Applied Physics - II Book (Module 1 and 2 DRAFT)

GOVT.
OF KERALA
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
APPLIED PHYSICS – II
FOR
DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING
(Revision 2021)
Module 1 & 2 (Draft)
Published by
STATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS’

TRAINING & RESEARCH (SITTTR),
KALAMASSERY
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.sitttrkerala.ac.in
Contents
Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................. 1
Wave motion and its applications ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Periodic Motion ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)....................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion .......................................................... 3
1.2.2 Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter .............................. 3
1.2.3 Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM ....................... 4
1.2.4 Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle executing SHM ........ 4
1.2.4 Period (T) ........................................................................................................ 5
1.2.5 Frequency (f) ................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Waves.................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Transverse waves ............................................................................................ 7
1.3.2 Longitudinal waves ......................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Characteristics of a wave .............................................................................. 10
1.3.4 Relation between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength ...................... 10
1.3.5 Sound waves ................................................................................................. 13
1.3.6 Light waves ................................................................................................... 13
1.3.7 Principle of superposition of waves .............................................................. 14
1.3.8 Beats .............................................................................................................. 15
1.3.8 Ultrasonic waves ........................................................................................... 17
1.4 The acoustics of buildings ................................................................................. 18
1.4.1 Reverberation ................................................................................................ 18
1.4.2 Reverberation time ........................................................................................ 19
1.4.3 Methods to control reverberation time .......................................................... 19
1.4.4 Echo .............................................................................................................. 19
1.4.5 Noise ............................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................... 23
Optics ................................................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Introduction to Optics ....................................................................................... 23
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2.2 Reflection of light .............................................................................................. 24
2.2.1 Laws of reflection ......................................................................................... 26
2.2.2 Spherical mirrors ........................................................................................... 26
2.2.3 Mirror formula .............................................................................................. 28
2.2.4 Uses of spherical mirrors .............................................................................. 28
2.3.1 Laws of refraction ......................................................................................... 29
2.3.2 Refractive index ............................................................................................ 30
2.3.3 Some practical examples of refraction .......................................................... 31
2.3.4 Spherical lenses ............................................................................................. 34
2.3.5 Image formation by convex lens ................................................................... 35
2.3.6 Image formation by a concave lens .............................................................. 39
2.3.7 Lens formula ................................................................................................. 40
2.3.8 Power of lens................................................................................................. 41
2.3.9 Magnification of a lens ................................................................................. 41
2.3.10 Combination of lenses................................................................................... 41
2.3.11 Lens defects .................................................................................................. 48
2.4 Optical Instruments .......................................................................................... 49
2.4.1 Simple microscope ............................................................................................. 49
2.4.2 Astronomical Telescope................................................................................ 50
2.5 Total internal reflection .................................................................................... 52
2.5.1 Applications of total internal reflection ........................................................ 53
2.5.2 Optical fiber .................................................................................................. 54
2.5.3 Use of optical fibers in the medical field ...................................................... 56
2.5.4 Use of optical fibers in telecommunication .................................................. 56
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Applied Physics -II
Chapter 1
Wave motion and its applications
Conceptual Learning 1.1

Can you classify the following motions?
1. Pendulum
2. Guitar strings
3. The hands of a clock
4. The swing
5. The movement of spring
6. Motion of planets around the sun
7. Heart beat
8. Tuning fork
1.1 Periodic Motion
We have learned about one-dimensional motion. But this motion is non-repetitive. We

have learned about uniform circular motion also where the motion is repeated after a certain
interval of time, which is periodic. A particle that moves periodically about an equilibrium
position is said to be oscillating or vibrating. In vibratory motion, bodies move to and fro or back
and forth over the same path. They repeat over and over a fixed series of motions returning to
each position at regular intervals of time. The pendulum of a clock executes to and fro motion
about a mean position. The membranes in drums vibrate to and fro about their mean position.
Thus, a motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion.There are many examples for periodic motion such as
State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 1

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a) Vibrations of strings of musical instruments

b) The motion of the earth and other planets around the sun
c) Vertical oscillations of loaded spring
d) Oscillations of a simple pendulum
e) Vibrations of atoms in a crystal
If a body moves in a circular path, it is said to describe circular periodic motion and if the
motion is repeated along a line it is said to describe a linear periodic motion. Periodic motion is
also called harmonic motion.
1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Simple harmonic motion is a particular case of periodic motion and is the most fundamental
type of periodic motion. Simple harmonic motion can be defined as a motion in which the
acceleration of the body is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is
always directed towards the fixed point.
A body undergoing periodic motion has an

equilibrium position inside its path. When the
body is at this position no net external force acts
on it. Therefore, if it is left there at rest it remains
there forever. If the body is given a small
displacement from the position, a force comes
into play that tries to bring the body back to the
equilibrium point giving rise to oscillations or
vibrations.A ball placed in a bowl will be in
equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little Fig. 1.1 Oscillation of a ball in a bowl
from the point, it will perform oscillations in the
bowl.
The properties of simple harmonic motion are:
a) The motion should be periodic

b) When displaced from the mean position, a restoring force, directed towards the mean
position and trying to bring it to the mean position must act on the body.
c) The restoring force should be directly proportional to the displacement of the body
from its mean position.

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1.2.1 Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion
a) Swings that we see in the park.

b) The pendulum oscillates back
and forth from the mean
position.
c) The motion of vibrating mass
attached to a spring.
d) When a tuning fork is made to
vibrate, the prongs of the tuning
fork perform to and fro motion.
The to and fro motion of the Fig. 1.2 Oscillations of a simple
prong is simple Harmonic.
e) The oscillations of Mercury
contained in a U tube when the
liquid column in one limb is Fig. 1.3 SHM as a projection of circular
depressed and released is simple
Harmonic.

Have you done the simple pendulum experiment? If not, experiment in your laboratory and
find the following.
a) Find the dependent factors of the period of the simple pendulum.

b) Find the independent factors of the period of the simple pendulum.
c) Why pendulum clocks are not suitable for use in a spaceship?
d) Write some effects of friction on the oscillations of a body.
1.2.2 Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter
Consider a particle moving along a circle of radius ‘a’ with a constant speed v as shown in
Fig. 1.3. Let the particle be at a point P at any time t. Draw a perpendicular from point P on the

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|
vertical diameter YY on the circle. Let N be the projection (foot of the perpendicular) of the
point P. When the particle is at X, the projection is at O. When the particle moves from X to Y
the projection moves from O to Y. When the particle reaches 𝑋 | the projection comes back from
Y to O. When the particle reaches Y | the projection also reaches Y | and when the particle comes
to X, the projection comes back to O. As a particle moves along the circle, the projection moves
|
along the diameter 𝑌𝑌 .Now if in the place of projection, we have a particle to move as the
projection moves, under the influence of some force, the particle will be said to be performing a
|
linear simple harmonic motion along YY .
Hence simple harmonic motion may be considered as the projection of a uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle.
1.2.3 Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM
Consider a particle moving along the circumference of a circle of radius ‘a’ (OP = a) with
O as the center and with constant speed v in the anticlockwise direction as shown in Fig. 1.3. Let
ω be the angular velocity of the particle. Let the particle makes an angular displacement  = ωt in
moving to a point P in t seconds. From point P, draw perpendiculars to both the diameters of the
circle. The foot of the perpendiculars M and N are the projections of point P on the X-axis and
Y-axis respectively. As P moves on the circle in the anticlockwise direction, M and N execute
simple harmonic motion about the center O on X and Y axes respectively.
From fig. 1.3,
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
and
𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
OM and ON are displacements along X-axis and Y-axis respectively of the points M and N
from the mean position O. Let OM =x and ON = y.Hence the displacements of a particle
executing simple harmonic motion along X and Y axes are given by
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
1.2.4 Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle executing SHM
The displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

