LECTURERS:

TYOKYAA K. RICHARD [email protected]@yahoo.com

Tel: +2348169201942, +2348185304163.
ORVEREM JOEL [email protected]@fudutsinma.edu.ng
Tel: +2347034848671, +2348115745381

Course Name: Mathematical Methods I (3 credit units).

Course code: MTH211
Method of assessment: 40% Continuous Assessment and 60% of Semester Examinations

CLASS TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS

Class tests and Assignments: At least two class tests and one practical oriented class
assignment shall contribute 40% to the final mark.
Attendance at all lectures and tests is compulsory. This will qualify a student to be examinable.

Short course description

The course helps students to have a re-view of functions, differentiation and integration. Enable
the students to have an over view of real-valued functions of real valuable. It helps the students
to demonstrate the applications of differentiation and integration. Demonstrate more
differentiation applications through the use of Mean-valued theorem. The course will also look at
Power series, Taylor series expansion and some applications. Evaluation of line integrals,
multiple integrals will be treated in this course.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
 Solve problems involving real-valued functions of real variable.
 Differentiate, integrate and applied such to everyday activities.
 Use mean-value theorem to solve problems involving differential.
 Use Taylor series expansion to solve problems involving cubic approximating
polynomial, closed interval etc.
 Solve problems in partial derivatives, chain rule, extreme etc.
 Evaluate the line integrals, multiple integrals.

Teaching Methods:
Class lectures group discussions, take-home assignments and class presentations by students.
Syllabus

1
 1. Real-valued functions of real variable-----------------------------------------------------1weeks
2. Review of differentiation and integration and their applications------------------------4week
3. Mean value theorem and Taylor series expansion-----------------------------------------3week
4. Partial derivatives, chain rule, extreme etc-------------------------------------------------2week
5. Evaluation of line integrals and multiple integrals----------------------------------------2week

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST DATES

Continuous assessment Test 1
Continuous assessment Test 2

Reading lister :

Prescribed textbooks:
 Engineering Mathematics (5th edition) By K.A Stroud (with additions by Dexter J.
Booth)
Paalgrave
ISBN0-333-91939-4
ISBN0-333-94790-8(international edition)
 Robert T. Smith and Roland B. Minton: MULTIVARIATE CALCULUS
Second Edition, McGraw Hill
ISBN 0-07-283734-9
 CollinesAdvancedd Mathematics Mechanics ByTed.G, edited by Berry. J (2011)
ISBN978-0-00-742905-9

2
FUNCTIONS
Most applications of calculus involve the use of real numbers or variables to describe changing
quantities. The key to the mathematical analysis of a geometric or scientific situation is typically
the recognition of relationships among the variables that describe the situation. Such a
relationship may be a formula that expresses one variable as a function of another. For example,
the area A of a circle of radius r is given by A=π r 2 . The volume V and surface area S of a
4 3
sphere of radius r are given by V = π r and S=4 π r 2 respectively.
3
The equation that states that y is equal to some expression in x , written as: y=f (x ) has been
described with the words ‘ y is a function of x ’. For example, take out your calculator and enter
the number: 3 this is x , the input number. Now press the x 2 key and the display changes to: 9 this
is y , the output number where y=x 2. Therefore, a function in this case is a rule embodied in a set
of instructions within the calculator that changed the 3 to 9, activated by you pressing the x 2 key.
Definition
A function of a variation x is a rule that describes how a value of the variable x is manipulated to
generate a value of the variable y . The rule is often expressed in the form of an equation y=f (x )
with the proviso that for any input x there is a unique value for y . Different outputs are
associated with different inputs. The function is said to be single valued when for a given input
there is only one output. For example, the equation: y=2 x +3 expresses the rule ‘multiply the
value of x and add three’ and this rule is the function.
1
On the other hand, the equation: y=x 2 which is the same as y=± √ x expresses the rule ‘take the

positive and negative square roots of the value of x ’. This rule is not a function because to each
value of the input x >0 there are two different values of output y .
Note:Functions are rules but not all rules are functions.
Definition
A real-valued function f defined on a set D of real numbers is a rule that assigns to each number
x in D exactly one real number denoted by f (x).
The set D of all numbers for which f (x) is defined is called the domain of the f . The number
f (x) is called the value (image) of f at the point (number) x . The set of all values y=f (x ) is
called the range of f . That is, the range of f is the set { y : y=f ( x ) for some x ∈ D }.

3
Examples
1. The squaring function defined by f ( x )=x 2 assigns to each real number x its square x 2.
R={ y : y ≥ 0 }
2. The formula f ( x )=x 2 + x−3 defines a function f whose domain is the entire real line R .
Some typical values of f are f (−2 )=−1 , f ( 0 )=−3 , f ( 3 )=9 . Other values of the function f
include f ( 4 )=17 , f ( c )=c2 + ( c−3 ) , f ( 2+ h )=h 2+5 h+ 3 , f (−t 2) =t 4−t 2−3
Definition
If y=f ( x ), we call x the independent variable and y the dependent variable because the value of
y depends through f on the choice of x .
The statement “ is a function of x ” is expressed mathematically by y=f (x ) where y is called
the dependent variable, x is called the dependent variable.
Examples
1. If f ( x )=x 2−3 x , evaluate f ( 2 ) , f ( 3 ) , f (−5 ) , f ( a ) , f (0)
Solution
The possible value of x constitute the domain of the function. The corresponding values for y
constitute the co-domain of the function.
2. For what values of x are the following function defined? What are their domains and co-
domains?
i. f ( x )=2 x−5
1
ii. f ( x )=
x−2
Solution
i. y=f ( x )=2 x−5is defined for every value of x we obtain one value for y . The domain
is all the real numbers. The co-domain is all the real numbers.
1
ii. y= is defined for all values of x except 2. The domain is the real numbers except
x−2
x=2. The co-domain is the real numbers except y=undefined .
Exercises

1. f ( x )=x 3−3 x . Evaluate f ( 12 ) , f ( 2) , f (−1).

2. ∅ ( x ) =x2−5 x +6 . Evaluate ∅ ( 0 ) ,∅ ( 1 ). for what values of x is ∅ ( x ) =0 ?

