Multiple Access Techniques For Wireless Communications: Wireless Communication and Satellite Communication
Multiple Access Techniques For Wireless Communications: Wireless Communication and Satellite Communication
for Wireless
Communications
Wireless Communication and Satellite Communication
Reference:
Chapter 8: Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless
Communications, Wireless Communication Theodore
Rappaport
Introduction
• Multiple access control channels
• Each node is attached to a transmitter/receiver which
communicates via a channel shared by other nodes
• Transmission from any node is received by other nodes
Node 3
Node 4
Node 2 Shared Multiple
Access Control
…
Channel to BS
Node 1 Node N
2
Introduction
Multiple Access is a technique used to allow multiple users to
access the channel simultaneously without any interference.
• The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that each
conversation is carried on a different frequency.
• Features:-
• The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
• If an FDMA channel is not in use, it sits idle and cannot be used by other
users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
• After assigning a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.
Example:
• In GSM system, entire frequency band of 25 MHz is divided into 124 RF carriers
of 200 KHz bandwidth each.
• In Satellite communication system, entire transponder band of 500 MHz is divided
into 24 channels having 40MHz bandwidth each (36 MHz useful BW, 4MHz guard
band).
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• The bandwidths of channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz) as each channel
supports only one circuit per carrier i.e. why, FDMA is usually implemented
in narrowband systems.
• The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay spread. This
implies that the amount of intersymbol interference is low and, thus, little or
no equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.
• Even though no two users use the same frequency band at the same time,
guard bands are introduced between frequency bands to minimize ACI.
• Since the user has his portion of the bandwidth all the time, FDMA does not
require synchronization or timing control, which makes it algorithmically
simple.
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA
● FDMA: many channels share the same antenna at the base station.
● The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation
for maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear.
● The non linearities cause signal spreading in the frequency domain and generate
intermodulation (IM) frequencies.
● IM is undesired RF radiation which can interfere with other channels in the FDMA
systems.
● Spreading of the spectrum results in adjacent-channel interference.
● Intermodulation is the generation of undesirable harmonics.
FDMA usage by AMPS
● The first U.S. analog cellular system, the Advanced Mobile Phone
System(AMPS), is based on FDMA/FDD.
● A single user occupies a single channel while the call is in progress, and the
single channel is actually two simplex channels which are frequency duplexed
with a 45 MHz split.
● When a call is completed, or when a handoff occurs, the channel is vacated so
that another mobile subscriber may use it.
● Multiple or simultaneous users are accommodated in AMPS by giving each
user a unique channel.
● Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to mobile
unit, and on the reverse channel from the mobile unit to the base station.
● In AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation(NBFM) is used to
modulate the carrier.
Number of Channels supported in FDMA System
Where, Bt is the total spectrum allocation , Bguard is the guard band allocated at the
edge of the allocated spectrum, and Bc is the channel bandwidth.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of the time
● In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals called slots. User
data is transmitted in the slots. Several slots make up a frame.
● To prevent synchronization errors and inter-symbol interference due to signal
propagation time differences, guard intervals are introduced between time slots.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● each user uses the whole channel bandwidth for a fraction of
the time
● In a TDMA system, time is divided into equal time intervals,
called slots. User data is transmitted in the slots. Several slots
make up a frame.
● To prevent synchronization errors and inter-symbol
interference due to signal propagation time differences, guard
intervals are introduced between time slots.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● Each user is assigned a frequency and a time slot to transmit data.
● TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use of nonoverlapping time slots.
● The number of time slots per frame depends on several factors, such as
modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc.
● Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous but occurs in
bursts.
● results in low battery consumption since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in
use (which is most of the time).
Features of TDMA
● The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate
which is orders of magnitudes greater than the data rate of the message.
● All users in a CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously.
● The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific
desired codeword.
● For detection of the message, the receiver needs to know the codeword used
by the transmitter.
● Each user operates independently with the knowledge of the other users.
Near Far Problem in CDMA
Near Far Problem in CDMA
● Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that
each mobile within the base station coverage area provides the same signal level to
the base station receiver.
● This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station
receiver and drowning out the signals of far-away subscribers.
● Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio
signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of each mobile and then sending a power
change command over the forward radio link.
● Despite the use of power control within each cell, out-of-cell mobiles provide
interference which is not under the control of the receiving base station.
Features of CDMA
• Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD or
FDD may be used.
• Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial diversity
to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base stations. The
MSC may choose the best version of the signal at any time without switching
frequencies.