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The velocity of the particle executing SHM is
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
The acceleration of the particle executing SHM is
𝑑 𝑦
= −𝑎𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑦
= −𝜔 𝑦
𝑑𝑡
This equation shows that the acceleration of the particle executing SHM is proportional to
the displacement from its mean position and is always directed towards the center as indicated by
the negative sign in the above equation.The above equation can also be written as
𝑑 𝑦
+𝜔 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑡
This is the differential equation for SHM.
1.2.4 Period (T)
The time required to complete one vibration is known as period and denoted by T. If ω is
the angular velocity and T is the period, then
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

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1.2.5 Frequency (f)
The number of vibrations made by the body in one second is known as the frequency of the
vibrating body and is denoted by the letter f. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period. If T is the
period of the vibrating body and f its frequency, then
1
𝑓=
𝑇
The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

a) A boy is swinging in a swing. If he stands up how will the period be affected? Explain.
b) On taking the pendulum to the top of a mountain, the pendulum will take more time to
complete one oscillation. Will you agree with the statement? Explain.
c) The human heart is found to beat 72 times in a minute. Calculate its frequency and
period.
d) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 0.25 s. How many oscillations will it
make in one second?
1.3 Waves
When a stone is dropped on the surface of

still water, waves are produced at the point where
the stone strikes the water. When the stone falls
on the surface of the water the water molecules
are pressed. Due to the elasticity of the water,
particles try to regain their original position. In
doing so these particles acquire enough velocity.
They not only come back to their original
position but also move back in the direction
opposite to their earlier motion does result in an
elevation. Due to gravitational attraction, these Fig. 1.4Waves produced in water

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water particles fall back from the elevated position and again rather than coming to the surface
go down thus causing depression and so on. In this way, the particles which were disturbed by
the stone begin to vibrate up and down about their mean position executing simple harmonic
motion. This up and down motion of an individual particle affects the neighbouring particles and
is gradually handed to all the neighbouring particles. As soon as the stone strikes the surface of
water ripples are produced which travel outwards in the form of a widening circle from the point
of disturbance as a center.
If we place corks near the center of the disturbance at certain distances, we find that when
the ripple reaches cork, it will simply move the cock up and down and no movement of cork
takes place in the direction of the propagation of disturbance. This shows that it is only the
disturbance that travels out towards while the water particles keep on moving up and down and
continue to impart motion to the neighbouring particles. It may be noted that each particle starts
vibrating a little later than its predecessor. This type of motion is called wave motion.
The propagation of disturbance from one point to another without the translatory motion
of the particles of the medium is called wave motion. Wave motion is a periodic motion in which
the particles of the medium execute the simple harmonic motion.
Waves are patterns of disturbances that transport energy and information. Waves help us to
transmit signals of communication. When a sound wave is propagated through a medium, the
particles of the medium execute the simple harmonic motion. Various forms of energy such as
light, heat, sound, X-ray radiation extra are transmitted by wave motion. A wave motion takes
place even without a medium. Such waves are called electromagnetic waves. light waves, X-
rays, 𝛾 - rays, etc are electromagnetic waves. There are two types of wave motions namely
transverse and longitudinal.
1.3.1 Transverse waves
Consider the waves produced on the surface of the water. The particles on the surface of
the water which were originally at rest start vibrating up and down whereas the waves travel
along the water surface. Here the vibration of the particles is at right angles to the direction of
wave propagation. Such waves are called transverse waves.
If the particles of a medium vibrate about their mean positions, in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the disturbance, the wave motion is called
transverse wave motion.

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In a transverse wave, the points of maximum elevation are called crests and the points of
maximum depression are called troughs. Examples of transverse waves: Water waves, heat
waves, light waves are transverse waves.
Fig. 1.5 Transverse wave propagating in positive X- direction
Another simple way of demonstrating transverse waves is as follows. Take a long string,
tie one end of the string to a hook fixed in a wall and hold the other end of the string in your
hand. After stretching the string till it becomes horizontal move your hand up and down many
times. Several humps will be seen moving from the hand to the hook. All the particles of the
string vibrate in a direction at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
1.3.2 Longitudinal waves
If the particles of a medium vibrate about their mean positions in a direction parallel to the
direction of propagation of the disturbance, the wave motion is called longitudinal. Sound waves
in a gas are longitudinal. When sound waves propagate through a gas, the particles of the
medium vibrate to and fro parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
For example, let a tuning fork be set into vibrations when the prong moves out, it
compresses the air medium just in front of it. This region of increased pressure is called
compression. This pulse of compression moves outwards. When the prong moves in the reverse
direction, a region of low pressure called rarefaction is produced. This pulse of rarefaction also

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moves out towards. Hence in longitudinal wave motion, condensations and rarefactions are
alternatively formed.
Example: sound waves.
Fig. 1.6Longitudinal wave propagating in positive X- direction
Table 1.1 Differences between transverse and longitudinal waves
1. The vibration of the particles of the 1. The vibration of the particles of the
medium is at right angles to the direction medium is along or parallel to the
of propagation of the wave. direction of propagation of the wave.
2. A transverse wave consists of a series of 2. A longitudinal wave consists of a series of

crusts and troughs. compressions and rarefactions.
3. It is possible only in solids and at the 3. It is possible in all types of media that is
surface of a liquid. solids liquids and gases.
4. There is no pressure variation 4. There is pressure variation be maximum

at compression and minimum at
rarefaction.

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1.3.3 Characteristics of a wave
a) Amplitude (a):The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any

particle of the medium in the path of the wave.
b) Phase (ϕ): It represents the state of vibration of the particle of a medium with
respect to its meanposition.
c) Period (T):The time taken by a vibrating particle to complete one vibration is called
the period.
d) Frequency (f): The frequency of a wave is the number of vibrations made by any
particle of the medium in one second. If T is the period of vibrations of the particles
of the medium, the frequency is given by
1
𝑓=
𝑇
e) Wavelength (λ):It is the distance travelled by the wave in the time in which the
particle of the medium completes one vibration or it is the linear distance between
any two nearest particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration. In
the case of a transverse wave, the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is
equal to the wavelength. In the case of a longitudinal wave, the distance between two
successive compressionsor rarefactions is equal to the wavelength.
f) Wave velocity (v):The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called the
velocity.
1.3.4 Relation between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength
The velocity of the wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
i.e., wave velocity =
Wavelength λ is the distance travelled in T seconds, then wave velocity is given by
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇

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The relation between frequency and period is
1
𝑓=
𝑇
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
ie wave velocity is the product of frequency and wavelength.
Example 1.1
Calculate the wavelength of the waves generated by a tuning fork of frequency 500Hz. The
velocity of sound in air is 340m/s.
Solution:
f = 500Hz
v = 340m/s
λ =?
v=fλ
λ = v / f = 340/500 = 0.68m
Example 1.2
A tuning fork makes one complete vibration in 1/200 second. If the velocity of sound in air
is 340m/s, find the wavelength of the sound waves produced by the tuning fork.
Solution:
Time period, T = 1/200 s
f = 1/T = 200 Hz

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v = 340m/s
λ =?
v=fλ
f = v / λ = 340 / 200 = 1.7m
Example 1.3
The human ear can hear frequencies between 20Hz and 20kHz.What wavelengths
correspond to these two frequencies if the velocity of sound is 330m/s.
Solution:
f = 20Hz
In first case, v = 330m/s
v=fλ
λ=v/f
= 330 / 20
= 16.5 m
In second case, f = 20000Hz
λ = v / f = 330 / 20000= 0.0165 m
Example 1.4
Determine the frequency of light of wavelength 600nm.Velocity of light is 3 x 108 m/s.
Solution:
λ = 600 x 10-9 m
v = 3 x 108 m/s
f =?
v=fλ
f=v/λ
= 3 x 108 / 600 x 10-9
= 5 x 1014 Hz

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Example 1.5
What is the speed of a sound wave that has a wavelength of 2 m and a frequency of 170.5
Hz?
Solution:
λ = 2m
f = 170.5 Hz
v =?
v=fλ
= 170.5 x 2
= 341 m/s
1.3.5 Sound waves
Sound is produced by a vibrating body. If a bell is struck with the hammer sound is
produced due to the vibrations set up in the bell. As the vibrations die down the intensity of
sound diminishes. If the ringing bell is touched with fingers, the sound ceases because the
vibrations are stopped by the fingers. Sound waves are longitudinal. When a body vibrates, it
produces compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding medium that travels forward as sound
waves. When the sound waves reach our ear, the eardrum is set into vibrations, producing the
sensation of hearing. The sound waves, whether they travel through solids, liquids or gases are
longitudinal. The following points may be noted about the sound waves.
a) Sound waves are longitudinal.
b) Material medium is necessary for the transmission of sound from one place to another.
c) The velocity of sound is greater in solids and liquids than in gases.
1.3.6 Light waves
Light is an agent which makes it possible for us to see things. When light falls on an object, it
gets scattered. This scattered light enters the eye and forms an image of the object on the retina
of the eye. This is how we see things.Light is a form of energy that travels in a straight line. It
travels at the speed of 3 x 108 m/s in air or vacuum. Light waves are electromagnetic waves that
do not require a medium for their propagation. Visible light is having wavelengths in the range
of 400 – 700 nanometres. Light waves are transverse.