4
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY OF FUNCTION
(a) Continuity of function
Definition: A single-valued function of x (ie f (x)) is said to be continuous at x=a if

i. lim f (x ) exist
x →a

ii. The function is defined for the value x=a , and

iii. If lim f (x )=f (a)

x →a

When f (x) does not satisfy these conditions, it is said to be discontinuous and x=a is called a
2
1 5 x +3
point of discontinuity e.g y= is discontinuous at x=0 while y= is discontinuous
x ( x−1 ) ( x−2)
at x=1 , 2.
2
x −4 x −4
2
( x−2 ) ( x+ 2)
Note that is not discontinuous at x=2 since lim =lim =lim (x +2)=4
x −2 x →2 x−2 x →2 x−2 x →2

2
x −ax ( x−a) x
Also, lim =lim =lim x=a
x →a x−a x →a x−a x→a

(b) Differentiability of functions

A function y=f (x ) with points P(x , y) and Q(x +∂ x , y + ∂ y ) where ∂ x ,∂ y are small increment
or changes in x and y .

Q (x +∂ x , y +∂ y )

PS
∂x
θ

f ( x+ ∂ x )−f (x)
The expression =tanQPS .
∂x

5
As P approaches Q we have the limiting value given by lim
∂ x→ 0
( f ( x +∂∂xx)−f (x ) )=l−−−−(1)
If this limit exists, then l=tan where θ is the angle between the tangent at P and x−axis . We
dy
refer to equation (1) as the differential coefficient of y with respect to x and is denoted by or
dx
' df d
f ( x ) , ∨∆ y , ∆ f etc. where ∆ is the operator .
dx dx
A function y=f (x ) is said to be differentiable if it has a differential coefficient, and to be
differentiable at x=x 0 if f ' ( x) exists at that point.
For the domain [ a , b ], we have
f ( x ) −f (a)
f ' ( a )=lim
x→ a x−a
' f ( x )−f (b)
f ( b )=lim
x→ b x−b
Examples
1. If f is a constant function in the domain D of f ie f ( x )=c for all xϵD , then f ' ( x )=0 for all
xϵD .
' 1
2. If f ( x )= √ x for all xϵ [ 0 , ∞ ], then f is differentiable at each point c >0 and f ( c )=
2 √c
f ( x ) −f (c)
=lim
√ x−√ c =lim √ x−√ c . √ x + √ c =lim x−c
ielim
x →c x−c x →c x−c x→ c x−c √ x + √ c x → c (x−c)( √ x+ √ c)
1 1 1
¿ lim = = proved.
x →c ( √ x + √ c ) ( √ c+ √ c ) 2 √ c
Note that f is not differentiable at c=0 for
=lim √ √ =lim √ =lim √ = √ . √ =
f ( x )−f ( 0 ) x− 0 x −0 x x x x 1
f ' ( 0 )= = →∞ as x →0
x−0 x→0 x−0 x → 0 x−0 x→ 0 x x √x x √x √ x
Also, the function f ( x )= √ x is not differentiable at x=0 even though is continuous at the point. It
then means that, continuity of f at a point does not imply differentiability at that point.

DIFFERENTIATION

GRADIENT
increase∈ y ∆ y
The gradient of a straight line is the ratio = going from one point to another on
increase∈ x ∆ x
the line.
For a curve, the idea of a gradient is more complicated. A curve changes direction from one
point to another and we therefore defined the gradient at a point to be the gradient of the tangent
line at that point
Definition
Let y=f (x ) be a given function where x is an independent variable and y a dependent variable.
∆ y y 2− y 1 dy
The rate of change of y compared with x is written as = =
∆ x x 2−x 1 dx

6
DIFFERENTIATION RULES FOR SUM, PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT OF
FUNCTIONS
d ' '
1. (f ( x )+ g (x))=f ( x ) + g (x)
dx
d ' '
2. (f ( x ) . g(x ))=f ( x ) g (x )+ g ( x ) f (x )
dx

( )
' '
d f ( x) g ( x ) f ( x )−f ( x ) g ( x)
3. =
dx g( x ) ( g (x) )
2

TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION
1. Differentiation from the first principle
Let y=f (x ), then
dy f ( x +h )−f (x)
=lim ,h≠0
dx h → 0 h
Examples
Find the derivative of the following using the first principle method
x+2
(i) ax +b (ii) (iii) √ 2 x +3 (iv) e
x
3 x +5

Solutions
(i) Let f (x)=ax +b
lim f ( x+ h )−f (x)
' h→0
f ( x )=
h
lim a ( x +h )+ b−(ax +b)
' h→0
⟹ f ( x )=
h
lim xh
h→0
¿ =x
h
Therefore , f ' ( x )=x

(ii)
x +2
Let f ( x ) =
3 x +5

lim f ( x+ h )−f (x)

' h→0
f ( x )=
h

( x+ h ) +2 x +2
lim −
' h→0 3 ( x +h )+ 5 3 x +5
⟹ f ( x )=
h

7
 lim [ ( x +h ) +2 ] ( 3 x+5 )−( x+2) [ 3 x +3 h+5 ]
' h→0
⟹ f ( x )=
h [ 3 ( x +h ) +5 ] ¿ ¿

2
lim 3 x + 3 xh+ 6 x+5 x +5 h+10+3 x−3 hx−5 x−6 x −6 h−10
' h→0
⟹ f ( x )=
h ( 3 x+ h+ 5 ) (3 x+ 5)

lim −h
' h →0
⟹ f ( x )=
h ( 3 x +h+5 ) (3 x+5)

lim −1
' h→0
⟹ f ( x )= 2
(3 x+ 5)

(iii) √ 2 x +3
Let f ( x ) =√ 2 x +3

lim √ 2 ( x+ h ) +3− √ 2 x+ 3
' h→0
f ( x )=
h

lim √ 2 ( x +h )+ 3−√ 2 x+3

⟹ f ( x )=
'
h→0
×
√ 2 ( x +h ) +3+ √2 x +3
h √ 2 ( x +h ) +3+ √2 x +3
lim 2(x +h)+3−(2 x+ 3)
¿ h→0
h ( √ 2 ( x +h )+3+ √ 2 x +3 )

lim 2 x+ 2 h+ 3−2 x−3

h→0
¿
h ( √ 2 ( x +h )+3+ √2 x +3 )

lim 2 h
h→0
¿
h ( √ 2 ( x +h )+3+ √2 x +3 )

lim 2
h →0
¿
√2 ( x +h ) +3+ √2 x+ 3
lim 2
h →0
¿
2 √ 2 x+3

8
 lim 1
h→0
¿
√2 x +3

x
(iv) e
Let f ( x ) =e x
x+h x
lim e −e
' h→0
f ( x )=
h
x h x
lim e e −e
' h→0
⟹ f ( x )=
h
lim e ( e h−1 )
x
'
⟹ f ( x )= h → 0
h
h
lim e −1
' x h →0
⟹ f ( x )=e
h
' x
⟹ f ( x )=e .1
' x
⟹ f ( x )=e

