Training Module on Managerial Skills ELFORA Agro Industries PLC

Managerial skills

Training Module

For: ELFORA Agro Industries PLC

Prepared By: Devoted Consulting PLC

Genuinely Committed for your Success!

2022

Website: http://www.devotedconsultingplc.com/
email:
By: Devoted [email protected]
Consulting PLC / [email protected] Page i
Tel: 0911-249594 / 0911-249593
Training Module on Managerial Skills ELFORA Agro Industries PLC

Table of Contents
Sessions Session title Page No.

Session 1 Overview of Management 4

Session 2 Planning Function 11

Session 3 Organizing Function 21

Session 4 Staffing Function 36

Session 5 Leading/Directing Function 42

Session 6 Controlling Function 49

Session 7 Communication Skills 52

Session 8 Decision Making and Problem Solving 60

Session 9 Team Building 64

Session 10 Motivation and Work Engagement 76

Session 11 Conflict Management 84

Session 12 Time Management 93

Session 13 Meeting Management 110

Bibliography 118

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Preface
Managers need the managerial skills and practices to be effective in the area they hold. This
training will give participants the theoretical framework with the practical aspects of the
management skill in light of creating awareness and skills, developing knowledge and enhancing
attitude in management thoughts. Hence this training covers issues relating to management
concepts and intended to fulfill the following objectives:

General Objective:

The general objective of this training program is to equip trainees with the relevant managerial
knowledge, skill and attitude to manage their organization.

Specific Objectives:

 Realize the definition & essence of basic management concepts & pprinciples,
 Understand the functions of planning,
 Acquiring the skill for organizing,
 Realize the staffing function,
 Grasping the concepts of leading (directing),
 Recognize the importance and ways of ccontrolling,
 Design a communication strategy which facilitates their relationship with coworkers,
subordinates and top level personnel,
 Develop a skill for decision making and problem solving,
 Clarify the importance of team and team work,
 Acquire the strategies on improving employee motivation and work engagement
 Enhance their skill on conflict management,
 Explain the concepts and techniques of time management and
 Grasping how to successfully conduct and manage meetings.

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Training Module on Managerial Skills ELFORA Agro Industries PLC

SESSION ONE
OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT
1.1 Introduction
Organizations are arguably one of the greatest human inventions of all time. One way or the
other we are affected by one or more organizations in our day-to-day life. And the day to day
activities of these organizations is affected by the decisions passed by managers in those
organizations.
Managing a successful business (nonprofit or for-profit) or building up the health of an already
established business requires healthy, ongoing leadership and management, planning, product
and service development, marketing and financial management. To carry out these practices in a
strong manner, it's important to first understand the basic "territory" in which these practices are
carried out.

1.2 Management Definition:

Activity:
1) How do you define Management?
2) What do you think are the responsibilities of top, middle and lower level managers?
(Take the case of your organization)
3) What do you think are the skills that you are required to possess to be effective
1)
manager?

Traditionally, the term "management" refers to the activities (and often the group of people)
involved in the four general functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling of
resources. Different people define management in different ways. Here is a look at some of the
definitions:
 “Management is the attainment of organizational goal in an effective and efficient manner
through planning, organizing, leading and controlling the acquisition and utilization of
resources.” Peter F. Drucker
 “Management is the art of getting things done through people.” Mary parker Follet
 “Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success.” Stephen R. Covey
 “The conventional definition of management is getting work done through people, but real
management is developing people through work.” Agha Hasan Abedi

1.3 Levels of Management

Based on levels of management or hierarchy we do have three types of managers. A manager’s
assigned duties and the authority needed to fulfill those duties are what determine management
level.

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I. Top Level Managers

Top-level managers are managers who are at the top of the organizational hierarchy and are
responsible for the entire organization. They are usually few in number - the CEO or the
president and his/her immediate subordinates usually called vice-presidents. But the actual title
may vary from organization to organization. They deal with the big picture, not with the details.
They are responsible for the overall management of the organization. They establish
companywide objectives or goals & organizational policies.

II. Middle Level Managers

Middle level managers occupy a position in an organization that is above first-line management
and below top management. They interpret and implement top management directives and
forward messages to and from first-line management.
III. First Level Managers/Supervisory Level managers
First level managers are those at the operating level or at the last level of management hierarchy.
Their subordinates are non managers.

1.4 Skills needed by Managers

Not everyone can be a manager. Certain skills, or abilities to translate knowledge into action that
results in desired performance, are required to help other employees become more productive.
These skills fall under the following categories:
a. Technical: This skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to
perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer
scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Managers acquire these skills initially
through formal education and then further develop them through training and job
experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of management.
b. Human: This skill demonstrates the ability to work well in cooperation with others.
Human skills emerge in the workplace as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine
involvement in interpersonal relationships. A manager with good human skills has a
high degree of self-awareness and a capacity to understand or empathize with the
feelings of others. Some managers are naturally born with great human skills, while
others improve their skills through classes or experience. No matter how human skills
are acquired, they’re critical for all managers because of the highly interpersonal nature
of managerial work.

c. Conceptual: This skill calls for the ability to think analytically. Analytical skills enable
managers to break down problems into smaller parts, to see the relations among the
parts, and to recognize the implications of any one problem for others. As managers
assume ever higher responsibilities in organizations, they must deal with more
ambiguous problems that have long-term consequences. Again, managers may acquire
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these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them by training
and job experience. The higher the management level, the more important conceptual
skills become.

N.B Although all three categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative importance
tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility as shown in the following figure:

Top

Technical Skills

Conceptual
Human Skills

Skills
Middle

First-line

Figure 1.1: Variation of skills necessary at different management levels

1.5 Functions of Management (an overview)

Activity:
1) Share your understanding on the meaning of the five managerial functions
(planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling)?
2) List the set of activities that you have performed as a planner, organizer, Human
resource administrator/personnel, director and controller so far in your work life.

The management functions can be divided into five functions. These functions are universal
among managers, but applying these functions differs among types of managers and
organizations. For this training purposes, it may be convenient to separate the functions of
management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly
inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others. These
functions are planning, organizing, Staffing and directing, and controlling.

Planning - It deals with setting out a future course of action and deciding in advance the most
appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. In other words, it is
deciding in advance - what to do, when to do and how to do. It bridges the gap from where we
are and where we want to be.

Organizing- Management must organize all its resources in order to implement the course of
action it determined in the planning process. Through the process of getting organized,

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management will determine the internal organizational structure; establish and maintain
relationships, as well as allocate necessary resources.

Staffing: As it has been pointed out, organizing involves creating job positions with assigned
duties and responsibilities. Staffing involves filling and keeping filled the positions in the
organization structure.

Directing/Leading- It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational

members to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is that inert-
personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising,
motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Directing has three major
elements; Motivation, Leadership and Communication

Controlling- It involves establishing performance standards based on the organization's

objectives, and evaluating and reporting actual job performances. It implies measurement of
accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement
of organizational goals.

All managers carry out managerial functions. However, the time spent for each function varies
according to their managerial hierarchy.

Figure: The relative importance of the managerial functions at different levels

Controlling
Planning

Top
Organizing

Staffing

Directing

Middle

First-line

Organizational Hierarchy Time spent on carrying out managerial functions

1.6 Roles of Managers

When a manager tries to carry out the management functions, s/he must behave in a certain way
– to fill certain role. Managerial roles represent specific tasks that managers undertake to
ultimately accomplish the five managerial functions. Factors which affect managerial roles are:
manager’s formal job description, and the values & expectations of other managers, subordinates
and peers. Henry Mintzberg identified ten managerial roles which are in turn grouped into three
categories: Interpersonal, Informational and Decisional Roles.

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Exercise:
1) List down the set of roles that you played so far as a manager on a given position.
2) Discuss the specific tasks that managers are undertaking as an interpersonal,
informational and decision making role players.

The Ten Managerial Roles

Category Role Activity

Interpersonal Figurehead Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties such as greeting
visitors, signing legal documents
Leader Direct and motivate subordinates; training, counseling,
and communicating with subordinates.
Liaison Maintain information links both inside and outside
organization; use mail, phone calls, meetings.
Informational Monitor Seek and receive information, scan periodicals and
reports, maintain personal contacts.
Disseminator Forward information to other organization members; send
memos and reports, make phone calls.
Spokesperson Transmit information to outsiders through speeches,
reports, memos.
Decisional Entrepreneur Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas,
delegate ideas, delegate responsibility to others.
Disturbance Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve
handler conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environmental
crises.
Resource Decide who gets resources; scheduling, budgeting, setting
allocator priorities
Negotiator Represent department during negotiation of union
contracts, sales, purchases, budgets; represent
departmental interests.