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a) We see the lightning before we hear the thunder. Why?
b) Sound travels faster on a rainy day than on a warm day. Why?
c) We can recognize our friends from their voices. Why?
1.3.7 Principle of superposition of waves
Suppose two persons are holding a string at the two ends and move their hands to produce
two wave pulses. One wave pulse is travelling from left to right and the other from right to left.
Let the two wave pulses A and B be of equal amplitude propagating in opposite directions as
shown in fig.1.7 (a). The two pulses travel towards each other and mix each other into a single
wave pulse as shown in fig.1.7 (b). It is clear from the figure that the resultant wave pulse has a
displacement equal to twice the magnitude of either pulse. This kind of superposition is said to
be constructive. After some time, the two wave pulses A and B travel retaining their original
shape and direction as shown in fig.1.7 (c).
Fig 1.7 Constructive superposition of two wave pulses

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Fig 1.8Destructive superposition of two wave
Now suppose that the second wave pulse isinverted with respect to the first wave pulse, but
still travelling in the opposite direction as shown in fig. 1.8 (a). These two wave pulses superpose
with each other and the resultant wave pulse has zero displacements as shown in fig. 1.8 (b).
After crossing each other, they continue to move forward retaining their original shapes as in fig.
1.8 (c). Thus, it is seen that the resultant waveform is the algebraic sum of individual waves. This
rule of the addition of individual waveforms to determine the resultant waveform is called the
superposition principle.
The principle of superposition of waves states that if two or more waves travel in a
medium, each wave produces its own displacement and the resultant displacement of a particle
at any point is the vector sum of the displacements due to each wave. The superposition principle
can be applied to the phenomenon of beats.
1.3.8 Beats
When two sound waves of equal amplitudes and slightly different frequencies travelling in
the same direction arrive simultaneously at a point, the intensity of sound caused by the
superposition of two waves fluctuates.
The periodic variations in the intensity of sound due to the superposition of two sound
waves of slightly different frequencies are called beats.

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When the intensity rises to the maximum, we use the term waxing of sound and when it
falls to the minimum, we use the term weaving of a sound. One waxing and one waning
constitute one beat. The number of beats produced per second is called beat frequency.
When sound travels through air, condensations and rarefactions are produced. If two
condensations due to two notes reach the ear simultaneously, the sound heard will be the
maximum. The same is the case with two rarefactions also. These correspond to the waxing of
sound intensity. But if the condensation due to one note and the rarefaction due to the other reach
the ear simultaneously, the sound heard will be a minimum. It corresponds to a warning of sound
intensity. This explains the production of beats. Applications of beats are:
a) Beats are used in tuning musical instruments.
b) Beats can be used to find the frequency of the given tuning fork.
c) Beats can be used in the detection of harmful gases in mines.
Fig 1.9Formation of beats by the superposition of two sound waves

of equal amplitude and slightly different frequencies

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a) Can you differentiate sound waves and ultrasonic waves?
b) Have you heard about infrasonic, supersonic, and subsonic (infrasonic) waves?
c) Try to find some properties of infrasonic, supersonic, and subsonic waves.
d) What is Mach number significant for?
e) Give two examples of natural events that produce infrasonic sound.
1.3.8 Ultrasonic waves
The frequency of sound between 20 Hz and 20 kHz is called audible frequency. Sounds of
frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasonics. Sound waves having a frequency above 20 kHz
are called ultrasonic waves. Due to high frequency, human ears cannot detect ultrasonic waves.
Bats can produce and detect ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves produced by the bats, get
reflected by some objects in their way. When the reflected waves are received by the bats, they
get an idea of the distance of the obstacle in their path. This is how bats can fly in the darkness.
Ultrasonic waves have a large number of practical applications. Some applications of

ultrasonics waves are listed below:
a) Echo depth sounding: Ultrasonic waves are used for detecting submarines and other
underwater obstructions. Ultrasonic sound is also used for gauging the depth of seawater.
A beam of ultrasonic sound is directed towards the bottom of the sea and the total time
for the wave to go to the bottom and come back is measured. Knowing the velocity of
the ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be calculated.
b) SONAR: SONAR is the abbreviation of Sound Navigation and Ranging. It is a technique

used for detecting and determining the distance and direction of underwater objects. In
the military field, SONAR is used to detect, identify, and locate submarines. Nonmilitary
uses of sonar include fish finding, mapping of the sea bottom, etc.
c) Detection of flaws in metals: Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect cracks or cavities in
metal castings.

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d) Soldering and metal cutting:Ultrasonic waves can be used for drilling and cutting
processes in metals.
e) Scanning: An ultrasound scan uses high-frequency sound waves to make an image of a

person's internal body structures. Doctors commonly use ultrasound to study a developing
fetus.

a) How do bats find food?
b) List out the animals that communicate using infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds.
1.4 The acoustics of buildings
The branch of science which deals with the planning of a building or a hall intending to
provide the best audible sound to the audience is called acoustics of the building.
The intensity of sound heard by the audience must be sufficiently loud and uniform
throughout. The successive sounds in speech or music should not overlap for clear hearing.When
a speaker speaks or music is played in a hall, sound waves are produced which spread out until
they strike the walls, ceiling, or floor of the hall. Here the sound waves are partially reflected and
partially absorbed. The amount of reflection and absorption depends upon the character of the
surface. A hard and smooth surface reflects most of the sound and absorbs little of it. A porous
surface absorbs most of the sound and reflects little of it. The greater the absorption of sound in a
hall the lesser the reflection of sound and hence more is the clarity.
1.4.1 Reverberation
When sound is produced in an open space, it is heard by the listener once, as the wave
travels across him. When sound is produced in a room or hall, sound persists even after the
original sound has ceased. This is due to the repeated reflections of sound from walls, floor,
ceiling, etc. This reduces the clarity of the sound.
The prolongation of audible sound in a room or hall after the sound has ceased to emit
sound is called reverberation.

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1.4.2 Reverberation time
It is the time for which the sound persists in a room or hall after the original sound is cut
off. This time is measured from the instant the source stops the emitting sound. To produce the
best sound effects, the reverberation time should be as small as possible. The reverberation time
can be decreased by increasing sound absorption in it. When sound falls on the walls, seats, or
audience, it is either reflected or absorbed. If a greater part of it is absorbed, then the
reverberation will be small. On the other hand, if most of the sound is reflected by the walls,
floor, or audience, the sound will continue for some time after the source has been discontinued.
In such a case, the reverberation will be large. The optimum reverberation time should be 0.5
seconds for speech and 1.0 to 1.5 seconds for music. The reverberation time of a room depends
upon the total volume of the room and the absorbing power of the walls and does not depend
upon the positions of the source and listener.
1.4.3 Methods to control reverberation time
The reverberation time of a room or hall can be decreased by increasing the absorption of
sound in it. This can be done by the following methods:
a) By providing a few open windows.
b) By covering the walls with absorbent materials such as perforated cardboards, heavy
curtains, carpet on the floor, etc.
c) By providing rough and decorative materials on the walls and ceilings.
d) Cushioned seats. Such seats not only provide greater comfort but also act as good
absorbers of sound.
e) No large concave, spherical or cylindrical surfaces on the walls or ceiling of the hall or
auditorium. This will avoid excessive reflections of sound.
1.4.4 Echo
If the time interval between the instance of hearing the original sound and the reflected
sound from the reflecting surface is greater than 1 / 10th of a second, the original sound and the
reflected sound can be separately heard. Such a reflection of sound is called echo. Echoes are
generally heard in halls whose ceilings are sufficiently high. To avoid Echoes, the ceilings
should be covered with suitable sound absorbents. The roof and walls of the auditorium or
cinema hall are generally covered with sound-absorbent materials like draperies or compressed
fibreboard to reduce reverberation. These materials reduce the formation of echoes by absorbing
sound waves.