Exercises
Differentiate the following functions from first principle
3 2
1. f ( x )=x +2 x +10
2. √ 5 x−2
x+ 1
3.
3 x −3
4. tan x
sin x
5. e

2. The use of formula method

dy
If y=a x n, then from the first principle method is given as
dx
dy f ( x +h )−f (x)
=lim h ≠ 0 , f ( x )= y
dx h → 0 h
¿ lim
[ a ( x +h )n−a x n ]
h→ 0 h
But by binomial expansion
n n(n−1) n−2 2
( x +h ) =x n +n x n−1 h+ x h +…+h n
2!
9
ie
dy
[( n n−1
=lim a x +n x h+
dx h → 0
n ( n−1 ) n−2 2
2!
x h + …+h −a x ×
n n 1
h ) ]
an ( n−1 ) n−2 2 1
¿ lim (ax ¿¿ n+ an x n−1 h+ x h + …+ahn−a x n)× ¿
h→ 0 2! h
an ( n−1 ) n−2 2 1
¿ lim (an x n−1 h+ x h +…+ ahn)×
h→ 0 2! h
an ( n−1 )
¿ lim an x n−1 + x n−2 h+ …+ahn −1
h→ 0 2!
dy n−1
=an x
dx

Examples
−1
1. Differentiat x 5
e x with respect to x
Solution

( e )=x
−1 −1 −1
d 5 x 5 d x x d 5
x e +e x
dx dx dx

( )
−1 −1
x−1 x
−1
¿x 5
e +e x 5
5

( )
−6
ex −1
¿ +e x x 5
1
5
5
x

( )
−6
ex 1
¿ −e x x 5
1
5
x5

( )
x 1 1
¿e 1
− 6
5 5
x 5x

2 dy 2 2
2. Given that y=x tan x , prove that x sin x = y + y sin x
dx
Solution
dy d d
( x tan x )=x tan x+ tan x (x)
dx dx dx

10
 dy d d
⟹ ( x tan x ) =x tan x + tan x (x )
dx dx dx

dy 2
⟹ = x sec x +tan x ∙1
dx

dy 2
⟹ = x sec x +tan x
dx
Multiplying through by x sin2 x , we have
2 dy 2 2 2
x sin x ∙ =x sin x ∙ x sec x+ x sin x ∙ tan x
dx

2
dy 2 sin x
2 2
⟹ x sin x =x 2
+ x sin x tan x
dx cos x

2 dy 2 2 2
⟹ x sin x =x tan x+ x tan x sin x
dx

2 dy 2 2
⟹ x sin x = y + y sin x
dx
Exercises
Differentiate the following respect to x
x
1. e sin x
2. √ x log x 2
3. sin x cos x
4. ( x sin x +cos x ) ( e x + x 2 log x )
2 x
5. x log x e

( )
2
3+4 x
6.
2−x
1−√ x
7.
1+ √ x

APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION

11
(A) Kinematics
If a quantity y depends on and varies with a quantity x then, the rate of change of y with respect
dy dp
to x is . The rate of change of pressure P with respect to height h is , that of distance s with
dx dh
ds
time t is etc.
dt
Examples
1. The length l meters of a certain metal rod at temperature θ0 c is given by l=2 θ+0.0025 θ 2
. determine the rate of change of a length in m/c 0 when the temperature is (a) 200 c 0 (b)
0
150 c
Solution
dl
The rate of change of length is denoted but l=2 θ+0.0025 θ 2
dθ
dl
=2+0.005 θ=2.005 θ
dθ
(a) When θ=200 c 0 then,
dl 0
=2.005 ×200=401m/c
dθ
(b) When θ=150 c 0 then,
dl 0
=2.005 ×150=300.75 m/c
dθ
2. The distance x meters travelled by a vehicle in time t seconds after the brakes are applied
5 2
is given by x=20 t− t . Determine
4
(a) The speed of the vehicle (¿ km/h ) at the instant the brakes are applied, and
(b) The distance the car travels before it stops.
Solutions
5 2
Given the distance x=20 t− t
4
dx 5 dx
(a) Speed ¿ =20 t− t at the instant the brakes are applied =0
dt 4 dt
5
ie20− t=0
2
40=5 t

12
 t=8
Check
dx 5
=20− × 8=20−20=0
dt 2
5 2
(b) x=20 t− t but t=8
4
5 2 5
x=20 ( 8 )− ( 8 ) =160− (64)
4 4
x=160−80
∴ x=80 m
Exercises
1. A body moves in a straight line so that the distance moved s meters after t seconds is
given by s=t 3−4 t 2+ 4 t . Find the two positions of the body when it is momentarily at
rest. What is the acceleration of the body at these times?
2. A body moves in a straight line so that the distance moved s meters after t seconds is
given by s=t 3−2t 2+ t . Find an expression for the speed of the body at time t ; and find the
times at which the body is at rest. What is the acceleration of the body at these times?
(B) Stationary Points
In the figure below, the gradient (or rate of change) of the curve changes from positive, between
O and P, to negative between P and Q. It then changes again to positive between Q and R. At
point P, the gradient is zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from positive
just before P to negative just after P. Such a point is called a maximum point and appears at the
‘crest of a wave’. At point Q, the gradient is also zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the
curve changes from negative just before Q to positive just after Q. Such a point is called a
minimum point, and appears as the ‘bottom of a valley’. Points such as P and Q are called turning
points.

R
Maximum point
Negative
P gradient

Positive
gradient
13
Positive
gradient
Q
It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of which is the same. Such a
point is called a point of inflexion. The following is a diagram showing points of inflexion

Maximum point

Points of inflexion

Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points

dy
(i) Given y=f (x ), determine .
dx
dy
(ii) Put =0 and solve for the values of x .
dx
(iii) Substitute the values of x into the original equation, y=f (x ) to find the corresponding
value of y .
To determine the nature of the stationary points
2
d y
(a) Find 2 and substitute into it the values of x found in (ii) above.
dx
If the result is:
(i) positive – the point is a minimum point,
(ii) negative – the point is a maximum point,
(iii) zero – the point is a point of inflexion.
(b) Determine the sign of the gradient of the curve just before and just after the stationary
points. If the sign change for the gradient of the curve is:
(i) positive to negative – the point is a maximum point.

14
 (ii) negative to positive – the point is a minimum one.
(iii) positive to positive or negative to negative – the point is a point of inflexion.

