separate the wavelengths.
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
Multiplexing in time means transmitting an item from one
source, then transmitting an item from another source, and so
on
• Figure (below) illustrates the concept
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

● time division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency

to provide both a forward and reverse link.
● If the time split between the forward and reverse time slots is
small, then the transmission and reception of data appear
simultaneous to the user.
 Advantages of TDD
Flexible Use of Spectrum:
- allows for dynamic and flexible allocation of time slots for both uplink (transmission)
and downlink (reception) traffic.
- This flexibility is particularly valuable in systems with varying data traffic
requirements, as it allows for efficient use of the available spectrum.

Spectral Efficiency:
- can adapt the ratio of uplink and downlink time slots to match the actual traffic
patterns.
- This adaptability can lead to improved spectral efficiency and reduced waste of
bandwidth, especially in situations with asymmetric data traffic.

Simplified Frequency Planning:

- simplifies frequency planning because it uses the same frequency for both uplink and
downlink communication.
- reduces the complexity of allocating separate frequency bands for each direction of
communication.
Disadvantages of TDD
• TDD operates based on allocated time slots. Hence, it requires strict time
synchronisation to avoid interference between UL (Uplink) and DL (Downlink)
transmissions.

▪ Reduced Coverage and Range:

- have slightly reduced coverage or range compared to FDD systems.
- because it needs to allocate time slots for both uplink and downlink traffic,
reducing the amount of time available for transmitting and receiving.

Complex Network Planning:

- planning and optimising TDD systems can be more complex due to the
need for dynamic time slot allocation and management.
- network planning must consider the traffic patterns and adapt accordingly.
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
• CDM used in the cellular telephone system and for some
satellite communication
– The specific version of CDM used in cell phones is known
as Code Division Multi-Access (CDMA)
• CDM does not rely on physical properties
– such as frequency or time
• CDM relies on an interesting mathematical idea:
– values from orthogonal vector spaces can be combined and
separated without interference
• Each sender is assigned a unique binary code Ci
– that is known as a chip sequence
– chip sequences are selected to be orthogonal vectors
– (i.e., the dot product of any two chip sequences is zero)
Packet Radio Access Protocols

Ref
1. Book: Introduction-to-wireless-and-mobile-systems
2. Class Notes
Introduction (Cont’d)
• Multiple access issues
• If more than one node transmit at a time on the control
channel to BS, a collision occurs
• How to determine which node can transmit to BS?
• Multiple access protocols
• Solving multiple access issues
• Different types:
• Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs. These
protocols execute a collision resolution protocol after each
collision
• Collision-free protocols (e.g., a bit-map protocol and binary
countdown) ensure that a collision can never occur.

65
Classification of Multiple Access
Protocols
Multiple access protocols

Contention-based Conflict-free

Random access Collision resolution

ALOHA, TREE, FDMA,

CSMA, WINDOW, TDMA,
etc
BTMA, CDMA,
ISMA, etc Token Bus,
DQDB, etc
BTMA: Busy Tone Multiple Access
ISMA: Internet Streaming Media Alliance DQDB: Distributed Queue Dual Bus
66
 Contention-Based Protocols

• ALOHA
• Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by Hawaii
University.
• Whenever a station has a data, it transmits. Sender finds out whether
transmission was successful or experienced a collision by listening to
the broadcast from the destination station. Sender retransmits after some
random time if there is a collision.
• Slotted ALOHA
• Improvement: Time is slotted and a packet can only be transmitted at
the beginning of one slot. Thus, it can reduce the collision duration.