1.7 General management principles

In his managerial experience Henry Fayol (1841-1925) attempted to systematize the practice of
management to provide guidelines and directions to other managers. Part of his thinking was
expressed in the 14 principles of effective management. Noting that the administrative function
was concerned only with the human part of an undertaking, Fayol hastened to explain in his
monograph that he employed the word principles, not laws or rules, because of the flexibility
required in applying such concepts to people.

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The 14 principles that Fayol set are:

1) Division of labor:- it encompasses three basic concepts:

i. Breaking down a task into its components.
ii. Training workers to become specialist in specific duties, and
iii. Putting activities in sequence so one person’s efforts build on another’s
2) Authority and responsibility:- Authority is the right to give orders, to exact obedience.
Responsibility, on the other hand, is a sense of obligation that goes with authority or a
reward or penalty accompanying the use of this power.

3) Discipline:- Members in an organization need to respect the rules and agreements that
govern the organization. To Fayol, discipline will result from good leadership at all
levels of the organization, fair agreements (such as provision for rewarding superior
performance), and judiciously enforced penalties for infractions. Fayol saw the necessity
for discipline and precise and exact obedience at all levels for the smooth running of a
business.
4) Unity of Command:- An employee should receive directives from only one superior. One
person should have one boss. S/he should receive orders from one boss and resort to the
same boss. Fayol believed that when an employee reported to more than one superior,
conflict in instructions and confusion of authority would result.
5) Unity of Direction:- It is stating “ONE HEAD, ONE PLAN, ONE SET OF OBJECTIVES”.
Unity of command is related to personnel whereas unity of direction relates to the
organization of the 'body corporate' and asserts that all operations that have the same
objective move in the same direction under one unified plan and under the command of
one superior.
6) Subordination of individual interest to general interest/common good:- In any
undertaking, the goals and interests of an organization must take precedence over those of
individuals or groups of employees. The overall interest of the firm is more important
than the interest of any person or group of people who work for it.
7) Centralization:- Centralization and its counterpart, decentralization, mean how much
authority is concentrated at the top of the organization or dispersed throughout the
management hierarchy.
8) Remuneration of personnel:- Compensation or wages for the work done should be fair
and equitable to both to workers and the organization. Payment plans shouldn't lead to
over payment but the amount and method of payment should be fair to reflect the cost of
living, general economic condition, the demand for labor, the economic state of business
and the value of employees.
9) Scalar Chain (Chain of Command:- Scalar chain is the line of authority that extends
from the top to the bottom of an organization and defines the communication path.
10) Order:- Order is best defined as “a place for everything (everyone) and everything
(everyone) in its/his place.” Materials and people should be in the right place at the right
time.

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11) Equity:- In dealing with subordinates, managers should be friendly, fair, kind and
lawful. Kindness and justice on the part of managers will help employees to be loyal and
devoted workers.
12) Stability of tenure of personnel:- This principle is stating that labor turnover should be
minimized and stability nurtured.
13) Initiative:- Members of an organization should be given the opportunity to demonstrate
their creativity, exercise their judgment, chart out their own plans of discharging their
responsibility within the bound of due respect for authority and discipline. This will
provide organizational members with a platform for realizing their capabilities to the
fullest and appreciate the active part they are playing. The organization in turn will enjoy
high quality and forward-looking decisions and better performance.
14) Esprit de corps:- The gist of this principle is that ' in unity there is strength.' Hence,
workers, management as well as employers should work as a team.

Activity:
 Share your opinion on ELFORA’s practice in applying these principles; what
are the principles well applied and violated and why?

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SESSION TWO
PLANNING FUNCTION
2.1 Introduction
Every organization must plan for change in order to reach its ultimate goal. Effective planning
helps an organization adapt to change by identifying opportunities and avoiding problems. It sets
the direction for the other functions of management and for teamwork. Planning improves
decision-making. All levels of management engage in planning. Whether the system is an
organization, department, business, project, etc., the basic planning process typically includes
similar nature of activities carried out in similar sequence.

In this Duty, therefore, we will discuss the meaning of planning, the need for planning, the
planning process, the types of plan, and characteristics of a sound plan.

Exercise:
1) What is planning?
2) What is its importance?
3) What are the steps to follow in developing a plan?
4) What are the merits of good planning?
5) What are the consequences of poor planning?

2.2 Meaning and importance of planning

? Why is so much emphasis placed upon planning?

Very simply put, planning is setting the direction for something -- some system -- and then
working to ensure the system follows that direction. Systems have inputs, processes, outputs and
outcomes. To explain, inputs to the system include resources such as raw materials, money,
technologies and people. These inputs go through a process where they're aligned, moved along
and carefully coordinated, ultimately to achieve the goals set for the system. Outputs are
tangible results produced by processes in the system, such as products or services for consumers.
Another kind of result is outcomes, or benefits for consumers, e.g., jobs for workers, enhanced
quality of life for customers, etc. Systems can be the entire organization, or its departments,
groups, processes, etc.

Planning involves:

1) Defining the situation,

2) Identifying all the actions that must be performed, and
3) Determining how the actions should be handled.

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Planning required thinking things through. Good planning provides the facts for “causative
thinking” – thinking that produces an effect or decision, such as choosing the most cost-effective
action to take. Poor planning by supervisors can cause worker frustration, dissatisfaction, and
low productivity. On the other hand, a well-defined plan of action reflects manager assurance
and gives others confidence in performing the tasks to be accomplished. Good planning is
essential to the achievement of effectiveness (doing the right things) and efficiency (doing things
right). It is a very significant factor in proper utilization of people, facilities, materials, and
money resources. The planning process helps in minimizing the risks and uncertainties in
decision making.

So much emphasis is placed upon planning for the resources that management applies must deal
with the future and the future is rarely the same as today. Planning is a tested way of coping with
this change. It helps to make certain that you have enough employees on hand to do the job, the
right amount and kind of materials, and tuned up machinery when you need it. Most important,
planning prepares a road map, which enables a supervisor to move resources effectively.

2.3 Planning Terminology

Planning typically includes use of the following basic terms.

Vision- a definition of Vision in a dictionary: 'An Image of the future we seek to create'.

A vision statement describes in graphic terms where the goal-setters want to see themselves in
the future. It may describe how they see events unfolding over 10 or 20 years if everything goes
exactly as hoped.

Vision is nonspecific directional and motivational guidance for the entire organization. Top
managers normally provide a vision for the business.

Mission- It is an organization's reason for being. It is concerned with scope of the business and
what distinguishes this business from similar businesses. Mission reflects the culture and values
of top management.

Objectives - Objectives refine the mission and address key issues within the organization such as
market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources, profitability,
management and worker performance and efficiency. They are expected to be general,
observable, challenging, and un-timed.

Strategies (the how) - Strategies explain how the initiative will reach its objectives.

Goals- Goals are specific statements of anticipated results that further define the organization's
objectives.

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Tasks- Particularly in small organizations, people are assigned various tasks required to
implement the plan. If the scope of the plan is very small, tasks and activities are often
essentially the same.

Resources (and Budgets) - Resources include the people, materials, technologies, money, etc.,
required to implement the strategies or processes. The costs of these resources are often depicted
in the form of a budget. (Going back to our reference to systems, resources are input to the
system.)

2.4 The planning process

? How Organizations Plan

How the terms plan, planning, policies, and goals are related? The end product of planning is a
plan – a formulated and orderly method of doing something. Before you can develop plans,
however, you must set targets. These targets are called goals, standards, or objectives. After you
have set these goals, you establish general guidelines for reaching them. These guidelines are
called policies. Only after policies have been established should plan be formulated. As a final
step, you may choose to lay down some rules and regulations. This will establish the limits
(controls) within which employees are free to do the job their own way.