Examples
1. Locate the turning point on the curve y=3 x 2−6 x and determine its nature by examining
the sign of the gradient on either side.
Solution
Following the above procedure:
2 dy
(i) Since y=3 x −6 x , =6 x−6.
dx
dy
(ii) At a turning point, =0. Hence 6 x−6=0. It follows that x=1.
dx
(iii) When x=1, y=3 ( 1 )2−6 ( 1 )=−3.
Hence the coordinates of the turning points are (1 ,−3).
dy
(iv) If x is slightly less than 1, say, 0.9, then =6 ( 0.9 ) =−0.6 , which is negative. If x is slightly
dx
dy
greater than 1, say, 1.1, then =6 ( 1.1 )−6=0.6 , which is positive. It follows that the point
dx
(1 ,−3) is a minimum point.
2. Locate the turning point on the following curve and determine whether it is a maximum
dy −θ
or minimum point: y=4 θ+ e−θ , then =4−e =0, for a maximum or minimum value.
dθ
θ 1 1
Hence 4=e−θ, e , giving θ=ln =−1.3863
4 4
When θ=−1.3863, y=4 (−1.3863 )+ e−(−1.3863)=5.5452+ 4.0000=−1.5452 .
Thus, (−.3863 ,−1.5452 ) are the co-ordinates of the turning point.
2
d y −θ
2
=e
dθ
2
d y + 1.3863
When θ=−1.3863 , 2
=e =4.0 , which is positive, hence, (−.3863 ,−1.5452 ) is a
dθ
minimum point.
Exercises

15
1. The distance x metres moved by a car in a time t seconds is given by x=3 t 3−2 t 2 + 4 t−1.
Determine the velocity and acceleration when (a) t=0 and (b) t=1.5 s.
2. The displacement x cm of the slide valve of an engine is given by
x=2.2 cos 5 πt+3.6 sin 5 πt . Evaluate the velocity (in m/s) when time t=30
ms.
3. Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum values of the graph
3
y=x −3 x +5 by (a) examining the gradient on either side of the turning points and (b)
determining the sign of the second derivative
4. Find the nature of the turning points of the function y=x 3−2 x 2 + x+ 4

INTEGRATION (Review)

So far we have seen how to find the derivative of several functions, called differentiation. We
shall show, in this section, how to reverse this process to obtain what we call an anti-derivative.
If the derivative of a function is 2 x , we know that the function could be f ( x )=x 2, it can also be
2 π
f ( x )=x +5, it can be f ( x )=x − , etc.
2
2
Generally, any function of the form f ( x )=x 2 +c , where c is a constant, will have a derivative of
2 x . Therefore, integrating the function f ( x )=2 x we have to introduce the arbitrary constant c ,
whatever value it may be. This is true when we are integrating every other function of x .This
process of finding anti-derivative is called integration.

d
Given that f ( x )=g (x), then we denote integration by
dx

∫ g ( x)dx=f ( x ) +c
The dx indicates that the integration is done with respect to the variable x .
d n
Consider a simple polynomial x n. Since ( x )=n x n−1, by inspection we see that
dx
n+1
x
∫ x n dx= n+1 +c

16
Examples
1. Integrate the functions with respect to x

a. 5 b. c. d.

Solutions

a. If , then .

b. If , then .

c. If , then .

d. If , then
4
2. Integrate x with respect to x

Solution
4 +1
x
∫ x dx =
4
4+1
+c

5
x
+c
5

3. Evaluate the integral

dx
∫ (3 x + 4)2

Solution
dx
∫ ( 3 x+ 4 )2
17
 1
¿∫ 2
dx
(3 x+ 4)
¿ ∫ (3 x + 4) dx
−2

−2+1
(3 x +4) 1
¿ ×
−2+1 3
−1
(3 x +4)
¿ +c
−3
4
x +1
4. Given that f ( x )= 2
x +1
Find the integral of f (x) with respect to x .
Solution
4
x +1
f ( x )= 2
x +1
Use long division to divide the numerator by the denominator, we have:
¿
2
x +1
¿
¿
Hence,
4
x +1 2 2
2
=x −1+ 2
x +1 x +1
4
x +1
Therefore ∫ 2
dx
x +1

¿ ∫ x −1+
( 2 2
x +1
dx
2 )
2
¿ ∫ x dx −∫ 1dx +∫
2
dx2
x +1
3
x −1
¿ −x +2 tan x +c
3
Exercises
Evaluate the followings integrals

∫ ( x + 1x ) dx
3
1.

18
 2. ∫ √ 3+log
x
x
dx

dx
3. ∫ ( 3 x+ 4 )2

INTEGRATION BY PARTS
This is a process convenient for the integration of a product of two functions. Recall the
following formula used to differentiate a product of two functions.
d dv du
( uv )=u + v
dx dx dx
whereu and v are functions of x . integrating all the terms with respect to x , we have:
d dv du
∫ dx ( uv ) dx=∫ u dx dx +∫ v dx dx
⟹ uv=∫ u dv +∫ v du

⟹∫ u dv=uv−∫ v du
Note that this method is used to integrate the product of the functions in which one of the
functions can be integrated immediately.
Points to note while using the method of integration by parts to evaluate integrations
1. Chose the first and second functions in such a way that the derivative of the first
function and the integral of the second function can easily be obtained.
2. Rules of integration by parts may be used repeatedly when necessary.
3. In general, choose the first function using the following order
I = Inverse trigonometric function
L =Logarithmic function
A = Algebraic function
T =Trigonometric function
E =Exponential function
For instance, if an exponential function and a logarithmic function appears as a
product in an integral, choose the logarithmic function to represent u while the
exponential function should represent dv . This is because logarithmic function
appears before the exponential function in the above list. The mnemonic ‘I, L, A, T,
E’ may be used to remember the order in which the first function is used.