Features of CDMA
➔ 1. Increased Capacity:
▪ allows multiple users to share the same frequency band simultaneously.
▪ Each user's signal is spread with a unique code – which makes it possible to have
more users on the network compared to older technologies
➔ 3. Enhanced Security:
▪ Using unique spreading codes for each user makes it difficult for unauthorized users
to eavesdrop on conversations or gain access to the network without proper
authorization.
▪ provides an added layer of security.
➔.
Advantages of CDMA (Self Reading)
➔ 6. Soft Handoffs:
▪ supports soft handoffs, where a mobile device can simultaneously connect to multiple
base stations, allowing for smoother transitions between cells.
▪ results in reduced call drops during handovers.
➔ 8. Spectral Efficiency:
▪ known for its spectral efficiency, as it allows for multiple users to share the same
frequency band without significant interference.
▪ results in more efficient use of the available spectrum.
Disadvantages of CDMA
1.Complexity:
more complex to design and implement compared to other multiple access technologies like
TDMA or FDMA.
This complexity can result in higher infrastructure and handset costs.
2. Near-Far Problem:
can suffer from the "near-far problem," where a mobile device closer to a base station can
transmit with more power, potentially overwhelming signals from mobile devices farther away.
can impact the network's capacity and efficiency.
4. Bandwidth Allocation: CDMA networks allocate bandwidth to users dynamically, which can
lead to varying data rates for users depending on network conditions and the number of active
users in a cell.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Definition:
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
• SDMA serves different users by using spot beam
antennas.
Thus we want to make sure that at least one of the following occurs:
1. No two users transmit at the same time.
2. No two users use the same frequency.
3. No two users should transmit in the same space.
With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at
the same time using the same channel.
Role of SDMA in Wireless Communications
in Fig, area A1 and area A3 are physically apart. Hence, same channel-1 is used to
send signals to A1 and A3 with the help of highly directional antennas. There will
be no signal interface between the signals of areas A1 and A3.
Role of SDMA inWireless Communications
2. Increased Capacity:
● can significantly increase the capacity of a wireless communication system by
enabling concurrent transmissions to multiple users or devices.
● This results in higher data rates and a more efficient use of available spectrum.
3. Enhanced Throughput:
● the system can support multiple data streams to different users simultaneously.
● This means that more data can be transmitted and received in a given time period,
leading to higher throughput for each user.
6. Improved Security:
● can enhance security by directing signals more precisely to intended recipients, making
it harder for eavesdroppers to intercept the communication.
2. Deployment Challenges:
● Deploying SDMA in real-world scenarios can be challenging. It may require careful
planning and site surveys to determine the optimal antenna placement and
beamforming strategies.
● can be especially difficult in environments with physical obstacles, such as buildings
or foliage.
3. Signal Interference:
● SDMA is designed to mitigate interference- still be susceptible to interference from
sources that are not easily controllable, such as external sources or reflections.
Multiple Access:
○ a technique used to allow multiple users or devices to access and
transmit data over a shared communication channel
○ concurrently without causing collisions or interference. commonly used
in network communication, such as in wireless networks or Ethernet
LANs.
Difference between Multiplexing and Multiple
Access
2. Operation:
Multiplexing:
○ combines data streams by allocating specific time slots, frequency
bands, or code sequences to each source or user.
○ These allocated slots are used in a predetermined order to transmit
data over the shared medium.
○ Common multiplexing techniques include TDM, FDM, and CDM.
Multiple Access:
○ enable multiple users to share the medium simultaneously.
○ Users contend for access to the medium, and the method of
contention avoidance varies based on the multiple access scheme
in use.
○ Common multiple access techniques include CSMA, TDMA,
CDMA, and FDMA.
Difference between Multiplexing and Multiple
Access
3. Use Cases:
Multiplexing:
● typically used in scenarios where the multiple data sources do not
need to transmit data simultaneously and can take turns using the
shared medium.
● For example, in traditional telephony, TDM is used to combine
multiple voice calls into a single transmission line.
Multiple Access:
● is employed when multiple users or devices need to transmit data
simultaneously and independently over a shared medium, such as
in wireless communication networks.
The concept of Multiplexing
● Multiplexing refers to the combination of information streams from
multiple sources for transmission on a shared medium.
○ A multiplexor implements the concept
Simultaneous communication:
● enables simultaneous two-way communication.
● With separate uplink and downlink frequency bands, devices can send and receive data
simultaneously without switching between transmit and receive modes.
Continuous communication:
● allows for continuous and uninterrupted communication.