67
Contention Protocols (Cont’d)
• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
• Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is ongoing
• CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
• Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is detected
• CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
• Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is
quiet. If still quiet, then transmit
• CSMA/CA with ACK
• CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS

68
 ALOHA
Whenever a station has data, it transmits i.e. frames are transmitted at completely
random times

Sender finds out whether transmission was successful or experience a collision by

listening to the broadcast from the destination station

Sender retransmits after some random time if there is a Collison

69
Frames in Pure ALOHA network

70
Procedure for Pure ALOHA

71
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

72
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

73
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

74
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

75
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

76
Analysis for Pure ALOHA

77
Slotted ALOHA
• Modification of Pure ALOHA
• Have slotted time with the slot size equal to the duration of
packet transmission T

• If a MS has a packet to send, it will wait until the beginning

of the next slot.
• Slotted ALOHA reduces the vulnerable time for packet
collision to single slot.

• A transmission will be successful if and only if exactly one

packet is scheduled for transmission for the current slot.

78
Assumptions

79
Frames in Slotted ALOHA

80
Throughput of Slotted ALOHA

81
Throughput vs Offered Traffic for
ALOHA systems
0.5

0.4 0.368

0.3
Slotted Aloha
S

0.2 0.184

0.1 Aloha

00 2 4 6 8
G
G
82
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

• Max throughput achievable by slotted ALOHA is 0.368.

• CSMA gives improved throughput compared to Aloha
protocols.
• Listens to the channel before transmitting a packet (avoid
avoidable collisions).
• Each MS can sense the transmission of all other MSs.
• the propagation delay is small compared with the
transmission time.

83
 Variants of CSMA
Unslotted Nonpersistent CSMA
Nonpersistent CSMA

Slotted Nonpersistent CSMA

CSMA

Unslotted persistent CSMA

Persistent CSMA

Slotted persistent CSMA

1-persistent
CSMA

p-persistent
CSMA
84
 Nonpersistent/x-persistent CSMA Protocols

• Nonpersistent CSMA Protocol:

Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately
Step 2: If the medium is busy, wait a random amount of time and
repeat Step 1
• Random backoff reduces the probability of collisions
• Waste idle time if the backoff time is too long
If a collision occurs, MS waits for a random amount of time and starts all
over again.

• 1-persistent CSMA Protocol:

Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium
becomes idle, and then transmit immediately
• There will always be a collision if two nodes want to retransmit
(usually you stop transmission attempts after few tries)

85
Nonpersistent/x-persistent CSMA Protocols
• p-persistent CSMA Protocol:
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay
for worst case propagation delay for one packet with probability
(1-p)
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium
becomes idle, then go to Step 1
Step 3: If transmission is delayed by one time slot, continue with Step 1

86
 How to Select Probability p ?

• Assume that N nodes have a packet to send and the

medium is busy
• Then, Np is the expected number of nodes that will
attempt to transmit once the medium becomes idle
• If Np > 1, then a collision is expected to occur

Therefore, the network must make sure that Np < 1 to

avoid collision, where N is the maximum number of
nodes that can be active at a time

87
Throughput

1. 0.01-persistent CSMA
0
Nonpersistent CSMA
0.
9
0. 0.1-persistent CSMA
8
0.5-persistent CSMA
0.
S

7 1-persistent CSMA
0.
6
Slotted
0. Aloha Aloha
5
0.
4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0. G
3
88
0.
 CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)

• In CSMA, if 2 terminals begin sending packet at the same time,

each will transmit its complete packet (although collision is taking
place).
• This Wastes the medium for an entire packet time.
CSMA/CD:
• Main idea: terminate transmission immediately after detection of
a collision.
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until
the channel is idle, then transmit
Step 3: If a collision is detected during transmission,
cease transmitting
Step 4: Wait a random amount of time and repeat
the same algorithm
89
CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)

90
CSMA/CD

• CSMA protocol minimizes the number of collisions while the CSMA/CD can
further reduce the effect of a collision as it renders the medium ready to be
used as soon as possible and is used extensively in wired Ethernet.
• In wireless device, either you can transmit data using the radio or receive
data. Hence, both transmission and sensing is not possible by a wireless radio
and CSMA/CD cannot be used in a wireless environment of a shared channel.
• The collision detection time is two times end-to-end propagation delay.