19
Examples
1. Determine

∫ x cos x dx
Solution
Let u=xand dv =cos x . It follows that du=1and v=sin x .
Substituting in the formula, we have

∫ x cos x dx=x sin x−∫ 1 ∙ sin x

⟹∫ x cos x dx=x sin x−∫ sin x

⟹∫ x cos x dx=x sin x−(−cos x ) +c

⟹∫ x cos x dx=x sin x+ cos x+ c

2. Evaluate ∫ 3 t e dt
2t

Solution
1 2t
Let u=3t and dv =e2 t . It follows that du=3 and v= e
2
Substituting in the formula, we have
3 1
∫ 3 t e2 t dt= 2 t e2 t −∫ 2 e 2t ∙ 3
3 2t 3
⟹∫ 3 t e dt = t e − ∫ e
2t 2t
2 2
3 2t 3 2t
⟹∫ 3 t e dt= t e − e +c
2t
2 4
3 1
( )
⟹∫ 3 t e 2t dt = e 2t t− +c
2 2

3. Evaluate ∫ x e dx
x

Solution
Let u=x , dv=e x dxsot h atdu=dxandv=e x
Substitute into part formula we have

20
 ∫ x e 2 dx=x e x −∫ e x dx
= x e x −e x +c
= e x ( x−1 ) +c .
Exercise
Integrate the following functions by part
1. ∫ x 2 sin 4 x dx
2. ∫ x ln x dx
4x
3. ∫ 3 x dx
e
4. ∫ x cos 4 x dx
2

Points to note while using the method of integration by parts to evaluate integrations
4. Chose the first and second functions in such a way that the derivative of the first
function and the integral of the second function can easily be obtained.
5. Rules of integration by parts may be used repeatedly when necessary.
6. In general, choose the first function using the following order
I = Inverse trigonometric function
L =Logarithmic function
A = Algebraic function
T =Trigonometric function
E =Exponential function
For instance, if an exponential function and a logarithmic function appears as a
product in an integral, choose the logarithmic function to represent u while the
exponential function should represent dv . This is because logarithmic function
appears before the exponential function in the above list. The mnemonic ‘I, L, A, T,
E’ may be used to remember the order in which the first function is used.

APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
1. Application to length of arcs
Using the line segment to approximate a small arc piece, the length of the small arc piece can be
approximated by

√ ( )
ds ≃ √ ( dx ) + ( dy ) = 1+
2 2 dy 2
dx √
dx= 1+ ( )
dx 2
dy
dy .

21
The total length of the whole arc can then be obtained by adding up all lengths of the small arc
pieces in the Riemann sum sense under a limiting process, which leads to

√
b
Arclength=∫ 1+
a
( )
dy 2
dx
dx .

Examples
1 3 1
1. Find the length of an arc C which is given by y= x + from x=1 to x=3
6 2x
Solution
dy
First compute and ds .
dx
dy 1 2 1 −2
= x− x .
dx 2 2
Thus,

( ) ( )
2 2
dy 1 2 1 −2 1 4 2 1 −4
= x− x = x − + x ,
dx 2 2 4 4 4

√ √
2
( x 2+ x−2 )
( )
2 2 −2
dy x +x
ds= 1+ dx = dx= dx .
dx 4 2
It follows that
3 2 −2
x +x 14
Arclength=∫ dx =
1 2 3
3
2
2. Find the length of arc C which is given by x= ( y −1 ) 2 from y=1 to y=5.
3
Solution
dx
First compute and ds .
dy
1
dx 2 3 2
= ∙ ( y−1 ) ,
dy 3 2
and so

( )
2
dx
= y−1.
dy

22
 Thus,

[ ]
3 5
5
2y 2
10 √ 5−2
Arclength=∫ √ 1+ ( y−1 ) dy= = .
1
3 1 3
Exercises
1. Find the length of an arc C which is given by y=x 3 +2 x 2 from x=2 to x=4
1 2
2. Find the length of arc C which is given by x= ( y +2 ) from y=1 to y=4.
2

2. Areas under curves

y=f (x )

x=ax =bx

Consider the area A of the figure bounded by curve y=f (x ), the x−axis and the two vertical
lines through x=a∧x=b (where b> a)
Because integration is the reverse process of differentiation, it is seen that: A x =∫ ydx
If x=b then Ab =∫ (x=b ) ydx (the value of the integral and hence the area up to b )
If x=a then A a=∫ (x=a ) ydx (the value of the integral and hence the area up to a )
Because b> a, the difference in these two areas Ab −A a gives the required area A. that is;
b
A=∫ ( x=b ) ydx− ∫ ( x=a) ydx which is written A=∫ ydx
a

The number a∧b are called the limits of the integral where the right-hand limit is at the top of
the integral sign and the left-hand limit is at the bottom. Such an integral with limits is called a
definite integral.

23
Examples
1. Determine the area bounded by the curve y=3 x 2 +6 x +8, the x−axis and the ordinates
x=1∧x =3
Solution
y

2
y=3 x +6 x +8

A
0 1 2 3 x

3 3
3
A=∫ ydx=∫ ( 3 x + 6 x+ 8 ) dx=[ x +3 x +8 x ]1
2 3 2

1 1

3
A=[ x3 +3 x 2 +8 x ]1={ 27+27+ 24 }−{ 1+ 3+8 }=78−12=66unit 2
2. Find the area bounded by the curve y=3 x 2 +14 x +15, the x−axis and ordinates at
x=−1∧x=2.
Solution

24
 2
y=3 x +14 x +15

A
-1 0 1 2 x

2 2
2
A=∫ ydx=∫ ( 3 x +14 x +15 ) dx= [ x +7 x +15 x ]−1
2 3 2

−1 −1

Therefore , A= { 8+28+30 }−{−1+7−15 }=66−(−9 )=75 unit

2

Exercises
1. Find the area between the curve y=x 2−x , the x−axis and the ordinates x=0∧x=2
2. Find the area bounded by the curve y=5 x 2 +6 x+ 3, the x−axis and ordinates at
x=−2∧x=5
3. Find the area bounded by the curve y=x 5 +14 x , the x−axis and ordinates at
x=−1∧x=2

25
THE MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
Suppose that
I. f is continuous on a closed interval [ a , b ] and
II. Differentiable on the open interval [ a , b ] then there is a point c ∈ [ a , b ] such that
' f ( b )−f (a) '
f ( c )= ie f ( b )−f ( a )= ( b−a ) f (c )
b−a

A(a , f (a)) B(b , f (b))

c (c , f (c))

a b

f ( b )−f (a)
Slope of S=
b−a

26
Proof
f ( b ) −f ( a )
Leth ( x )=f ( x ) −f ( a )= (x−a)
b−a
Clearly, h is continuous on [ a , b ] and differentiable on [ a , b ]. Furthermore,h ( a )=h ( b )=0. Thus,
conditions of Roll’s theorem are satisfied, hence there is a point c ∈ [ a , b ] such that
' '
h ( c )=f ( c )−(f ( b )−f (a)
b−a ) =0and the result follows
Home work
State and prove Roll’s theorem.