Take this example. You are thinking ahead planning about what your department will do during
the annual spring-cleaning. You make a list of things that you want to accomplish: filing cabinets
cleared of all obsolete material, shelving cleaned and rearranged, tools repaired and in tip-top
shape. These are your goals. Next you establish some sort of policy. For example, cleaning will
be done during normal working hours without overtime; discarding obsolete papers will conform
to legal requirements; repairing tools may be done by your own maintenance department or by
an outside machine shop. Then you lay out a master plan of how the housekeeping will be done,
when, and by whom. If this plan is detailed as to its exact sequence, it would be called a
procedure. Finally you set down some firm rules or regulations for your work crew: Only file
clerks will make judgments about what paperwork will be discarded; before tools are sent
outside for repair, employees must check with you; employees who clean shelving must wear
protective gloves. The common relationships are indicated as follows:

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Planning Goals and

process Objectives

General Specific Budgets and

Policies plans and standards
programs

Standing Operating Control

Procedures procedures Procedures

Standing Operating
rules & rules and
regulations regulations

Organizational plans developed at the top level of management are based on broad objectives
expressed in general terms-for example, to increase the company's share of the total market to 20
percent, to build two new plants, to expand marketing territory into the West Coast, or to convert
from manual to automated operations. These "broad-brush" objectives are divided into major
functional areas and assigned to the executives for those functions. Then they develop sub
objectives and derivative plans for their functions. In turn, these objectives are divided into
smaller areas as responsibility is assigned downward through the organization. As this happens,
the sub objectives become more specific and the derivative plans more detailed. What is the best
way for supervisors to develop effective plan? The following factors are important in the
planning process.
1. Consider the goals of the entire organization, not just of your department. Think about the
needs and wishes of customers, those the company serves as well as those “customers” your
department serves internally.
2. Estimate the strengths and weaknesses of your department. Ask how they will help or hinder
you in trying to meet company goals and in trying to serve external and internal customers.
3. Don’t jump to conclusions at this early stage. Instead, keep your mind alert to new
opportunities – such as ways to improve quality or lower costs. Don’t restrict your thinking
to what your goals were last year or how you met them. A forecast of what may happen helps
to keep you looking ahead.
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4. Pick a reasonable set of goals. These should meet two standards. These are standards
contribute to the organization’s goals and standards that can be met by your department,
given its strengths and its weaknesses.
5. Arrange your department’s goals in a hierarchy of objectives. That is, place the most
important ones at the top of your list and the least important at the bottom.
6. Watch out for limitations. Think about restrictions that may be imposed on you by your
company or by the need to coordinate with or serve other departments. Your department
cannot operate in a vacuum. It must base its plans upon such realistic planning premises.
7. Develop your master plan. This should focus on your main objective. If, for example, the
company’s goal is for higher-quality products or services, the master plan for your
department should give this top priority.
8. Draw up supporting plans. This requires that you think about how each activity in your
department can contribute to your master plan. Machinists may need more explicit blueprints.
Assemblers may need brighter workplace lighting. Clerks may need a different order-entry
procedure.
9. Put numbers and dates on everything you can. Plans work best when employees know how
much or how many is required of them. Since plans are for the future – tomorrow, next week,
or next month-times and dates are essential.
10. Pin down assignments. Plans are for people. Responsibility for carrying out each part of a
plan or procedure should be assigned to a particular individual.
11. Explain the plan to all concerned. Plans should be shared. Their rationales should be
explained and their goals justified. Employees who know why are more likely to cooperate.
12. Review your plans regularly. Circumstances and restrictions change. Your plans should be
examined periodically to see whether they should be changed, too.

Exercise:
1) Define the following terms & indicate their relationships with illustration
a) Plan b) Goals c) Objectives d) Policies e) Procedures f) Rules g) Budgets
2) Discuss the relationship between Operations/Farms/Manufacturing Plants/Business Units
plan and organizational (ELFORA) wide plan.

2.5. Objective Setting Role of Managers

? How managers set Objectives for their work units
Managers break down processes, analyze them, set objectives and then drive hard to achieve
them. Doing the same thing and expecting different results doesn't work. The supervisor must
write an objective for what he or she is trying to accomplish. Thus, an objective is the object or
aim of an action. It implies an explicit direction for the action to take and a specific quality of
work to be accomplished within a given period of time. Objectives reflect the desired outcomes
for individuals, groups and organizations. They provide direction for decision-making and a
criterion against which outcomes are measured. Thus, objectives are the foundation of planning.

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An effective planning tool to help the supervisor set objectives is Management by Objectives
(MBO). MBO is a collaborative process whereby the manager and each subordinate jointly
determine objectives for that subordinate. To be successful MBO programs should include
commitment and participation in the MBO process at all levels, from top management to the
lowest position in the organization.

MBO begins when the supervisor explains the goals for the department in a meeting.
Employees determine what they will accomplish. This is because, After all, who knows what a
person is capable of doing better than the person does him or herself? The supervisor meets with
the subordinate to approve and, if necessary, modify the individual objectives. Modification of
the individual's objectives is accomplished through negotiation since the supervisor has
resources to help the subordinate commit to the achievement of the objective. Thus, a set of
verifiable objectives for each individual are jointly determined, prioritized, and formalized.

The supervisor and the subordinate meet periodically to review the latter’s progress.
Communication is the key factor in determining MBO's success or failure. The supervisor gives
feedback and may authorize modifications to the objectives or their timetables as circumstances
dictate. Finally, the employee's performance is measured against his or her objectives, and he or
she is rewarded accordingly.

An objective is simply a statement of what is to be done and should be stated in terms of results.
A mnemonic aid to write objectives is SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-
oriented, Time-limited).

Specific- An objective must be specific with a single key result. If more than one result is to be
accomplished, more than one objective should be written. Just knowing what is to be
accomplished is a big step toward achieving it.

Measurable- An objective must be measurable. Only an objective that affects behavior in a

measurable way can be optimally effective. If possible, state the objective as a quantity. Some
objectives are more difficult to measure than others are. However, difficulty does not mean that
they cannot be measured. Treatment of salespeople might be measured by looking at the
absenteeism and turnover rates among the sales force. Also, salespeople could be asked to fill
out a behavioral questionnaire anonymously giving their observations of the supervision they
receive. Customer service could be measured by such indices as the number of complaints
received, by the number of customers lost, and by customer interviews or responses to
questionnaires. Development of subordinates could be measured by determining the number of
tasks the subordinate has mastered. Cooperation with other functions could be measured by
length of delay in providing requested information, or by peer ratings of degree of cooperation.

Avoid statements of objectives in generalities. Infinitives to avoid include to know, to

understand, to enjoy, and to believe. Action verbs are observable and better communicate the

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intent of what is to be attempted. They include to write, to apply, to recite, to revise, to contrast,
to install, to select, to assemble, to compare, to investigate, and to develop.

Attainable- An objective must be attainable with the resources that are available. It must be
realistic. Many objectives are realistic. Yet, the time it takes to achieve them may be unrealistic.
For example, it is realistic to want to lose ten birr. However, it is unrealistic to want to lose ten
birr in one week. What barriers stand between you and your objective? How will each barrier be
overcome and within what time frame?

Result-oriented- The objective should be central to the goals of the organization. The
successful completion of the objective should make a difference. How will this objective help
the organization move ahead? Is the objective aligned with the mission of the organization?

Time-limited- The objective should be traceable. Specific objectives enable time priorities to be
set and time to be used on objectives that really matter. Are the time lines you have established
realistic? Will other competing demands cause delay? Will you be able to overcome those
demands to accomplish the objective you've set in the time frame you've established?

2.6 Types of plan

? What are the bases to classify plans

A. Long-range and short range plan

 Long-range plans are typically set by higher management and are expected to be in
operation from two to five years.
 Short-range plans are those that supervisors are most concerned with. These are
usually based on operations of one year or less. At the department level, short-range
plans may be in effect for a day, a week, a month, or a quarter.
B. Standing and Single-use plan
 Standing plans include just about any activity that goes on without much change from
year to year. Standing plans cover general employment practices, health and safety
matters, purchasing procedures, routine discipline, and the like.
 Single-use plans are used only once before they must be revised. Departmental budgets
and operating schedules are examples. They will be good only for a week or a month
until new ones are issued.
C. Strategic, Tactical, and operational plan

Strategic planning- It usually addresses long range goals or objectives. Long-range plan is
developed by top level managers. It covers the overall organization. In effect a strategic plan
states the corporate missions, which is a clear statement about why it exists. It also includes
objectives and major policies.

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Generally speaking, then, supervisors will follow short-range single-use plans for day-to-day
operations. But supervisors will also be guided by many standing plans that implement routine,
relatively unchanging goals and policies.

The short-range plan is also known as action plan. Action plan is a plan that deals with what
change will happen; who will do what by when to make it happen. Action planning considers
the following components:
Action step(s): What will happen
Person(s) responsible: Who will do what
Date completed: Timing of each action step
Resources required: Resources and support (both what is needed and what's available )
Barriers or resistance, and a plan to overcome them
Collaborators: Who else should know about this action

2.7 What is a good way to double-check your plans and projects?

Try using the following five points:

 What- spells out objectives in terms of specifications for output, quality, and costs?
 Where- sets the location for the assignment (its workplace) and the place where the
product or service must be delivered: the adjoining department, the shipping dock, and
the home office.
 When - records your time estimates for the work to be performed and, most important,
pins down starting and finishing times and dates.
 How verifies short- and long-range methods, procedures, and job sequences.
 Who designates the individual responsible for the assignment and specifies that
person’s authority and extent of control over the resources needed: tools, machinery,
additional labor, materials.

2.8 Characteristic of a sound plan

Following are some major features of a good plan:
i. Economic, within the financial capabilities of the concern
ii. Workable, considering the resources available
iii. Thorough, allowing for most contingencies
iv. Balanced, to blend with other plans
v. Resilient, to cope with unforeseen changes
vi. Worthwhile, fulfils a desirable purpose
vii. Attractive, creates interest among all who are concerned
viii. Detailed, to establish adequate procedures
ix. Timely, to obtain maximum benefit
x. Impersonal, avoid personal prejudices.