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1.4.5 Noise
Any undesired sound is known as noise.Noise entering a hall or auditorium may be

airborne or structure-borne. The airborne noise originates in the air and travels through the air to
the boundaries of the hall or auditorium.External noise can mix up with the sound of speech or
music in the hall and can create confusion for the audience. This includes noise travelling
through the air, noise due to vibration of structures, etc. The external noises can be reduced by
making the hall soundproof and constructing small soundproof cabins for the machinery.

a) Collect more information on the acoustics of buildings.
b) When one speaks in an empty hall, the speech may not be clear. But the speech
becomes clear in the crowded hall. Give your explanation.

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. The frequency of the fundamental note of a tuning fork is 256 Hz. If the velocity of air is 330
m/s. Calculate the wavelength of the wave produced. [Ans:1.289m]
2. The wavelength of sound waves of frequency 210 Hz is 7m in water. What is the speed
of sound in water? [Ans: 1470m/s]
3. A string produces a sound wave of frequency 996 Hz. If the speed of sound in air is 332
m/s. Determine the wavelength of sound waves in the air. [Ans: 0.33m]
4. The velocity of the radio wave is 3 x 108 m/s. Find the wavelength of radio wavesbeing
broadcast at a frequency of 500kHz. [Ans: 600m]
5. When an ultrasonic pulse is sent through the sea vertically down, a delay of 12 seconds was
observed in detecting the reflected signal. If the velocity of sound is 330 m/s, calculate the
depth of the sea. [Ans:1980m]
6. Thunder is heard after 2.5 s of seeing light. Find the distance to the origin of lightning. The
velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s. [Ans 825m]
7. The separation between the trough and crest of a wave is 6 x 10-8 m. Calculate the frequency,
assuming a wave having velocity 3 x 108 m/s. [Ans 2.5 x 1015Hz]
8. A tuning fork makes one complete vibration in s. If the velocity of sound in air is 340m/s,
find the wavelength of the sound waves given out by the tuning fork.
[Ans 1.36m]
9. A body vibrating with a certain frequency sends waves 2m long through a medium A and
1.5m long through medium B. The velocity of waves in A is 10m/s. What is the velocity of
the wave in B? [Ans: 7.5m/s]
10. A station broadcasts a wavelength of 2m. What is the frequency of the wave ifthe velocity of
the radio wave is 3x 108 m/s? [Ans: 1.5x 108 Hz]

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QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
2. Define SHM. Give two examples.
3. Derive expressions for displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a particle executing

SHM.
4. What are the characteristics of a wave?
5. Derive a relation between velocity, frequency, and wavelength.
6. Explain the phenomenon of beats.
7. A vibrating tuning fork is carried at a high speed towards a wall. An observer hears beats.
Why?
8. What are ultrasonics? Mention three applications of ultrasonics.
9. Explain the terms reverberation, reverberation time
10. Distinguish between echo and reverberation.
11. What is meant by saying that an auditorium has good acoustical properties?
12. Match the following
Column A Column B
Transverse wave Superposition of waves of nearly equal frequencies
Longitudinal wave Light
Beats Frequency above 20 KHz
Ultrasonic waves Sound

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Chapter 2
Optics

Try to explain, before you proceed.
1. If you enter a dark room, you cannot see anything. If you switch on a bulb, you can see
the objects in the room. Can you say what helps you to see the objects in the room?
2. How can we see objects?
3. Write some examples of natural and artificial sources of light.
4. Have you heard about the term ‘luminous’?
5. Have you heard about the term ‘transparency’?
6. Write some properties of light and try to explainthem.
7. Can you explain some phenomena of light?
8. Do you know the meaning of the term ‘monochromatic’?
2.1 Introduction to Optics
Optics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of light. Light is a form of energy
that produces a sensation of sight. Light travels with constant velocity in a medium. The velocity
of light in free space or vacuum is 3 x 10 8 m/s. What gives us light? It is the luminous objects
that can emit light of their own. Sun, stars, candles, bulbs, etc. are some luminous sources. Sun is
the primary source of light on earth.
Optics is classified into ray optics (geometrical optics) and wave optics. The property of
light traveling in a straight line is called rectilinear propagation of light. Ray optics deals with the

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reflection of light from plane surfaces, spherical mirrors, refraction of light in a medium,
refraction of light through prisms, and curved surfaces such as lenses. The direction along which
light energy is propagated is known as the ‘ray of light’. A collection of a large number of rays
of light is called a ‘beam of light’. There are three kinds of beams of light.
a) When a large number of rays are parallel to each other, they are called aparallel beam
of light
b) When rays of light coming from different directions meet at a point is called a
convergent beam of light.
c) When the rays of light starting from a point, travel in various directions, is called a
divergent beam of light.

Find the examples of materials with the following optical properties
1. Optical medium
2. Transparent
3. Opaque
4. Translucent
2.2 Reflection of light
When a ray of light, travelling from one optical medium to another optical medium, strikes
the surface of separation of two media, the following situations can arise:
a) Reflection
b) Absorption
c) Refraction

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The phenomenon due to which a ray of light, travelling from one optical medium to
another, optical medium, bounces off from its surface with a change of angle, is called reflection
of light.
Reflection of light from surfaces can be classified into the following categories:
a) Regular reflection: When a beam of light on striking some smooth and polished
surface, is reflected as a parallel beam of light.
Eg: Reflection takes place from mirrors, polished metals, etc.
b) Irregular reflection(diffused reflection): When a beam of light, on striking some

rough surface, is reflected in different directions.
Eg: Reflections from walls, stones, trees, etc.
Fig. 2.1 Reflection of light from a plane surface
Fig. 2.1 shows the reflection of light from a smooth surface. We can define some terms
related to the reflection of light from a surface as follows:

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a) Incident ray: A ray of light which travels towards a reflecting surface.
b) Reflected ray: A ray of light bounces off the reflecting surface into the same optical
medium.
c) Point of incidence: The point on the reflecting surface, where incident ray strikes.
d) Normal: The perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting surface.
e) Angle of incidence (i): The angle between the incident ray and normal.
f) Angle of reflection (r): The angle between the reflected ray and normal.

Analyse the advantages of regular and irregular reflection.
2.2.1 Laws of reflection
A light ray is reflected from a plane smooth surface according to two laws of reflection:
a) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface lie in the same plane
at the point of incidence.
b) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
2.2.2 Spherical mirrors
A mirror which is made from a part of a hollow sphere is called a spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors are constructed using glass and one surface of the glass is silvered. Spherical
mirrors are mainly classified into convex mirrors and concave mirrors. If the inner surface of the
spherical surface reflects light, then it is called a concave mirror. If the outer surface of the
spherical surface reflects light, then it is called a convex mirror.