Examples
1. Find the value of c for the graph y=x 3 at a=2 and b=−2
Solution
f ( 2 )=8 , f (−2 )=−8
' 2 ' 2
f ( x )=3 x , f ( c )=3 c
f ( b )−f (a)
But f ' ( c )=
b−a
2 −8−8 −16
ie 3 c = = =4
−2−2 −4
2
3 c =4
2 4
c=
3

√
± 4
c= =±
3
2
√3
Thus, there are two values of c between a=2 and b=−2 where the tangent to the curve y=x 3 is
parallel to the chord joining the points (−2 ,−8)and (2 , 8).
2
2. Find the values of c in the function f ( x )=x 3 between a=−8 and a=8
Solution
There Mean Value Theorem does not hold here due to the failure of f ' ( x) to exist.

Exercises
1. If P1 (x 1 , y 1 ) and P2 (x 2 , y 2 ) are any two points on the cure y=a x2 +bx +c and if
P2 (x 3 , y 3 ) is a point on the arc P1 P 2 where the tangent is parallel to the chord P1 P 2.
x +x
Show that x 3= 1 2
2
2. Find the value(s) of c in the followings
a) f ( x )=x 2−2 x−1 , a=0 , b=1

27
 b) f ( x )= √ x−1 , a=1 ,b=3

POWER SERIES
A power series is of the form
∞

∑ an x n=a0 + a1 x +a 2 x 2+ …+a n x nwherea 0 , a 1 , a2 , a3 , … , anconstants

n=0

TAYLOR’S THEOREM
Let [ a , b ] be a closed interval. Let x 0 ∈ [ a , b ]and f : [ a ,b ] → R and suppose that f , f ' , f '' , f ' ' ' , … , f n
are continuous on [ a , b ], and that f n is differentiable in [ a , b ]. Then for some point x 0 ∈ [ a , b ] we
have
2 n
' ( x−x 0 ) ' ' ( x−x 0 ) n .
f x =f ( x 0 ) + ( x−x 0 ) f ( x 0 ) +
( ) f ( x 0 )+ …+ f (x 0)
2! n!
This is referred to as Taylor’s expansion of an n times differentiable function.
We have the Taylor expansion of f (x) as a convergent power series.
∞ n n
f (x 0 )(x−x 0)
Here f ( x )=∑ is called a Taylor series expansion of f .
n=0 n!

Examples
1
1. Find the cubic approximating polynomial of f ( x )= about x=2.
√x
Solution
−1
1
f ( x )= = x 2 , x 0=2
√x
−3
1 1 1 1 1 1
f ( x )= , f ( 2 )= , f ' ( x )= x 2 = 3 = =
√x √2 2 1
4 √2
2 x 2 2× 8 2
−5
3 4 3 3 3
f '' ( x )= x 2 = 5 = = =
4 1
4 √ 32 16 √ 2
4 x 2 4 × ( 25 ) 2
'' ' −15 −15 −15
f ( x )= 4 = =
8 √ 128 64 √ 2
8 x2
2 n
( x−x 0 ) ( x−x 0 )
f ( x )=f ( x 0 ) + ( x−x 0 ) f ' ( x 0 ) + ''
f ( x 0 )+ …+ f n (x 0) .
2! n!
( x−2 )2 ' ' ( x−2 )n n
f ( x )=f ( 2 ) + ( x−2 ) f ' ( 2 ) + f ( 2 ) +…+ f (2)
2! n!
1 1 ( x −2 )2 3 ( x−2 )3 −15
f ( x )= + ( x −2 ) + +
√2 4 √2 2! 16 √ 2 3 ! 64 √ 2

28
 2 3
1 ( x−2) 3(x−2) 5(x−2)
f ( x )= + + −
√2 4 √2 32 √ 2 128 √ 2
2. Find the approximating Taylor polynomial of degree n about x=0 for each of the
followings;
i. e x
ii. sin x
iii. cos x
Solutions
x 0
i. f ( x )=e , f ( 0 )=e =1
' x ' 0
f ( x )=e , f ( 0 )=e =1
'' x '' 0
f ( x )=e , f ( 0 ) =e =1
f n ( x )=e x , f n ( 0 )=e 0=1
2 n
But f ( x )=f ( x 0 ) + ( x−x 0 ) f ' ( x 0 ) +
( x−x 0 ) ' ' ( x−x 0 ) n
f ( x 0 )+ …+ f ( x 0)
2! n!
' ( x−0 )2 ' ' ( x−0 )n n
f ( x )=f ( 0 ) + ( x−0 ) f ( 0 )+ f ( 0 ) +…+ f (0)
2! n!
2 3 4 5 n
x x x x x
f ( x )=1+ x + + + + + …+
2! 3 ! 4 ! 5! n!
x
¿e
2 3 4 5
−x x x x x
that is e =1−x + − + − +…
2! 3 ! 4 ! 5 !
2 4 6 2n
x −x 2x 2 x 2 x 2x
e +e =2+ + + +…+ +…
2! 4 ! 6 ! ( 2 n) !
2 4 6 2n
1 ( x −x) x x x x
e +e =1+ + + +…+ +…
2 2! 4 ! 6 ! ( 2 n) !
3 5 7 2 n−1
1 ( x −x ) x x x x
e −e =x + + + + +…
2 3 ! 5 ! 7 ! ( 2 n−1 ) !
ii. f ( x )=sin x , f ( 0 )=sin 0=0
f ' ( x )=cos x , f ' ( 0 )=cos 0=1
f ' ' ( x ) =−sin x , f ' ' ( 0 )=−sin 0=0
'' ' ( x ) ' ' ' ( 0)
f =−cos x , f =−cos 0=−1
iv iv
f ( x )=sin x , f ( 0 ) =sin 0=0
v v
f ( x ) =cos x , f ( 0 )=cos 0=1
vi vi
f ( x )=−sin x , f ( 0 )=−sin 0=0
vii vii
f ( x ) =−cos x , f ( 0 )=−cos 0=−1
3 5 7 9 11
x x x x x
f ( x )=x − + − + − +…=sin x
3 ! 5! 7 ! 9 ! 11!
iii. f ( x )=cos x , f ( 0 )=cos 0=1
f ' ( x )=−sin x , f ' ( 0 )=−sin 0=0
'' ( x ) '' ( 0 )
f =−cos x , f =−cos 0=−1
'' ' '''
f ( x )=sin x , f ( 0 ) =sin 0=0
iv iv
f ( x )=cos x , f ( 0 )=cos 0=1