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Discussion
 What are the obstacles to set an effective plan?
 What are the common problems that you observe in your organization in association to
planning?
 What remedies do you recommend to resolve these problems?

2.9 Obstacles to effective Planning

Various barriers can inhibit successful planning. In order for plans to be effective and to yield
the desired results, managers must identify any potential barriers and work to overcome them.
The common barriers that inhibit successful planning are as follows:

1) Inability to plan or inadequate planning

2) Lack of commitment to the planning process
3) Inferior information
4) Focusing on the present at the expense of the future
5) Too much reliance on the organization’s planning department
6) Concentrating on controllable variables

The good news about these barriers is that they can all be overcome. To plan successfully,
managers need to use effective communication, acquire quality information, and solicit
the involvement of others.

Case: How to go about it?

W/ro Emebet is a new manager, having been promoted only three months ago. Before her
promotion, she had worked for the organization for six years as a customer service specialist.
Because of her accepted expertise in the field, she was promoted when the supervisory opening
in customer service manager became available.
Yesterday, Emebet received a memo from her boss, Chala Hundera, stating that preparation of
all plans for the next fiscal year will due by the end of the month, which was 10 days away. She
immediately went into a panic. She had never prepared a formal plan, and she had no idea what
was required. After worrying over the matter for a day, Emebet decided that the best thing to do
would be to ask Chala for some guidelines.
Emebet: Chala, yesterday I received your memo regarding next year's plan. I’ve never prepared
a formal plan, and frankly, I don't even know where to start.
Chala: Calm down Emebet. I apologize for forgetting that this is your first time in the planning
process. What I am looking for is to properly articulate the objectives we agreed up on for your
section and a detailed plan for attaining them. In other words, the procedures of how you plan to
accomplish each objectives.

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Emebet: What are the requirements to fulfill in preparing the objectives? Just how detailed
should this plan be, and what format are you looking for?
Questions
1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Emebet?
2. How would you answer Emebet’s questions if you were Chala?
3. How would you go about preparing this plan if you were Emebet? (Suggest a framework
of steps for Emebet to follow to prepare a plan)
4. Do you think Emebet’s initial reaction to the planning process unusual? Why or why
not?

Practical Exercise
 Prepare an annual plan for your Operations/Farm/Manufacturing Plant/Business Unit by
following the steps and concepts discussed in this chapter.

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SESSION THREE
ORGANIZING FUNCTION
3.1 Introduction
[

Organizing is the second function in the management cycle. Each organization has an
organizational structure. By action and/or inaction, managers structure businesses. Ideally, in
developing an organizational structure and distributing authority, managers' decisions reflect the
mission, objectives, goals and tactics that grew out of the planning function.

Regardless of the scope, organizing is a managerial function that should be accomplished by

managers at all levels. The organizing task of the supervisor is part of the whole organizing
process. Consequently, he/she should possess knowledge of how the work of the organization
structured, assignment of people and the arrangement of other resources to achieve the work
objectives.

Therefore, this task focuses on topics such as meaning of organizing and organization; formal
and informal organization; basic tools used in organizing (the organization structure, job
description, and organization manuals); organizing activities of supervisors; and how
supervisors organize.

Discussion:
• What is organizing?
• Mention the importance of organizing.
• What type of relationships do employees in an organization might have?
formal/informal; justify, what is the impact of informal organization?
4)
3.2 Definition of Organization and Organizing
The term organizing refers to the orderly and logical arrangement of work activities and the
effective assignment of people in the accomplishment of work objectives. Simply put,
organizing is the ability to systematically arrange one’s personnel, material, equipment,
machinery and work area or office into a viable, effective work unit that can accomplish the
plan established for the unit by the supervisor. Thus, in attempting to organize a group of
employees well, supervisors have the primary task of assigning the right person to the right job
so that the most efficient and effective work situation is realized.

Organizing is important to effective management because it:

 defines workers’ responsibilities, authority, and accountability
 facilitate coordination of functional activities by defining and grouping related functions
in the same organization

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 avoids duplication of work efforts

 reduces confusion in the accomplishment of an objective
 reduces friction and tension among the workers and thereby generates better morale
 facilitates training of employees
 reduce the likelihood of overlooking important projects and deadlines
 contributes to worker job satisfaction by reducing uncertainty in the work place

If organizing is so important, which comes first- the organization or the work to be done? If
there were no job to do, there would be no reason for having an organization. So do not make
the mistake of having elaborate organization just for the sake of having one. The best
organization is simply one that puts people together so that the job at hand gets done better,
more quickly, more cheaply, than any other way.

3.3 Formal and Informal Organization

Formal Organization: Formalization is an important aspect of structure. It is the extent to
which the units of the organization are explicitly defined and its policies, procedures, and goals
are clearly stated. It is the official organizational structure conceived and built by top
management. The formal organization can be seen and represented in chart form. An
organization chart displays the organizational structure and shows job titles, lines of authority,
and relationships between departments.

Informal Organization: The informal organization is the network, unrelated to the firm's
formal authority structure, of social interactions among its employees. It is the personal and
social relationships that arise spontaneously as people associate with one another in the work
environment. The supervisor must realize that the informal organization affects the formal
organization. The informal organizations can pressure group members to conform to the
expectations of the informal group that conflict with those of the formal organization. This can
result in the generation of false information or rumors and resistance to the change that was
desired by management. The supervisor should recognize the existence of informal groups,
identify the roles their members play, and use knowledge of the groups to work effectively with
them. The informal organization can make the formal organization more effective by providing
support to management, stability to the environment, and useful communication channels.

3.4 The Organizing Process

The organizing process has the following steps:

1. Identification of objectives: This is to understand clearly the objectives of the organization,

i.e. to reconsider the objectives established during planning and identify the specific
objectives to be pursued.

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2. Identification of the specific activities needed to accomplish objectives: Knowing the

objectives clearly makes the identification of activities needed clear and simple. Here we ask
what work activities are necessary to accomplish the identified organizational objectives.
Creating a list of tasks to be accomplished begins if we identify clearly what objective is to
be accomplished or met. This identification of specific activities needed is called division of
labor.
3. Grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives: The series number of activities listed
and/or identified must be grouped together. That is, this involves grouping together of
activities in accordance with similarities (homogeneity) of the activities, interdependence, job
characteristics or any other grouping criteria, and this result in departments and the process is
called Departmentation. Groping of similar activities is based on the concept of division of
labor and specialization.
4. Assigning group of activities (work) and delegate the appropriate authority:
Management has identified activities necessary to achieve objectives, has classified and
grouped these activities into major operational areas and has selected a departmental
structure. The activities now must be assigned to individuals who are simultaneously given
the appropriate authority to accomplish task.
5. Provision for coordination/Design a hierarchy of relationships: This step requires the
determination of both vertical and horizontal operating relationships of the organization as a
whole. The vertical structuring of the organization results in a decision-making hierarchy
showing who is in charge of each task, of each specialty area, and the organization as a
whole. Levels of management are established from bottom to top in the organization. These
levels create the chain of command, or hierarchy of decision-making levels, in the company.

3.5 Basic tools used in organizing

Organization Structure
Organizational structure is the formal decision-making framework by which job tasks are
divided, grouped, and coordinated. Properly constructed, organization chart with its boxes, solid
lines, and titles can provide the following useful management information:

i. Division of work- Each box on the chart represents a subunit responsible for
performing certain specific functions.
ii. Chain of Command – The solid lines on the chart indicate who reports to
whom (upward) in the hierarchy.
iii. Type of work performed – Descriptive organizational titles within the chart’s
boxes indicate the broad functional responsibilities of each subunit.
iv. Grouping of work – The organizational titles within the boxes on the chart
indicate how the organization is set up (e.g. by functions, products, processes,
geographical areas, or other patterns).
v. Levels of Management – The organization chart, by its structure, indicates the
top, middle, and lower levels of management.

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Organizational Chart
It is the means through which we depict the organization structure. Organization chart is a line
diagram that depicts the broad outlines of an organization’s structure. It shows the flow of
authority, responsibility, and communication among the various departments which are located
at different levels of the hierarchy. An organization chart is a visual representation of the way in
which an entire organization and each of its components fit together

Organization charts vary in detail, but they typically show in visual form the various major
positions or departments in the organization, the way the various positions are grouped into
specific units, reporting relationships from lower to higher levels, and official channels for
communicating information.

Because organization charts facilitate understanding the overall structure of organizations, many
organizations have found them useful. Such charts are particularly helpful in providing a visual
map of the chain of command.