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Fig. 2.2 Spherical mirrors as a part of a sphere (a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
Fig. 2.2 shows both concave mirror and convex mirror as a part of the sphere. Now, we can
define a few parameters related to spherical mirrors as follows:
a) Centre of curvature (C): It is the center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
b) Radius of curvature (R): It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
c) Pole (P):Geometrical center of the mirror. By convention, all distances are measured
from the pole of the mirror.
d) Principal axis (PA): It is the straight line passing through the pole and the center of
curvature of the mirror.
e) Principal focus (F): A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection
converges to a point on the principal axis in the caseof a concave mirror and appears to
diverge from a point on the principal axis in the case of a concave mirror. Thispoint is
called the principal focus.
f) Focal length(f): It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus. For a
spherical mirror, focus lie on the principal axis at the midpoint between pole and center
of curvature. Hence the focal length of the spherical mirror is exactly half its radius of
curvature.
𝑅
𝑓=
2

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Fig 2.3 Principal focus and focal length of (a) concave mirror and (b) convex mirror
2.2.3 Mirror formula
Mirror formula is a quantitative relation between object distance (u), image distance (v),
and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror. The distance between the object and pole of the mirror
is called object distance. The distance between the image and the pole of the mirror is called
image distance. The mirror formula for the spherical mirror is given by,
1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
2.2.4 Uses of spherical mirrors
a) Concave mirror is used as shaving mirrors.
b) Parabolic mirrors are used in astronomical telescopes and searchlights.
c) Convex mirrorsare used in vehicles to see the rear side.

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2.3 Refraction of light
Fig. 2.4 Refraction of light when light travels from

(a) Rarer medium to denser medium and
(b) Denser medium to rarer medium
When light travels from one medium to another medium in an oblique direction, it deviates
from its path. This is known as the refraction of light. The phenomenon of bending of light when
it travels from one medium to another is known as refraction. When light travels from a rarer
medium to a denser medium (eg. From air to glass), light bends towards the normal at the point
of incidence as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a). When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer
medium, light bends away from the normal as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b). The angle between the
incident ray and the normal is known as angle incidence (i). The angle between the refracted ray
and the normal is known as the angle of refraction (r). The angle between the incident ray and
the refracted ray is called the angle of deviation (d).
2.3.1 Laws of refraction
Refraction of light occurs due to a change in the speed of the light as it enters from one
transparent medium to another. It is experimentally observed that refraction of light at the
interface of two media occurs according to certain laws called laws of refraction. The two laws
of refraction are:

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a) The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
b) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant for a given pair of media. This law is known as Snell’s law of refraction and it is
mathematically expressed as
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
where ‘i’ is the angle of incidence in the first medium and ‘r’ the angle of refraction in the
second medium and the constant is known as the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium denoted as 𝑛 . Then by Snell’s law,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
2.3.2 Refractive index
Refractive index is a physical quantity related to the speed of propagation of light in

different media. Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of the light in
vacuum (c) to the speed of the light in the medium (v).The refractive index of the medium (n) is
given by
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
Light travels fastest in a vacuum with a speed of 3 × 10 m/s. The speed of the light in the
air is only slightly less than that in the vacuum.Here n is the absolute refractive index of the
medium defined with respect to air (vacuum).The Refractive index of the air (vacuum) is taken
as 1.We can also define the refractive index of the medium using Snell’s law of refraction. The
refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction when light travels from air to the medium. Medium of high
refractive index is called a denser medium and medium of low refractive index is called a rarer
medium.When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2, then

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𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1

= 𝑛 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚

𝑛 = ×
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2
𝑛
∴ 𝑛 =
𝑛
where 𝑛 and 𝑛 are the refractive indices of medium 2 and medium 1 respectively.
Similarly, the refractive index of glass with respect to water can be written as
𝑛
𝑛 =
𝑛
Table 2.1 Refractive index of some transparent media
Substance Refractive index
Air (vacuum) 1
Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
Ethyl alcohol 1.36
Paraffin oil 1.44
Crown glass 1.48 to 1.62
Flint glass 1.54 to 1.80
Diamond 2.42
2.3.3 Some practical examples of refraction
a) Twinkling of stars: The twinkling of stars is due to the refraction of light from the star
at different layers of the atmosphere. The density of different layers of the atmosphere
continuously changes. So due to the refraction of light at these layers, the apparent
image of the star appears to be at S1. The position of S1 also changes with time. Thus,the
star appears to be twinkling.

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Fig. 2.5 Twinkling of a star due to refraction of light at atmospheric
b) Apparent depth and real depth:Consider an object kept in a medium at a depthD.

When it is viewed from a rarer medium (air) apparent depth (d) seems to be less than
the actual depth as shown in fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6 Apparent depth of an object in denser medium as viewed from a rarer
The apparent depth of an object depends on the refractive index of the medium. If n is the
refractive index of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium then,
𝐷
𝑛=
𝑑

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c) Apparent shift in the position of the sun at sunrise and sunset: Sun is visible before
sunrise and after sunset because of atmospheric refraction. The density of atmospheric
air decreases as we go up. So, the rays coming from the sun deviate towards the normal
after refraction at each layer. If the sun is below the horizon at S, light appears to come
from S1as shown in fig. 2.7. For an observer on earth. So, the observer can see the sun
before sunrise.
Fig. 2.7Apparent Shift in the position sunrise due to atmospheric refraction
Similarly, we can explain the same phenomenon at sunset. Therefore, due to refraction, the sun
appears to rise early by 2 minutes and set late by 2 minutes. The day thus becomes longer by
about 4 minutes.

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A tank filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the
bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. If the water is replaced by a
liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height. What distance would the microscope have
to be raised to focus the needle?
2.3.4 Spherical lenses
A lens is made of transparent

materials bound by two refracting
surfaces. If the two surfaces are curved,
they are known as spherical lenses. They
are mainly divided into two; convex and
concave.If the middle part of the lens is
thicker than the edges it is s convex lens.
If the middle part of the lens is thinner
than the edges it is a concave lens. Now,
we define some quantities related to
spherical lenses. Fig. 2.8 (a) Convex lens and (b) Concave lens
a) Optic center: The geometric center of the lens is called the optic center.
b) Principal axis: There are two centers of curvatures for a lens as shown in fig. 2.9.The
principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centers of curvature.
Fig. 2.9 Principal axis and centre of curvatures of

(a) a convex lens and (b) a concave lens

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c) Principal focus:There are two principal foci each on either side of the lens. The
definition of principal focus is different for the two types of spherical lenses.
i. Convex lens: A parallel beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction
converges to a fixed point on the principal axis. This fixed point is called the
principal focus.
ii. Concave lens: A parallel beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction
diverges from a fixed point on the principal axis. This fixed point is called the
principal focus.
Fig. 2.10 Principal focus of (a) a convex lens and (b) a concave lens
2.3.5 Image formation by convex lens
Image formation by spherical lenses can be understood by drawing ray diagrams. For
constructing ray diagrams, we maydrawat least two incident rays which are refracted by the
convex lens according to the following rules:
1) Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the principal focus on the opposite side of the lens.
2) The ray that travels through the principal focus on the way to the lens will refract and
travel parallel to the principal axis.
3) An incident ray that passes through the optic center of the lens will pass through the lens
without any deviation in its direction.