29
 f v ( x ) =−sin x , f v ( 0 )=−sin 0=0
vi vi
f ( x )=−cos x , f ( 0 )=−cos 0=−1
2 4 6 8 10
x x x x x
f ( x )=1− + − + − +…
2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8 ! 10 !
Exercises
1. Write the Taylor series expansion of the following functions
a) f ( x )=e x at x=10
2
( ) x
b) f x = −1+ cos x at x=0
2
c) f ( x )=e x cos x at x =0
d) f ( x )= ( x +1 ) sin x at x=0
e) log e 1+ x

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Suppose f (x , y ) is a real-valued function of two independent variables x∧ y , then the partial

derivatives of f (x , y ) with respect to x is defined as

( )∂f
= lim
∂ x y ∂ x→ 0[ ∂x ]
f ( x +∂ x , y )−f (x , y)

Similarly,

30
 ( ∂∂ fy ) = lim [ f ( x , y +∂∂yy)−f (x , y ) ]
x ∂ y →0

This means that the partial derivative of f (x , y ) with respect to x may be thought of as ordinary
derivative of f (x , y ) with respect to x obtained by treating y as a constant. The same thing
applies to the partial derivative of f (x , y ) with respect to y .
Here we may denote ( )
∂f
∂x y
by f x and
∂f
∂y x ( )
by f y .

Examples
1. If f ( x , y )=x 2− y 2. Find f x and f y
x
2. If f ( x , y )=sin 2 x cos y+ 2 . Find f x and f y
y
Solutions
1. f ( x , y )=x 2− y 2.
f x =2 x
f y =−2 y
x
2. f ( x , y )=sin 2 x cos y+ 2
y
1
f x =2 cos 2 x cos y + 2
y
2x
f y =−sin 2 x sin y −
y
3
2x
=− sin 2 x sin y+ 3
y ( )
We apply this principle of partial derivatives to functions of more than two independent
variables, i.e f (x , y , z), then we have

f x= ( ∂∂ xf ) y ,z
, f y= ( ∂∂ fy )
x,z
, f z= ( ∂∂ fz ) x,y
Examples
1. If f ( x , y , z )=e2 z cos xy
Solution
2z
f ( x , y , z )=e cos xy
2z
f x =− ye sin xy
2z
f y =−xe sin xy
2z
f z =2 e cos xy

Exercises
1. If f ( x , y , z )=e x cos y .Find f x , f y and f z
−x 2
2. If f ( x , y , z )=e sin y + 3 .Find f x , f y and f z
z
2
x
3. If f ( x , z )=sin x cos z + .Find f x and f z
z

PARTIAL DERIVATIVE OF FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION (CHAIN RULE)

31
If f is a function of u and u is a function of x , then
∂ f ∂u
f x= . . It then follows that;
∂u ∂ x

( ∂∂ xf ) = ∂∂uf ( ∂∂ux )
f x=
y y

f =( ) = (
∂u ∂ y )
∂f ∂ f ∂u
y
∂y x x

Examples
1. If f ( x , y )=sin √ x 2+ y 2. Find f x and f y
Solution
1
Let u=√ x 2 + y 2=( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 i.e f ( u )=sin u
1
x cos ( x + y )
2 2 2
f x= ( )
∂f
∂x y
x
=cos u 2 2 =
√x + y (x + y )
2
1
2 2
and

( ∂∂ fy ) =cos u √ x y+ y = y cos( x (+xy+)y )

2 2 2
f y= 2 2 1
x 2 2 2

HIGHER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

( ) ( )
2
∂f ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂ f
f x= , f xx = f x= =
∂x ∂x ∂ x ∂ x y ∂ x2 y

( ) ( ∂y )
2
∂f ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂ f
f = y,f = f = yy = y 2
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y x x

f = (
∂x ∂ y) ∂ y(∂x)
2 2
∂ f ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂ f ∂ ∂ ∂f
f xy = = y ∧f = = f =yx x
∂x∂ y ∂x ∂ y∂ x ∂ y
x y
Here we show that f xy =f yx

Examples
1. If f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 2+ xy + 3 x + 4 y +5. Find f xx , f yy , f xy ∧f yx
2. If f ( x , y )=e 2 x cos xy . Find f xx , f yy , f xy ∧f yx
Solutions
1. f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 2+ xy + 3 x + 4 y +5
f x =2 x + y +3 , f xx =2
f y =2 y + x+ 4 , f yy =2
f xy =1, f yx =1
2x
2. f ( x , y )=e cos xy
2x 2x
f x =2 e cos xy− y e sin xy
2x 2x 2x 2x
f xx =4 e cos xy− y 2 e sin xy − y (2 e sin xy + ye cos xy)

32
 2x 2x 2x 2 2x
¿ 4 e cos xy −2 ye sin xy−2 y e sin xy− y e cos xy
2x 2x 2 2x
¿ 4 e cos xy −4 ye sin xy− y e cos xy
2x
f y =−x e sin xy
2 2x
f yy =−x e cos xy
f xy =? ? , f yx =? ?
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM POINTS (EXTREMUM POINTS)
The set of conditions for ( x 0 , y 0 ) to be an extremum point of f are as follows;

a) ( )
∂f
=
∂f
∂ x (x , y ) ∂ y (x , y )
0 0
=0( ) 0 0

( )
2
∂ f
b) 2
≠0
∂x ( x0 , y 0)

( ) ( )( )
2 2 2
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
c) 2
. 2
<
∂ x∂ y
(x , y ) ∂x 0 ∂y
0 ( x0 , y 0)❑
Then the point ( x 0 , y 0 ) is

( )
2
∂ f
i. A minimum if 2
>0
∂x ( x0 , y 0)

( )
2
∂ f
ii. A maximum if 2
<0
∂x ( x0 , y 0)
Examples
1. Find the turning points of the function f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 2+ xy + 3 x + 4 y +5 and distinguish
between them.
2. Find the turning points of the function f ( x , y )=1−x 2− y 2 =0 and distinguish between
them.
Solutions
1. f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 2+ xy + 3 x + 4 y +5

f x =2 x + y +3=0i . e 2 x+ y=−3 … … … … … … … … .(1)

f y =2 y + x+ 4=0 i. e 2 y + x=−4 … … … … … … … … .(2)

2 x + y=−3
2 x+ 4 y=−8
−3 y=5
−5
y=
3
Substituting y=
−5
3
into equation (1) we have x=
−2
3
this implies that
−2 −5
,
3 3
as turning ( )
point.