The organization chart can tell us:

 Who reports to whom (chain of command)

 The number of managerial levels
 How many subordinates work for each manager (the span of control)
 Channel of official communication through the solid lines that connect each job (box)
 How the organization is structured-by function, territory, customer, etc.
 The work being done in each job- the labels on the boxes
 The hierarchy of decision making- where a decision maker for a problem is located
 How current the present organization is (if a date is on the chart)
 Type of authority relationships- line authority, staff authority, and functional authority
In addition, the chart is a trouble-shooting tool. It can help managers locate duplications and
conflicts as a result of awkward arrangements. What the chart does not show are the degree of
authority, the informal communication channels (grapevine), and the informal relationships.

Span of Management

Meaning: The term span of management is also referred to as a span of control, span of
supervision, span of authority or span of responsibility.

Span of management - refers to the number of subordinates who report directly to a manger, or
the number of subordinates who will be directly supervised by a manager.

This varies from one situation to another. There is no magical number for the span of control.
There are various factors affecting the span of management. Based on the number of
subordinates who should report to a manager or the number of subordinates that a superior
should supervise, we can have Wide span of management and Narrow span of management.

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i. Narrow Span of Management

This means superior controls few numbers of subordinates or few subordinates report to a
superior. When there is narrow span of management in an organization, we get:

 Tall organization structure with many levels of supervision between top management and the
lowest organizational level.
 More communication between superiors and subordinates.
 Managers are underutilized and their subordinates are over controlled.
 More trained managerial personnel and centralized authority.

ii. Wide Span of Management

This means many subordinates report to a superior or a superior supervises many subordinates.

If the span of management is wide, we get:

 A flat organization structure with fewer management levels between top and lower level
 Many number of subordinates and decentralized authority
 Managers are overstrained and their subordinates receive too little guidance and control
 Fewer hierarchal level

Reflection:
• What are the determinants of span of control?
[

3)
Factors Determining an Effective Span of Management
The principle of span of a management states that there is no any specific number of
subordinates to be supervised by a manager. Rather, it states, there are factors that affect the
span of management. Some are:

1) Ability of the manger: The ability of the manager (supervisor) who is responsible for
supervising subordinates affects the span of a management. If the manager is well
trained and highly capable, receives assistance in performing her/his supervisory
activities, doesn’t have many additional non-supervisory activities to perform, and if that
manager defines tasks and responsibilities to subordinates clearly, the appropriate span
can be relatively broad (wide).
2) Manager’s personality: if managers strongly need to share power, they may prefer a
wider span of control. Some managers develop reputation as empire builders and
attempt to increase their spans.
3) The abilities of subordinates: The amount of training, experience, and ability that
subordinates have is directly related to a manager’s span of control. Knowledgeable
subordinates who work well on their own require less supervision than inexperienced,

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poorly trained workers do. Well - trained subordinates require not only less of their
manager’s time but also fewer contracts with them.
4) Motivation and commitment: motivated employees take initiative and responsibility,
utilize and develop their skills committed to their job, devote more time and effort and
needs less of their supervisor’s time.
5) Need for autonomy: subordinates with high need for autonomy prefer to make decisions
by themselves (wider span) and vise versa is true for those who take every problem to
their superior for decision-making.
6) Type of work: Routines and simplicity of work. Managers supervising people with
simple and repetitive jobs are able to manage more immediate subordinates than are
those who supervise people with complex, non-repetitive tasks.
7) Geographic dispersion of subordinates: Normally, there is an inverse relationship
between a manager’s span of control and the geographic dispersion of his/her
subordinates. For example, a sales manager whose sales people are scattered over a wide
geographic region cannot supervise as many subordinates as a manager can whose
subordinates are in one building. This is especially true when the manger and
subordinates must meet on a regular basis.
8) The availability of information and control systems: If there are sophisticated
information and control systems, well-defined policies and plans, the manager can
supervise many subordinates and hence the span will be wide.
9) Levels of management: The size of the most effective span differs by organizational
level.
10) Economic Factor: Narrow spans of management require not only more supervisors
(and their services) but also the added expense of executive offices, secretaries and
fringe benefits. However, the wide spans of a management require few supervisors with
their accessories. So, organizations should take cost into consideration.
There are two major reasons why the choice of appropriate span is important.
a) Span of management affects the efficient utilization of managers and the effective
performance of their subordinates. Too wide a span may mean that managers are
overextending themselves and that their subordinates are receiving too little guidance or
control. Too narrow a span of management may mean that managers are under utilized.
b) There is a relationship between span of management throughout the organization and the
organization structure. A narrow span of management results in a "tall" organizational
structure with many supervisory levels between top management and the lowest level. A
wide span for the same number of employees means fewer management levels between
the top and bottom.
The concept of an "optimal" span of management is the one that is neither too broad nor too
narrow. The concept of an optimal span of management suggested that spans could be too broad
or too narrow in specific instances. The wider the span of management, the less direct
supervision there is; the narrower the span, the greater the number of managers and, therefore,
the higher the cost in salaries.

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Organization Design
Organizational design is the process of determining the best overall, macro organizational
structure and authority relationships for the organization and its major sub-components. It
implies choosing the best type of organizational structure for a given situations. Some of the
types of authority relationships are described as follows.
a. Line and Staff Relationship
A line organizational unit is an activity that contributes directly to the purpose of the total
organization. The statement of objectives of an organizational unit defines the purpose and
major work activities required for its accomplishment. The organizational elements directly
engaged in performing these activities are referred to a line organization.

There is flexibility in determining whether or not an organization is a line element. For

example, in an organization with an objective of manufacturing and selling products, the major
line organizations would include the production operations and the sales department. In a retail
establishment, the line organizations would include the buying, selling, and distribution
functions. In a research laboratory, scientific investigation and engineering development would
be line activities. As one can readily see, there is no universal pattern for identifying line
organizations. It depends on whether the organization’s work activities contribute directly to the
purpose of the organization.

Staff organizational units do not contribute directly to the purpose of the total organization.
They exist to offer advice, assistance, support, and to serve other organizations in
accomplishing the objective of the total corporation. Staff members should assist, not direct,
line personnel. There are many specialized staff organizations. They include such activities as:
accounting, cost analysis, maintenance, legal services, personnel management, planning
assistance, safety, security, statistical analysis, and other supporting services. The primary tasks
of staff personnel are to guide, assist, advise, serve, coordinate, consolidate, and evaluate the
specialized functions for which they are responsible on an organization-wide basis.
1. Functional Organization
In a functional organization, authority is determined by the relationships between group
functions and activities. Functional structures group similar or related occupational specialties
or processes together under the familiar headings of finance, manufacturing, marketing,
accounts receivable, research, surgery, and photo finishing. Economy is achieved through
specialization. However, the organization risks losing sight of its overall interests as different
departments pursue their own goals.
2. Divisional Organization
In a divisional organization, corporate divisions operate as relatively autonomous businesses
under the larger corporate umbrella. In a conglomerate organization, divisions may be unrelated.
Divisional structures are made up of self-contained strategic business units that each produces a
single product. For example, General Motors' divisions include Chevrolet, Oldsmobile, Pontiac,

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and Cadillac. A central headquarters, focusing on results, coordinates and controls the activities,
and provides support services between divisions. Functional departments accomplish division
goals. A weakness however, is the tendency to duplicate activities among divisions.

3. Matrix Structure
In a matrix organization, teams are formed and team members report to two or more managers.
Matrix structures utilize functional and divisional chains of command simultaneously in the
same part of the organization, commonly for one-of-a-kind projects. It is used to develop a new
product, to ensure the continuing success of a product to which several departments directly
contribute, and to solve a difficult problem. By superimposing a project structure upon the
functional structure, a matrix organization is formed that allows the organization to take
advantage of new opportunities. This structure assigns specialists from different functional
departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers. The matrix concept
facilitates working on concurrent projects by creating a dual chain of command, the project
(program, systems, or product) manager and the functional manager. Project managers have
authority over activities geared toward achieving organizational goals while functional
managers have authority over promotion decisions and performance reviews.

Matrix organizations are particularly appealing to firms that want to speed up the decision-
making process. However, the matrix organization may not allow long-term working
relationships to develop. Furthermore, using multiple managers for one employee may result in
confusion as to manager evaluation and accountability. Thus, the matrix system may elevate the
conflict between product and functional interests.

3.6 Organizing Activities of the Managers

Like all other members of management, supervisors must organize. They must establish relationships
among people, work, and physical resources in order to achieve goals. They must try to execute the
planned production or service in the quickest, easiest, and most economical way.