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A convex lens can form two types of images namely real image and virtual image. If the
refracted rays intersect on the other side of the lens, the image formed will be a real image. If the
refracted rays appear to diverge from a point on the same side of the lens, the image formed is
virtual. Real images can be captured on a screen whereas virtual images cannot be captured on a
screen. Real images are inverted whereasvirtual images are erect. The location, size, and nature
of the image formed by a convex mirror mainly depend on the distance of the object from the
optic center of the lens.
a) Object at infinity: When the object is at infinity or avery large distance, the rays from
the object are always parallel to the principal axis of the convex lens. The parallel rays
from the object, after refraction, converge to the principal focus on the other side of the
lens and produce the image as shown in fig.2.11.The image formed is real, inverted and
highly diminished.
Fig. 2.11 Image formation by convexlens – Object at infinity
b) Object beyond 2F: When the object is just beyond 2F, the image is formed between F
and 2F on the other side of the lens as shown in fig. 2.12. The image is real, inverted,
and smaller than the object.
Fig. 2.12 Image formation by convexlens – Object beyond 2F

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c) Object at 2F: When the object is at 2F, the image is formed exactly at 2F on the other
side of the convex lens. The image formed is real, inverted, and exactly the same size
as that of the object.
Fig. 2.13 Image formation by convexlens – Object at 2F
d) Object between 2F and F: When the object is between 2F and F, the image is formed
beyond 2F on the other side of the convex lens. The image formed is real, inverted,
and larger than the object.
Fig. 2.14 Image formation by convexlens – Object between 2F and F

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e) Object at F: When the object is at F, the refracted rays travel parallel to each other,
and the image is formed at infinity.
Fig. 2.15 Image formation by convexlens – Object at F
f) Object is between F and O: When the object isbetween F and O, the image is formed
on the same side of the convex lens. The image is virtual, erect, and larger than the
object.
Fig. 2.16 Image formation by convexlens – Object between F and O

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Table 2.2 Position, nature, and size of the image formed by a convex lens
Image formed by convex lens

Position of Object
Position Nature Size
At infinity At F Real and inverted diminished
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted diminished
At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Enlarged
At F Infinity - -
Between F and O Same side of the object Virtual and erect Enlarged
2.3.6 Image formation by a concave lens
There are only two possibilities for the position of objects infront of the concave lens –
object at infinity and object between the optic center and infinity.The position, nature, and size of
the image formed by a concave lensare given in table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Position, nature, and size of the image formed by a convex lens
Image formed by a concave lens

Position of Object
Position Nature Size
At infinity At F Virtual and erect diminished
Between O and infinity Same side of the object Virtual and erect diminished

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2.3.7 Lens formula
The lens equation is a relation connecting the focal length of a lens with the distance of the
object and image from the lens. The distance between the object and the optic center of the lens
is called object distance (u). The distance between the image formed and the optic center of the
lens is called image distance (v). If f is the focal length of the lens, then the lens formula is given
by
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
For applying the equation, we need to find whether u, v, and f are positive or negative. The
sign convention used for the lens is given below:
Positive
Negative Lens Positive
Negative
From the sign convention, it is clear that
a) The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative
b) The object distance is always negative since the object is in front of the lens
c) If a real image is formed by a lens (always on the right side of the lens), the image
distance is positive.
d) If a virtual image is formed by a lens (always on the left side of the lens), the image
distance is negative.

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2.3.8 Power of lens
The ability of a lens to bend the light falling on it is called the power of a lens. The power
of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens. If f is the focal length of the
lens, then its power (P) is given by
1
𝑃=
𝑓
The unit of power is m-1 or diopter (D).The power of aconvex lens is positive and that of a
concave lens is negative.
2.3.9 Magnification of a lens
Magnification (m) of a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height
of the object. Ifℎ is the height of the object and ℎ is the height of the image, then linear
magnification is given by
ℎ
𝑚=
ℎ
From sign convention, object height is always positive since it is above the principal axis.
If the image is erect (above principal axis), image height is positive. If the image is inverted
below the principal axis), the image height is negative.
Magnification can also be defined as the ratio of image distance to object distance. If u is
the object distance and v is the image distance, then magnification is given by
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
This relation is true for both convex and concave lenses and real as well as virtual images.
Magnification is negative for real images and positive for virtual images.
2.3.10 Combination of lenses
When a number of lenses are kept in contact,t it will act as a single lens known as an
effective lens or equivalent lens. Lenses are usually combined to

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i) Increase magnification
ii) Make image erect
iii) Reduce defects
Consider a number of lenses of focal length 𝑓 ,𝑓 , 𝑓 etc. are kept in contact. The effective
focal length of the combination is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + …
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
The effective power of lens combination is given by
𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 +𝑃 +⋯
where 𝑃 , 𝑃 ,𝑃 etc. are the powers of individual lenses. If 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑚 etc. are the
magnifications produced by the lenses, then the net magnification produced by the combination
is given by
𝑚= 𝑚 × 𝑚 × 𝑚 ×…
Example 2.1
An object of height 1.5 cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of
focal length 10 cm. Find the position, nature, and size of the image formed when it is
placed at a distance of 25 cm from the lens.
Solution: Focal length, f = 10 cm

Object distance, u = -25 cm
Height of the object ,ℎ = 1.5 cm
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
+ =
𝑣 25 10
𝑣 = 16.67 cm
Magnification, 𝑚 = =
𝑣 16.67
Height of the image, ℎ = ℎ × 𝑢 = 1.5 × − 25
= −1𝑐𝑚

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A diminished image is formed at a distance of 16.67 cm on the other side of the lens. The image
is real and inverted.
Example 2.2
At what distance from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm should an object be placed so as
to produce an image magnified 4 times if the image is real.
Solution:
Focal length, f = 15 cm
𝑣
𝑚 = = −4
𝑢
𝑣 = −4𝑢
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
− =
−4𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
−5 1
=
4𝑢 𝑓
4𝑢 = −5𝑓 = −5 × 15 = −75
−75
𝑢= = −18.75 𝑐𝑚
4
The object is placed at a distance of 18.75 cm from the convex lens.
Example 2.3
It is desired to project the image of an object magnified tenfold on a wall 10 m from the
lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens and the position of the object.
Solution:
m= -10; v = 10 cm; f = ?; u = ?
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
𝑣 −10
𝑢= = = −1 𝑐𝑚
𝑚 10

Applied Physics -II
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
+ =
10 1 𝑓
10
𝑓= = 0.91 𝑐𝑚
11
Example 2.4
A converging lens forms a real image. If the image is twice the size of the object and 108
cm from it, calculate the focal length and power of the lens.
Solution:
Since the image is real, the magnification (m) is negative, object distance (u) is negative
and image distance (v) is positive.
𝑣
𝑚= = −2
𝑢
∴ 𝑣 = −2𝑢
We have,
−𝑢 + 𝑣 = 108
−𝑢 − 2𝑢 = 108
−3𝑢 = 108
108
𝑢= = −36 𝑐𝑚
−3
∴ 𝑣 = −2𝑢 = −2 × −36 = 72 𝑐𝑚
From the lens formula,

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 72 36
72 × 36
𝑓 = = 24 𝑐𝑚
72 + 36
𝑓 = 24 𝑐𝑚 = 0.24 𝑚

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The power of the convex lens is

1 1
𝑃= = = 4.17 𝑚 = 4.17 𝐷
𝑓 0.24
Example 2.5
A convex lens having a focal length of 36 cm, forms a real image. How far from the lens
would the object have to be placed for the image to be the same size as the object?
Solution:
By sign convention,
m = -1 and f = 36 cm
𝑣
𝑚 = = −1
𝑢
𝑣 = −𝑢
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
− =
−𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
−2 1
=
𝑢 𝑓
𝑢 = −2 × 𝑓 = −2 × 36 = −72 𝑐𝑚
Example 2.6
A concave lens of focal length 15 cm is placed at a distance of 25 cm from an object. Find

the position of the image and its magnification.
Solution:
By sign convention,
f = -15 cmand u = -25 cm

Applied Physics -II
From lens formula,

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
= +
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢
𝑓×𝑢 (−15) × (−25)
𝑣 = = = −9.37 𝑐𝑚
𝑓+𝑢 −15 − 25
𝑣 −9.37
𝑚= = = 0.3748
𝑢 −25
A virtual image is formed at a distance of 9.37 cm on the same side of the lens.
Example 2.7
A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed in contact with a concave lens of focal
length 15 cm. Find out the effective focal length and power of the combination?
Solution:
By sign convention,
𝑓 = 20 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑓 = −15 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
The equivalent focal length is given by

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑓 ×𝑓 20 × (−15)
𝑓= = = −60 𝑐𝑚
𝑓 +𝑓 20 − 15
𝑓 = −60 𝑐𝑚 = −0.6 𝑚
The power of the combination is

1 1
𝑃= = = −1.67 𝑚 = −1.67 𝐷
𝑓 −0.6

Applied Physics -II
Example 2.8
Find the power of the combination of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm and a concave
lens of focal length 20 cm.
Solution:
By sign convention,
𝑓 = 10 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑓 = −20 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
The equivalent focal length is given by