( )
2
∂ f
f xx =2> 0 therefore 2
≠ 0 is satisfied
∂ x (x , y ) 0 0

f yy =2> 0same reason

f xy =1, f yx =1

33
 ( ) ( )( )
2 2 2
∂ f ∂ f ∂ f
For condition <
2
. 2 we have
∂ x∂ y
(x , y )
0 0∂x ∂ y ( x , y )❑ 0 0
2
1 <2 ×2 i. e 1< 4which is verified
Since f xx =2> 0 the point (
−2 −5
,
3 3 )
is a minimum point of f ( x , y )
4 25 2 5 3 × 2 4 ×5 2
Minimum value of f ( x , y )= + + × − − +5= therefore, the minimum value of
9 9 3 3 3 3 3
2
the functionis .
3

2. f ( x , y )=1−x 2− y 2 =0
f x =−2 x , f y =−2 y
Setting f x =f y =0 it implies that x=0 , y=0 that is (0 , 0) is the turning point.

( )
2
∂ f
f xx =−2<0 therefore 2
≠0 is satisfied
∂ x (x , y )0 0

f xy =f yx =0
2
( f xy ) < f xx . f yy
i.e02 ←2 ×−2
Since f xx =−2<0 the point(0 , 0) is a maximum point and the maximum value is 1

Exercises
Investigate the turning points of the following functions.
1. f ( x , y )=2 x 2+2 xy + y 2−3 x +4
2. f ( x , y )=x 2+ y 2+10 x−6 y+ 11
3. f ( x , y )=x 2+ xy+ y 2+ 3 x−3 y
4. f ( x , y )=x 2+ x2 y + y 2
5. f ( x , y )=√ 1−x 2− y 2
6. f ( x , y )=1+ x 2+ y 2

LINE INTEGRALS

y y

B 34
B
k L
A A k
F
.

If a field exists in the x− y plane, producing a force F on a particle at K then F can be resolved
into two components.
F talong the tangent to the curve AB at K .
F nalong the normal to the curve AB at K .
The work done in moving the particle through a small distance δs from K ¿ L along the curve is
then approximately F t δs. So the total work done in moving a particle along the curve from A ¿ B
is given by;
lim ∑ F t δs=∫ F t δs from A ¿ B.
δs→ 0
❑ ❑

This can be written ∫ F t ds where A∧B are the end points of the curve, or as ∫ F t ds where the
AB C
curve C connecting A∧B is defined.
Such an integral thus formed is called a line integral since integration is carried out along the
path of the particular curve C joining A∧B .
❑ ❑
∴ I =∫ F t ds=∫ Ft ds
AB C
Where C is the curve y=f (x ) between A(x 1 , y 1)and B(x 2 , y 2 ).

Examples
❑

1. Evaluate ∫ ( x +3 y ) dx from A ( 0 , 1 ) ¿ B(2 , 5) along the curve y=1+ x 2

C
Solution

1
C

1 2

35
 ❑ ❑

But I =∫ F t ds=∫ F t ds
AB C
❑ 2

∫ ( x +3 y ) dx=∫ ( x +3+3 x 2 ) dx ie y=1+ x 2

C 0

[ ]
2 2
x 3
¿ +3 x+ x =16
2 0

2. Evaluate ∫ ( x + y ) dx + ( x− y ) dy from A ( 0 , 2 ) ¿ B(3 ,5) along the curve

2 2

C
y=2+ x

Solution

1
C

y=2+ x , dy=dxand the limits are x=0 ¿ x=3 then the equation becomes,
❑

∫ ( x 2 + x +2 ) dx−( x 2 +3 x+ 4 ) dx
C
❑ ❑

But I =∫ F t ds=∫ F t ds
AB C
❑ 3
I =∫ ( x + x+ 2 ) dx−( x + 3 x + 4 ) dx=∫ {( x + x+2 ) dx−( x + 3 x + 4 ) dx }
2 2 2 2

C 0
3
3
¿ ∫ −( 2 x+ 2 ) dx =[ x −2 x ] 0=−15
2

Exercises
❑

1. Evaluate I =∫ {( x +2 y ) dx + xydy } from O ( 0 , 0 ) ¿ B(1 , 4 ) along the curve

2

C
2
y=4 x
❑

2. Evaluate I =∫ {( x +2 y ) dx + xydy } from O ( 0 , 0 ) ¿ A (1 , 0) along line y=0 and then from

2

C
A ( 1 , 0 ) ¿ B(1 , 4 ) along the line x=1.
❑

3. Evaluate I =∫ ( x + y ) dx from A ( 0 , 1 ) ¿ B(0 ,−1) along the semi-circle x 2+ y 2=1 for x ≥ 0

C

36
LINE INTEGRALS ROUND A CLOSED CURVE
The line integrals round a closed curve is denoted by ∮ ❑and is to be evaluated round a closed
curve in the positive (anti-clockwise) direction.

As shown in the above diagram, the positive direction (anticlockwise) line integral denoted by
∮ ❑.

Negative direction (clockwise) line integral denoted by −∮ ❑ .

With a closed curve, the y-values on the path C cannot be single-valued. Therefore, we divide
the path into two or more parts and treat each separately.

Use y=f 1 (x ) for ALB

37
Use y=f 2 (x ) for BMA
Unless specially required otherwise, we always proceed round the closed curve in an
anticlockwise direction.

Example

1. Evaluate the line integral I =∮ (x dx−2 xydy ) where C comprises the three sides of the
2

triangle joining O ( 0 , 0 ) , A ( 1 , 0 )∧B(0 ,1).

Solution

a) OA :C1 is the line y=0therefore dy =0 then I =∮ (x dx−2 xydy ) for this part becomes
2

[ ]
1 1
x3 1 1
I 1=∮ x dx=¿ ¿
2
= therefore , I 1= ¿
0
3 0 3 3
0b) AB:C 2 is the line y=1−x therefore dy=−dx then

[ ]
0 0 0 0
x3 −2 −2
I 2=∮ { x dx +2 x (1−x )dx }=¿ ∮ ( x + 2 x−2 x ) dx=∮ ( 2 x −x ) dx = x −
2 2 2 2 2
= therefore , I 2= ¿
1 1 1
3 1 3 3

c) BO :C 3 is the line x=0 therefore dx=0

I 3=∫ ody=0 therefore , I 3=0

1 2 −1 −1
Finally, I =I 1+ I 2 + I 3= − +0= therefore, I =
3 3 3 3

Exercises

38
 ❑

1. Evaluate ∮ ydx when C is the circle x 2+ y 2=4

C
❑

2. Evaluate I =∮ { xydx + ( 1+ y ) dy } where C is the boundary of the rectangle joining

2

C
A ( 1 , 0 ) , B ( 3 , 0 ) ,C (3 ,2 ) ∧D(1 ,2).

39