The organizing function deals with all those activities that result in the formal assignment of
tasks and authority and a coordination of effort. The supervisor staffs the work unit, trains
employees, secures resources, and empowers the work group into a productive team. The steps
in the organizing process include:

(1) review plans

(2) list all tasks to be accomplished
(3) divide tasks into groups one person can accomplish - a job
(4) group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner
(5) assign work to individuals
(6) delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs and groups of jobs

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3.7 Departmentalization
Once jobs have been classified through work specialization, they are grouped so those common
tasks can be coordinated. Departmentalization is the basis on which work or individuals are
grouped into manageable units. There are five traditional methods for grouping work activities:

 Departmentalization by function organizes by the functions to be performed. The

functions reflect the nature of the business. The advantage of this type of grouping is
obtaining efficiencies from consolidating similar specialties and people with
common skills, knowledge and orientations together in common units.
 Departmentalization by product assembles all functions needed to make and
market a particular product are placed under one executive. For instance, major
department stores are structured around product groups such as home accessories,
appliances, women's clothing, men's clothing, and children's clothing.
 Departmentalization by geographical regions groups jobs on the basis of territory
or geography. For example, Merck, a major pharmaceutical company, has its
domestic sales departmentalized by regions such as Northeast, Southeast, Midwest,
Southwest, and Northwest.
 Departmentalization by process groups jobs on the basis of product or customer
flow. Each process requires particular skills and offers a basis for homogeneous
categorizing of work activities. A patient preparing for an operation would first
engage in preliminary diagnostic tests, then go through the admitting process,
undergo a procedure in surgery, receive post operative care, be discharged and
perhaps receive out-patient attention. These services are each administered by
different departments.
 Departmentalization by customer groups jobs on the basis of a common set of
needs or problems of specific customers. For instance, a plumbing firm may group
its work according to whether it is serving private sector, public sector, government,
or not-for-profit organizations. A current departmentalization trend is to structure
work according to customer, using cross-functional teams. This group is chosen
from different functions to work together across various departments to
interdependently create new products or services. For example, a cross-functional
team consisting of managers from accounting, finance, and marketing is created to
prepare a technology plan.

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Organizational units at the supervisory level (shifts, sections, groups, departments) are
commonly set up on one of the following four bases for departmentalization: function, process
or equipment, time, or simple numbers. The relative importance of these bases is difficult to
assess. Function and process are probably in much greater use than time or simple numbers.
Departmentation on the basis of simple numbers is usually restricted to non-specialized work at
the lowest organizational level.

3.8 Delegation of Authority

Delegation: is the downward pushing of authority from superiors to subordinates to make
decision within their area of responsibilities. It is the process of allocating tasks to subordinates,
giving them adequate authority to carry out those assignments, and making them obligated to
complete the tasks satisfactory. Delegation is a concept describing the passing of formal
authority to another person. It is the assignment of part of a manager’s work to others, along
with both the responsibility and authority necessary to achieve expected results. Delegation is
necessary for an organization to exist. Just no one person in an enterprise can do all the tasks
necessary for accomplishing a group purpose, so is it impossible, as an enterprise grows, for one
person exercise all the authority for making decisions.
In delegating authority a manager doesn’t surrender his power because he does not permanently
dispose of it; delegated authority can always be regained. This is called recovery of delegated
authority. Reorganization inevitably involves some recovery and redelegation of authority. In
a shuffle in an organization, rights are recovered by the responsive head of the firm or a
department and then redelegated to managers of new or modified departments.

Discussion:
• What is the importance of delegation?
• What are the steps to follow in delegation?
• What are the determinants of delegation?
• What do you think are the obstacles to delegation from the manager and
subordinates side?
• Share your experience and challenges related to delegation.
2) Consulting PLC
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The Process of Delegation

Delegation of authority has the following steps:

1. Assignment of tasks: Specific tasks or duties that are to be undertaken are identified by the
manager for assignment to the subordinate. The subordinate is then approached with the
assignment (task).
2. Delegation of authority: In order for the subordinate to complete the duties or tasks, the
authority necessary to do them should be delegated by the manager to the subordinate. A
guideline for authority is that it be adequate to complete the task - no more and no less.
3. Acceptance of responsibility: Dispensability is the obligation to carryout one’s assigned
duties to the best of one’s ability. It is the obligation created when someone accepts task
assignments together with the appropriate authority. Responsibility is not delegated by a
manager to an employee, but the employee becomes obligated when the assignment is
accepted. The employee is the receiver of the assigned duties and the delegated authority;
these confer responsibility as well.
4. Creation of accountability: Accountability is having to answer to someone for your results
or actions. It means taking the consequences - either credit or blame. It is the requirement to
provide satisfactory reasons for significant deviations from duties or expected results. When
the subordinate accepts the assignment and the authority, s/he will be held accountable or
answerable for actions taken. A manager is accountable for the use of his/her authority and
performance. The manager is also accountable for the performance and actions of
subordinates.
The manager should take the time to think through what is being assigned and to confer the
authority necessary to achieve results. The subordinate, in accepting the assignment becomes
obligated (responsible) to perform, knowing that s/he is accountable (answerable) for the
results.

Importance of Delegation

1) It relieves the manager from his/her heavy workload: Delegation frees a manager from
some time consuming duties that can be adequately handled by subordinates and lets the
manager devote more time to problems requiring his/her full attention (lets the manager
concentrate on strategic issues). Enables managers to perform higher level work.
2) It leads to better decisions: Since subordinates are closer to real “firing line” activities and
problems than superiors, they have more realistic information and better understanding. The
realistic information that subordinates have may lead them to make better decisions.
3) It speedup decision-making: Decisions made by lower level managers usually are timelier
than those that go through several layers of management.
4) It helps subordinates to train and builds moral: Subordinate managers can reach their full
potential only if given the chance to make decisions and to assume responsibility for them.
5) It encourages the development of professional managers: Had there not been any
delegation, professional managers wouldn’t have been produced.
6) It helps to create the organization structure: If there were no delegation of authority is an
organization, there would exist only the president/CEO/ top-level manager. And an
individual cannot create an organization.

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Factors Determining Delegation

Managers cannot ordinarily be for or against decentralization of authority. They may prefer to
delegate authority, or they may like to make all the decisions. Some factors that affect the
degree of centralization or decentralization- delegation of authority- are:

1) The history and culture of the organization: Whether authority will be decentralized
frequently depends upon the way the business (organization) has been built. Those
enterprises that, in the main, expand from within show a marked tendency to keep
authority centralized. On the other hand, enterprises that result from mergers and
consolidations are likely to show, at least first, a definite tendency to retain decentralized
authority. In other words, organizations which were centralized or decentralized at their
establishment tend to centralize and decentralize authority to repeat what they have done
before. When centralized organization is changed into decentralization and the vice
versa people feel discomfort.
2) The nature of the decision: The costlier and the riskier the decision is, the more
centralized the authority will be. Cost may be reckoned directly in birr and cents or in
such intangibles as the company’s reputation, its competitive position or employee
morale. The fact that the cost of mistake affects the decentralization isn’t necessarily
based on the assumption that top managers make fewer mistakes than subordinates.
They may make fewer mistakes, since they are probably better trained and in possession
of more facts, but the controlling reason is the weight of responsibility. Delegating
authority is not delegating responsibility; therefore, managers typically prefer not to
delegate authority for crucial decisions.
3) Availability and ability of managers (Lower level managers): A real shortage of
managers would limit decentralization of authority, since in order to delegate, superiors
must have quantified managers to whom to give authority. In addition to the availability
of lower level managers, the quality of the existing lower level managers (subordinates)
has impact on centralization or decentralization. Hence, the competency to carry out and
exercise the delegated authority has some effects. Some managers lack confidence in
their subordinate or fear the consequences or criticism of having subordinates make bad
decisions.
4) Management philosophy: The willingness of managers to delegate authority and limit
the degree of decentralization or the desire to do the job by herself/himself. The
character and philosophy of top executives have an important influence on the extent to
which authority is decentralized. Sometimes top managers are despotic, tolerating no
interference with the authority they jealously hoard. At other times, top managers keep
authority not merry to gratify a desire for status or power but because they simply
cannot give up the activities and authorities they enjoyed.
5) Size and character of the organization: The larger the organization, the more decisions
to be made, and the more places in which they must be made, the more difficult it is to
coordinate them. These complexities of organization may require policy questions to be
passed up the line and discussed not only with many managers in the chain of command
but also with many managers at each level, since horizontal agreement may be as
necessary as vertical clearance.
6) Slow decisions - show because of the number of specialists and managers who must be
consulted - are costly. To minimize the cost, authority should be decentralized wherever
feasible. Also important in determining size is the character of a unit. For

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decentralization to be thoroughly effective, a unit must possess a certain economic and

managerial self-sufficiency.

7) Geographic dispersion of operations: Geographic dispersion of operations makes

decentralization more necessary because top executives frequently find it impossible to
keep abreast of the details of what is going on at various locations. Moreover, managers
on site may be in a better position to assess local situations and make appropriate
decisions.
8) Environmental uncertainty: Environmental uncertainty tends to produce a need for more
decentralization. In this case, the fast pace of change interferes with top management’s
ability to assess situations with the speed necessary to make timely decisions.