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑓 ×𝑓 10 × (−20)
𝑓= = = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑓 +𝑓 10 − 20
𝑓 = 20 𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚
The power of the combination is

1 1
𝑃= = =5𝑚 =5𝐷
𝑓 0.2
Example 2.9
Two lenses of power -1.5 D and 2.5 D are placed in contact. Find the focal length and
power of the combination.
Solution:
𝑃 = −1.5 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 2.5 𝐷
Power of combination is given by

𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 = −1.5 + 2.5 = 1 𝐷
The effective focal length of the combination is

1 1
𝑓= = = 1 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑃 1

Applied Physics -II
2.3.11 Lens defects
Spherical aberrations and chromatic aberrations arethe two most common defects of the lens.
a) Spherical aberration: When a parallel beam of monochromatic light,parallel to the

principal axis, is incident on a convex lens, the marginal rays will converge at one point
and the paraxial rays converge at another point on the principal axis. So, the focus will
not be sharp. This defect is known as spherical aberration.Due to spherical aberration, the
image of an object formed by a lens will be blurred and distorted.Spherical aberration can
be minimized by using stops, crossed lenses, and plano-convex lenses.
b) Chromatic aberration:When a parallel beam of white light, parallel to the principal

axis, is incident on a convex lens, dispersion takes place and it is splitup into its
constituent colours. The violet rays are deviated most and are focused very close to the
lens at V. The red rays are deviated least and are focused away from the lens at R as
shown in fig. 2.17. The other colours will focus between V and R.The inability of a lens
to focus all the colours to a single point is called chromatic aberration. Chromatic
aberration can be eliminated by combining a convex lens and concave lens of suitable
focal length and material. Such a combination is called an achromatic doublet or
achromat.
Fig. 2.17Chromatic aberration of (a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens

Applied Physics -II

Try to learn
1. ‘Converging’ and ‘diverging’ lens.
2. Stars do not twinkle if they are viewed from a spacecraft above the atmosphere.
3. A man under the water looking obliquely at another man standing on the bank of a
lake. Does he look taller or shorter?
2.4 Optical Instruments
Optical instruments are mainly classified into two categories:

a) Visual optical instruments
b) Spectral optical instruments
Microscopes and telescopes are examples of visual optical instruments. Prisms and
gratings are examples of spectral optical instruments.
2.4.1 Simple microscope
A simple microscope or magnifier is an optical instrument to see the magnified image of an

object. A simple microscope consists of a convex lens of a short focal length. The principle
behind the simple microscope is that when a tiny object is placed between the principal focus and
optic center of a convex lens, a virtual, erect, and magnified image of the object is formed on the
same side of the lens as shown in fig.2.18. The lens is held near the object and the eye is
positioned close to the lens on the other side. The idea is to get a virtual, erect, and magnified
image of the object at a distance so that it can be viewed comfortably. The least distance of
distinct vision(D) is the minimum distance of the object from the eye, which can be seen
distinctly without strain. For a normal human eye, this distance is 25 cm.
The linear magnification m, for the image formed at the least distance of distinct visionD,
for a simple microscope can be obtained as follows:
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢

Applied Physics -II

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
= −
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1
∴ 𝑚=𝑣 −
𝑣 𝑓
𝑣
∴ 𝑚 =1−
𝑓
Now according to sign convention, v is negative and its magnitude is equal to D.

𝐷
∴ 𝑚 =1+
𝑓
Fig. 2.18Principle behind the working of a simple microscope
2.4.2 Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument used to see a magnified image of distant

objects like planets, satellites, stars, galaxies, etc. The telescope provides angular magnification
of distant objects. It consists of an objective and an eyepiece. The objective has a large focal
length and a much larger aperture.Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real
image is formed in the tube at the focal point of the objective lens. If this image is at the focal
point of the eyepiece, a final magnified inverted image is formed at infinity.

Applied Physics -II
Magnification of the telescope m is given by,

𝛽
𝑚=
𝛼
Or
𝑓 𝑓
𝑚= 1+
𝑓 𝐷
where 𝛽is the angle subtended at the eye by the image,𝛼 is the angle subtended at the eye
by the object, 𝑓 and 𝑓 are the focal length of the objective and eyepiece and D is the image
distance.
The purpose of most optical instruments, like telescopes, is not only to give a magnified
image of the objects but also to reveal a greater amount of detail in them.The number of fine
details revealed in an object by an optical instrument is known as its resolving power. The ability
of an instrument to show two very closed objects as separate is called its resolving power.The
resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocalof the smallest angular separation 𝑑θ
between two distant objects whose images are distinctly separated by the telescope.
1 𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = =
𝑑θ 1.22λ
where λis the wavelength of the light used and dis the diameter (aperture) of the telescope.

Applied Physics -II
2.5 Total internal reflection
When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the refracted ray deviates
away from the normal as shown in fig. 2.19 (a). For a particular angle of incidence, the refracted
ray travels parallel to the surface of separation between the two media as shown in fig. 2.19 (b).
The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 900 in the air is
known as the critical angle of the denser medium. It is represented by ‘C’.If the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle the ray returns to the denser medium shown in fig.
2.219 (c). This is known as total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection is defined as the complete reflection of light back into a medium
when light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium and the angle of incidence in the
denser medium is greater than the critical angle.
Fig. 2.19 Total internal reflection and critical angle
Total internal reflection obeys the laws of reflection. The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. The two conditions for total internal reflection are:
a) The light should travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
b) The angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical angle.

Applied Physics -II
If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium and the
angle of incidence in the rarer medium is the critical angle ‘C’, then the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium is 90o. Using Snell’s law,
sin 90
𝑛=
sin 𝐶
1
𝑛=
sin 𝐶
2.5.1 Applications of total internal reflection
a) Brilliance of diamond: Refractive index of diamond is high ( n= 2.42) and the critical
angle is small ( C = 24.410). The light entering into the face undergoes total internal
reflection many times inside the crystal and comes out through one or two faces. So
these faces appear glittering. This is the reason why diamonds and certain precious
stones exhibit brilliance.
b) Mirage:It is an optical illusion seen in deserts on hot days. Inverted images of distant
objects like trees or the sky are obtained in hot sand or road. The same phenomenon is
observed on a straight tarred road on a hot summer noon. The surface of the road
appears wet as if it had rained.Mirage is due to total internal reflection. The layers of
air in contact with desert or hot roads are less denser than the air above it. The rays of
light from distant objects bend more and more when they pass through these layers
and when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle it gets totally
reflected back. When these rays enter into the observer’s eye, he can see the inverted
image as though reflected from a pond as shown in fig. 2.20.
Fig. 2.20 Mirage of a tree in a desert

Applied Physics -II
c) Total reflection prisms: Total reflection prisms are right-angled isosceles prisms
made of crown glass of refractive index 1.5. They are based on the principles of total
internal reflection. A prism having an angle of 90o between its two refracting surfaces
and the other two angles each equal to 45o, is called a total reflecting prism. The
critical angle of the crown is the glass is 41.8o. Therefore when the ray is incident at an
angle greater than 41.8o within the glass, the ray undergoes total internal reflection.
Total reflection prism can be used to produce the following actions:
i) To turn a ray of light through 90oas shown in fig.2.21 (a)
ii) To turn a ray of light through 180oas shown in fig.2.21 (b)
iii) To erect an inverted image without producing deviation in its path as shown in
fig.2.21 (c)
The principles of deviation of a light ray through 180oare used in the construction of
binoculars and bicycle reflectors.
Fig. 2.21 Deviations of rays of light passing through a total reflection prism
2.5.2 Optical fiber
Optical fiber is a device which works on the principle of total internal reflection and
transmits light signals from one place to another without much loss of energy.Optical fiber is
very a thin fiber made of glass,quartz, or plastic of very high refractive index. The diameter of a
fiber is nearly one micrometer (10-6 m). An optical fiber consists of basically three parts – core,
cladding, and coating or buffer.Core is the innermost part of the optical fiber and it provides a