● Since the uplink and downlink frequencies are separate, there is no need for time-sharing or frame-
based switching, ensuring a smooth data flow.
Interference management:
● By allocating separate frequency bands for uplink and downlink, FDD can help manage interference
more effectively.
● Interference on one frequency band is less likely to affect the other, improving signal quality.
● if a channel doesn't fully utilise its allocated bandwidth, the unused spectrum
cannot be easily allocated to other channels.
Complex Equipment:
● implementing FDM systems often requires complex and expensive equipment,
such as filters, modulators, and demodulators, to separate and combine the
individual signals.
● can increase the cost and complexity of the communication system.
Disadvantages of FDD
Inflexibility:
● are relatively inflexible when it comes to accommodating new channels or
changing the bandwidth allocation for existing channels.
● Modifying the system to adapt to changing requirements can be challenging and
may require significant reconfiguration.
Limited Scalability:
● may not be easily scalable for accommodating many channels.
● As the number of channels increases, the complexity of the equipment and the
demand for available frequency bands can become a limiting factor.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Spectral Efficiency:
- can adapt the ratio of uplink and downlink time slots to match the actual traffic
patterns.
- This adaptability can lead to improved spectral efficiency and reduced waste of
bandwidth, especially in situations with asymmetric data traffic.
Ref
1. Book: Introduction-to-wireless-and-mobile-systems
2. Class Notes
Introduction (Cont’d)
• Multiple access issues
• If more than one node transmit at a time on the control
channel to BS, a collision occurs
• How to determine which node can transmit to BS?
• Multiple access protocols
• Solving multiple access issues
• Different types:
• Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs. These
protocols execute a collision resolution protocol after each
collision
• Collision-free protocols (e.g., a bit-map protocol and binary
countdown) ensure that a collision can never occur.
65
Classification of Multiple Access
Protocols
Multiple access protocols
Contention-based Conflict-free
• ALOHA
• Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by Hawaii
University.
• Whenever a station has a data, it transmits. Sender finds out whether
transmission was successful or experienced a collision by listening to
the broadcast from the destination station. Sender retransmits after some
random time if there is a collision.
• Slotted ALOHA
• Improvement: Time is slotted and a packet can only be transmitted at
the beginning of one slot. Thus, it can reduce the collision duration.
67
Contention Protocols (Cont’d)
• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
• Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is ongoing
• CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
• Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is detected
• CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
• Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is
quiet. If still quiet, then transmit
• CSMA/CA with ACK
• CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS
68
ALOHA
Whenever a station has data, it transmits i.e. frames are transmitted at completely
random times
69
Frames in Pure ALOHA network
70
Procedure for Pure ALOHA
71
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
72
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
73
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
74
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
75
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
76
Analysis for Pure ALOHA
77
Slotted ALOHA
• Modification of Pure ALOHA
• Have slotted time with the slot size equal to the duration of
packet transmission T
78
Assumptions
79
Frames in Slotted ALOHA
80
Throughput of Slotted ALOHA
81
Throughput vs Offered Traffic for
ALOHA systems
0.5
0.4 0.368
0.3
Slotted Aloha
S
0.2 0.184
0.1 Aloha
00 2 4 6 8
G
G
82
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
83
Variants of CSMA
Unslotted Nonpersistent CSMA
Nonpersistent CSMA
1-persistent
CSMA
p-persistent
CSMA
84
Nonpersistent/x-persistent CSMA Protocols
85
Nonpersistent/x-persistent CSMA Protocols
• p-persistent CSMA Protocol:
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay
for worst case propagation delay for one packet with probability
(1-p)
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium
becomes idle, then go to Step 1
Step 3: If transmission is delayed by one time slot, continue with Step 1
86
How to Select Probability p ?
87
Throughput
1. 0.01-persistent CSMA
0
Nonpersistent CSMA
0.
9
0. 0.1-persistent CSMA
8
0.5-persistent CSMA
0.
S
7 1-persistent CSMA
0.
6
Slotted
0. Aloha Aloha
5
0.
4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0. G
3
88
0.
CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
90
CSMA/CD
• CSMA protocol minimizes the number of collisions while the CSMA/CD can
further reduce the effect of a collision as it renders the medium ready to be
used as soon as possible and is used extensively in wired Ethernet.
• In wireless device, either you can transmit data using the radio or receive
data. Hence, both transmission and sensing is not possible by a wireless radio
and CSMA/CD cannot be used in a wireless environment of a shared channel.
• The collision detection time is two times end-to-end propagation delay.