Problems in Effective Delegation

Despite of the advantages, many managers are reluctant to delegate authority and many
subordinates are reluctant to accept it. Both these barriers hinder effective delegation.

Reluctance to delegate/Problems from Managers

There are a number of reasons that managers commonly offer to explain why they do not
delegate. Some are:

i. Fear of loss of power - Some managers fear when they delegate authority because they
expect that they will be substituted/replaced by their subordinates if subordinates have
got the experience and skill of decision-making.
ii. “I can do it better myself” fallacy: Some managers have an inflated worth of
themselves and think that they do everything better than their subordinates.
iii. Lack of confidence in subordinates: The perception of managers that my
subordinates just are not capable enough. When managers delegate authority to their
subordinates they do also delegate responsibility. That is, managers are accountable
for the actions of their subordinates and may fear the blame if subordinates fail, if
subordinates lack knowledge and skill.
iv. Fear of being exposed: Some managers fear that their subordinates do too good job
as compared with themselves i.e. feel threatened that competent subordinates may
perform too well and possibly make the manager look poor by comparison.
v. Difficulty in briefing: Many times managers are reluctant to delegate authority if
they conclude that the time for briefing is more than the time for decision-making or
if they believe they lack the time to train subordinates. “It takes too much time to
explain what I want done”.
Reluctance to Accept Delegation/problems from subordinates
i. Fear of failure and criticism: Subordinates who fear criticism or dissemble for
mistake are frequently reactant to accept delegation. The solution for this problem
can be teaching subordinates when they make mistakes than criticizing or
dismissing.
ii. Subordinate may believe that the delegation increases the risk of making mistakes
but doesn’t provide adequate rewards for assuming greater responsibility: Lack of
incentive or reward for assuming a greater workload. Accepting delegation

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frequently means that they will have to work harder under greater pressure. Without
appropriate compensation subordinates may be unwilling to do so.
iii. Lack of adequate information and resources: If subordinate managers think that they
don’t have enough factual information on which to base a decision or other resources
necessary to carryout the assigned duties, they tend to decline/reject accepting
authority delegated.
iv. If subordinates are already overworked
v. Lack of self-confidence
vi. Believing / Thinking that decision-making is the boss’s job.

Overcoming the barriers in effective delegation

The most basic prerequisite to effective delegation is the willingness of managers to give their
subordinates real freedom to accomplish delegated tasks. Managers have to accept the fact that
there are usually several ways to solve a problem and that subordinates may legitimately choose
a path differently from their own. And, subordinates will make errors in carrying out their
tasks. But they must be allowed to develop their own solutions to problems and learn from their
mistakes. The solution to subordinates mistake is not for the manager to delegate less, but to
train or otherwise support subordinate more.

Improved communication between managers and subordinates will increase mutual

understanding and thus help to make delegation more effective. Managers who know the
abilities of their subordinates can more realistically decide which tasks can be delegated to
whom. Subordinates who are encouraged to use their abilities and who feel their managers will
“back them up” will in turn be more accepting of responsibility

3.9 Centralization and Decentralization

? Is it practically possible for top level managers to retain all the decision making authority
themselves? Justify.

Centralization is the degree to which decision-making is concentrated in top management's

hands. Decentralization is the extent to which decision-making authority is pushed down the
organization structure and shared with many lower-level employees. Centralized organizations
have more levels of management with narrow spans of control. Employees are not free to make
decisions. Decentralized organizations have fewer levels of management with wide spans of
control giving employees more freedom of action. All other things being equal, a wide span of
control is more efficient because it requires fewer managers. However, it is important to
recognize that, at some point, effectiveness will decline.

The extent to which authority is delegated to organizational units is a measure of degree of

decentralization of authority within the firm. Decentralization is the delegation of authority to
make decisions to the managers of lower ranking organizational units. Decentralization of
authority is a relative concept- an organization is never completely centralized nor completely

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decentralized. A completely centralized organization means one person without subordinate,

and a completely decentralized organization means an organization without any central
authority.

Decentralization is often confused with departmentalization, geographic dispersion and

delegation. Departmentalization is defined as the grouping of work and people into manageable
units, and the bases most frequently used for departmentalization are function, product,
customer, geography process, and time. However, the mere creation of separate departmental
units does not constitute decentralization. Departmentalization based on geography or territory
results in geographic dispersion but not necessarily in decentralization. The degree of
decentralization in departmentalization and geographic dispersion is revealed by analyzing the
effect of such changes on the decision-making process within the organization.

The degree of decentralization depends on the following three characteristics of the decision
made at lower levels of the organization:

(a) Frequency of decisions: - The greater the frequency or number of decisions

made at lower levels of an organization, the greater the degree of decentralization
in that organization.
(b) Breadth of decisions: - The broader the scope of decisions made at lower levels
of an organization, the greater the degree of decentralization. The breadth of
decision making is determined by the number of function affected by the
decisions.
(c) Extent of control over decisions: - The extent of control exercised over the
decision made at lower level of an organization is an important measure of the
degree of decentralization. Decisions are frequently classified in terms of the
number of dollars involved, with dollar limitations placed on decisions that may
be made without prior approval.

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SESSION FOUR
STAFFING FUNCTION
4.1 Introduction
The organizing function of management defines each position or category of positions. Staffing
follows with the filling and keeping filled all positions. Recruiting a pool of applicants for a
position, selecting new employees from among the pool of applicants, training new employees
and retraining experienced employees are the key elements of the staffing function. Managing
resignations and discharges is also part of staffing. Staffing may be mistakenly limited to regular
employees. Instead, staffing includes all personnel categories: managers, working managers and
laborers; family and non-family; paid and unpaid; and full-time and part-time.

Supervisors in all types of organizations are responsible for the human resources in their departments.
Selecting competent, high-performing employees capable of sustaining their performance over the long
run is a competitive advantage. The selection process consists of forecasting employment needs,
recruiting candidates, interviewing applicants, and hiring employees.

4.2 Meaning of staffing

Staffing is the process of filling and keeping organizational positions with the required qualified
personnel.

4.3 Elements of staffing

The staffing function encompasses seven major elements; these are; human resource
planning/man power planning/, recruitment, selection, orientation and induction, training and
development, performance appraisal and transfer and separation.

A. Human Resource Planning / Manpower Planning:- is the process by which

managers ensure that they have the right number and kind of people in the right places and at
the right time, which are capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks.
Human resource planning is accomplished through the analysis of internal and external
factors. The basic human resource planning steps are; Current assessment /Human resource
inventory/, Future human resource needs assessment (human resource forecasting) and
Developing future program/ comparison of forecast and inventory/

B. Recruitment:- is the process of reaching out and attempting to attract potential candidates
who are capable of and interested in filling available positions of an organization. There are
basically two recruitment sources; internal source (internal recruitment) and external source
(external recruitment).

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C. Selection:- is the process of deciding which candidate, out of the pool of applicants
developed in recruitment has best abilities, skills and characteristics most closely matching
job demands. The selection decision comes after the candidates go through a series of steps
that compose the selection process.

D. Induction and Orientation:- The purpose of induction and orientation is to provide the
new employee with the necessary information about the company. It familiarizes the new
person with the duties and benefits of employment, company history, its products or services,
and the organization structure.

E. Training and development:- Training is a learning process that involves the

acquisition of skills, concepts, rules, or attitudes to increase the performance of employees.
Training is targeting on improving the skills associated with current assignments. Personnel
Development is defined as the sum total of all activities designed for the purpose of
improving, expanding and renewing the knowledge, skill, abilities and attitudes of
employees. Development is targeting on making the workers ready for future job
assignments.

F. Performance appraisal:- is the process of determining and communicating to an

employee how he/she is performing the job.

G. Transfer, Promotion, Demotion and Separation:- Transfer is a horizontal or lateral

movement of an employee from one job, section, department, shift, plan or position to
another place where salary, status and responsibility are the same. Promotion moves an
employee to a job involving higher pay, status, and thus higher performance requirements.
Demotion refers to a shift of an employee to a lower position in the hierarchy, salary and
responsibility. Separation refers to those factors (resignation, layoff, discharges or
retirement) that bring the termination or ceasing of the relationship between the organization
and the employees.

Discussion
 Share your understanding and practice on the seven elements of staffing.

4.4 Performance Appraisal; further detail

Performance appraisal is a systematic, periodic & an impartial rating on an employee's
performance pertaining to his present job & to his potentialities for a better job.It provides a
periodic evaluation of an individual’s job performance. Although the appraisal forms may only
be completed once a year, the job of performance appraisal is continuous – sometimes daily-and
requires effective communication on both the part of the supervisor and the employee. The
supervisor is ultimately responsible to make sure these conversations actually takes place and are
documented. It is essential that the supervisor hold all performance discussions and

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documentation in complete confidence. The performance of an employee should never be

discussed with another employee. This is one of the best ways for a supervisor to lose the trust of
all employees. The completed performance appraisal forms are maintained in the employee’s
personnel file in the human resources and are released only to the employee, the supervisor or
other persons authorized by law, regulation, or policy.