Applied Physics -II
pathway for light signals to travel. Cladding is the layer just outside the core and it keeps the
light signals inside the core. Both core and cladding are made of high purity optical media like
glass or plastic. The core has a high refractive index and density compared to that of the
cladding. The outer layer of the optical fiber is called coating or buffer which protects the fiber
from external stresses. The coating is made of plastic and it has a high refractive index than the
core and cladding which helps to refract unwanted light from the cladding.
Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers. Light is allowed to
incident on at the core-cladding interface of the fiber at an angle greater than the critical angle,
the light is totally reflected back into the core. Light travels along the core of the fiber undergo
repeated total internal reflection and finally emerges out as shown in fig. 2.22.
Fig. 2.22 Transmission of light through an optical fiber
There are two types of optical fibers namely step-index fiber and graded-index fiber. In a
step-index fiber, the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes a sharp
decrease at the core-cladding interface. In a step-index fiber, the refractive index of the core
varies gradually from the core-cladding interface such that it is maximum at the center of the
core. The path of the light signal in a step-index fiber is zig -zag and that in a graded-index fiber
is helical.A bundle of optical fibers is called a light pipe. The applications of optical fibers are:
a) Optical fibers are used to transmit light from one place to another
b) Optical fiber cables are used to transmit communication signals (telephone signals,
internet data).
c) Optical fibers are used for decoration purposes (decoration lamps made of plastic
fibers)

Applied Physics -II
d) Optical fibers are used in the medical field to examine the interior parts of the human
body like the stomach, intestine,etc.( Endoscopy)
e) Optical fibers can be used in toxic and hazardous environments instead of electrical
cables
2.5.3 Use of optical fibers in the medical field
Optical fiber medical instruments may contain bundles of optical fibers. An optical fiber
instrument used to see the internal parts of the human body is called an endoscope. The
endoscopes contain two fiber optic sections inside a long tube; one of the sections provides the
focusing light and the other transmits light to the doctor providing him a detailed image of the
area under view. Endoscopes are used to examine hearts, the colon, lungs, shoulders, and knees.
The endoscope facilitates physicians to see the internal parts of the body without performing
surgery. Based on application, the endoscopes are classified into gastroscope, bronchoscope,
orthoscope, etc.
2.5.4 Use of optical fibers in telecommunication
Fiber-optic communication has revolutionized the telecommunications industry. Optical

fiber is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, internet data, and
cable television signals. Due to lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has advantages
over the copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. There are several compelling
reasons that lead to the widespread adoption of fiber optic cabling for telecommunication
applications:
i) Much lower levels of signal attenuation
ii) Fiber optic cabling provides a much higher bandwidth allowing more data to be
delivered
iii) Fiber optic cables are much lighter than the coaxial cables that might otherwise be
used.
iv) Fiber optics do not suffer from stray interference pickup that occurs with coaxial
cabling

Applied Physics -II
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. At what distance from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm an object be placed so that the
image is one-third size of the object. (Ans: 60 cm)
2. A lens of focal length f projects on a screen, the image of an object magnified m times.
Show that the screen is at a distanceof f(m+1) from the lens.
3. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed between an object and a screen 90 cm apart.
Find the positions of the lens to get a clear image on the screen ( Ans: 30 cm, 60 cm)
4. A lens of 12 cm focal length produced a virtual image whose size is 1/3 rd that of the object.
What kind of lens is it?. Determine the position of the object.(Ans: concave, 24 cm)
5. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is combined with a concave lens of focal length 15 cm.
Find the focal length of the combination. (Ans: 30 cm)
6. A concave lens of focal length 20 cm is placed ata distance of 35 cm from an object. Find the
position of the image and its magnification.(Ans: v=-12.73 cm, m= 0.364)
7. Thepower of a myopic person is 80 cm. What is the power of the lens required to enable him
to see a very distant object clearly? (Ans: -1.25 D)
8. A convex lens of power 0.04 D produces a real image which is double the size of the object
placed infront of it. Find the position of the object.( Ans: Object is placed 37.5 cm infront of
the lens)
QUESTIONS
1. A convex lens is used to form an image on a screen. When the upper half of the lens is
covered by an opaque screen, what happens to the image?
2. Explain Laws of reflection.
3. Explain Laws of refraction
4. Define Snell’s law.
5. What arethe defects of a lens? How can we rectify it?

Applied Physics -II
6. Sketch the image formation of a convex/concave lens when objects are placed at different
distances from the lens.
7. What is magnification
8. On which factors does the speed of light in a vacuum depend?
9. What will be the focal length of a plane mirror?
10. Define total internal reflection. What are the conditions of total internal reflection?
11. Write the uses of optical fibers.
12. With the help of a diagram explain the working of
a) Simple microscope
b) Compound microscope
c) Astronomical telescope
13. Write a note on the resolving power and magnifying power of optical instruments.
14. Give some examples of optical sensors.
15. Write a brief note on optical projecting systems.
16. What are the drawbacks of a simple microscope?
17. Explain the working of optical fibers.
18. Calculate the angle at which a fish under the water sees the setting sun. (Ans: 48.750)
19. Explain, why ground glass does not produce a clear image?
20. Can we obtain a virtual image of a screen?
21. Can we see or photograph a virtual image?
22. What is the type of mirror used to see the rear side of a vehicle?
23. What is the principle behind the glittering of diamonds

Applied Physics -II
24. Explain why an air bubble in a jar of water shines brightly
25. Two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are combined. What is the condition to be neither
diverging nor converging?
26. A convex lens and concave lens of the same focal length are combined;
i) What is the effective focal length?
ii) What is effective power?
27. Can we have the negative and positive powers for a lens?
28. An air bubble inside the glass slab appears to be brighter than glass. Why?
29. Match the following
Column A Column B
Endoscopy Refraction
Mirage High refractive index
Twinkling of stars Total internal reflection
Diamond Optic fiber communication
30. “A glass road dipped in a colourless liquid seems to disappear”. Which of the following
reason is appropriate for the given statement?
a) Glass and liquid have the same density
b) Glass and liquid have the same colour
c) The glass reflects the light transmitted by the liquid
d) Glass and liquid have the same refractive index

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GOVT.

Module 1 & 2 (Draft)

STATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS’

Conceptual Learning 1.1

1.1 Periodic Motion

We have learned about one-dimensional motion. But this motion is non-repetitive. We

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 1

a) Vibrations of strings of musical instruments

1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

A body undergoing periodic motion has an

The properties of simple harmonic motion are:

a) The motion should be periodic

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 2

1.2.1 Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion

a) Swings that we see in the park.

Conceptual Learning 1.2

find the following.

a) Find the dependent factors of the period of the simple pendulum.

1.2.2 Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 3

1.2.3 Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM

1.2.4 Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle executing SHM

The displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 4

The velocity of the particle executing SHM is

The acceleration of the particle executing SHM is

This is the differential equation for SHM.

1.2.4 Period (T)

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 5

1.2.5 Frequency (f)

The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

Conceptual Learning 1.3

When a stone is dropped on the surface of

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 6

1.3.1 Transverse waves

If the particles of a medium vibrate about their mean positions, in a direction

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 7

Fig. 1.5 Transverse wave propagating in positive X- direction

1.3.2 Longitudinal waves

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Example: sound waves.

Fig. 1.6Longitudinal wave propagating in positive X- direction

Table 1.1 Differences between transverse and longitudinal waves

2. A transverse wave consists of a series of 2. A longitudinal wave consists of a series of

4. There is no pressure variation 4. There is pressure variation be maximum

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 9

1.3.3 Characteristics of a wave

a) Amplitude (a):The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any

1.3.4 Relation between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength

i.e., wave velocity =

Wavelength λ is the distance travelled in T seconds, then wave velocity is given by

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 10

The relation between frequency and period is

ie wave velocity is the product of frequency and wavelength.

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 11

Determine the frequency of light of wavelength 600nm.Velocity of light is 3 x 108 m/s.

State Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research | Page 12

1.3.5 Sound waves

1.3.6 Light waves