Benefits of performance appraisal

? Why Performance Appraisal?

Performance appraisal has the following uses:

 It provides employees with critical feedback with which they can improve their performance.
 It also provides supervisors with critical feedback with which they can help employees improve
their performance and often also provides supervisors with ideas on how they can become a better
supervisor.
 Training needs also identified during performance discussions. If an employee is having trouble
completing assignments, you should always investigate whether you have provided the employee
with all needed training for the tasks.
Steps in the performance appraisal process

Performance evaluation involves six steps:

1. Establish performance standards for each position and the criteria for evaluation-
Performance standards are what we use to differentiate between acceptable and
unacceptable behavior.
2. Establish performance evaluation policies on when to rate, how often to rate and
who should rate

When to rate: Usually, all employees are rated on / near the same date in a company.

How often to rate: In many companies there is one evaluation in a year. However, more and
more organizations shift to quarterly evaluations; this is convenient especially in fast moving
organizations, because a more frequent up-date of the objectives is possible.

Who should rate: There are several possibilities, such as

 Rating by a committee of several superiors,

 Rating by the employee’s peers (co-workers),
 Rating by the employee’s subordinates,
 Rating by someone outside the immediate work situation (seldom used),
 Self-evaluation,

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But the most used evaluation is the appraisal by the superior. Sometimes a combination of the
above mentioned possibilities is also used.

3. Have raters gather data on employee performance

The raters collect information by observation, analysis of data and records, and discussion with
the employee. The data they gather are influenced by the criteria used for evaluation and by the
technique used for evaluation. Evaluation techniques include:

a. Individual evaluation methods

Individual evaluation methods are those techniques when the standards of performance are
defined individually, without references to other person(s).

Graphic rating scale is the oldest and still most used method of evaluation. In this case the rater
is presented with a set of traits and is asked to rate the employee on each of them. The ratings
can be numeric (from 1 to 5 for example) or alphabetic (such as outstanding, good, satisfactory,
fair and unsatisfactory).

Forced choice is the technique when the rater must choose from a set of descriptive statements
about an employee. The method was developed to substitute graphic rating scales, as graphic
rating scales permits to evaluate all the employees high.

Essay evaluation, in which the rater is asked to describe the strong and weak aspects of the
employee’s behavior. Usually, this method is used in combination with other methods.

Critical incident technique: a method according to which the rater maintains a log of behavioral
incidents that represent either effective or ineffective performance for each employee being
rated. The advantage of this method is that the results are less subjective, but this method needs
more time to use than the other techniques.

Checklists and Weighted Checklists: A checklist is a set of objectives or descriptive statements.

If the rater believes that the employee possesses a trait listed, the rater checks the item; if not, the
rater leaves it blank. A rating score from the checklist equals the number of checks. The method
was further developed by giving weights (from excellent to poor) to several objectives.

b. Multiple person evaluation techniques

Multiple person evaluation techniques are those methods when the performance of one employee
is directly and intentionally compared with the performance of other employee.

Ranking – the case when the superior is asked to rank the subordinates based on some overall
criterion.

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Paired comparison- used in case where there are several subordinates to be ranked. Each
employee is paired with every person to be compared with. The rater chooses the better
performing subordinate. The number of times that a person is chosen as the better employee is
tallied, and results are indexed based on this number.

Forced distribution- it is the method similar to grading on a curve. The rater is asked to rate the
employees in some fixed distribution of categories, such as 10% in low, 20% on low average,
40% in average, 20% in high average and 10% in high. Which evaluation technique to use? An
exact answer can not be given. The major problem is not with the techniques, but how they are
used and by whom? The responsibility of the rater and the seriousness of the rater are much more
critical than which method to choose.

4. Have raters (and employees in some systems) evaluate employees’ performance

By setting objectives through participation or by assignment from a superior, the subordinate is

provided with a course to follow and a target to shoot for while performing the job.

Potential problems when conducting performance evaluation:

a. Opposition to evaluation: Most employees are wary of performance evaluation. The most
common fear is that of rater subjectivity.
b. System design and operating problems: If the criteria for evaluation are poor, the
technique used is cumbersome, or the system is more form than substance, the design is
blamed and the evaluation is worth nothing.
c. Rater problems, such as:
 Problems with the standards of evaluation, which arises due to the perceptual differences
in the meaning of the words used to evaluate employees. Some teachers are easy “As”,
others never give excellent qualifications.
 The Halo Effect occurs when a rater assigns ratings on several dimensions of
performance based on an overall, general impression of the ratee.
 Leniency or harshness error. Some raters see everything good (lenient raters), other see
everything bad (harsh raters).
 Central tendency error – the tendency of the raters to assign average ratings for all the
dimensions.
 Recency of events error – raters forget more about past behavior than current behavior.
 Contrast effects. At the individual evaluation techniques the performance of an employee
is requested to be rated independently of the performance of other employees. However,
this is in some cases only theory. For example, if the performance of an average
colleague is evaluated after the evaluation of an outstanding employee, the average
employee can get low ratings.
 Personal bias error. The tendency to rate the preferred employees higher and those not
preferred lower.

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The rater errors, however, can be eliminated, or at least reduced. The recent observations show
that trainings for raters in order to develop their ability to observe, recall, and report subordinate
behavior lead to improvement of employee evaluations.

The most common problem is that employees may feel that the evaluations are unfair. In order to
avoid this perception, it should be presented how difficult is the evaluation of employees. The
self evaluations can be a good method in achieving this aim.

5. Discuss the evaluation with the employee

The supervisor should hold an evaluation interview with each subordinate in order to discuss his
or her appraisal and to set objectives for the upcoming evaluation period. The performance
evaluation discussions should include
 Review of overall progress
 Discussions of problems that were encountered
 Agreement about potential performance improvement possibilities
 Discussion how current performance is in line with long term carrier goals
 Specific action plans for the coming year

6. Make decisions and file the evaluation

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SESSION FIVE
LEADING/DIRECTING FUNCTION

5.1 Introduction
In fast moving, ever changing social and economic environment organizations and the people
who work in them need effective leadership at all levels. Leadership is necessary to help people
who are committed to becoming more effective leaders to achieve their goals. In practice nearly
all of us have the ability to become effective leaders if we have the commitment and know how
to it.

Discussion
1. What is leading and leadership for you?
2. What is the difference between leadership and management?

5.2 Definition of Leading and Leadership

 Leading involves directing and channeling employee behavior toward the
accomplishment of work objectives and providing a workplace inspiration where
people can be motivated to accomplish the work objectives.
 Leading/Directing is the skills of influencing people for a particular purpose or reason. It is
considered to be the most important and challenging of all managerial activities. Leading
is influencing or prompting the member of the organization to work together with the
interest of the organization. It involves creating a positive attitude towards the work and
goals among the members of the organization.
 Leading involves a number of deferment processes and activates. Leadership,
motivation and communication are considered as the major elements of leading
function.
 Leadership is the process of motivating, influencing, guiding, stimulating, actuating or
directing others toward the achievement of organizational objectives.

 Leadership is the art or process of guiding others so that they will strive willingly and
enthusiastically towards the achievement of organizational or group goals.

5.3 Ingredients of leadership

Every group of people that performs near its total capacity has some person as its head who is
skilled in the art of leadership. This skill seems to be a compound of at least four major
ingredients;

1. The ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner;

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2. The ability to comprehend that human beings have differing motivating forces at different
times and in different situations;
3. The ability to inspire; and
4. The ability to act in a manner that with develop a climate conducive to responding to and
arousing motivations.

5.4 Leadership and Management

Leadership and management are not necessarily the same but are not incompatible. Effective
leadership in organizations creates vision of the future that considers the legitimate long-term
interests of the parties involved in the organization, develops a strategy for moving toward that
vision, enlists the support of employees to produce the movement, and motivates employees to
implement the strategy.

Management is a process of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling through the
use of formal authority. In practice, effective leadership and management must ultimately be
the same. The distinctive feature of the best organization is that they get the balance between
leadership and management right. Leadership and management are like the two face of the coin.
You cannot have a proper coin without both and you cannot say one side is more important,
more necessary or better that the other. They are different but equal and equally vital in the
modern organizational environment.

“Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success; leadership determines whether the
ladder is leaning against the right wall.” Stephen Covey

“Leadership is not magic. It is not a gift that some people have and others don't. It is not
standing back and telling others what to do. It is not belittling or demeaning others who don't
do what you tell them to do.”

5.5 Leadership Theories

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership
theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent
theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many
different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:

2. "Great Man" Theories:

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

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3. The Trait Approach to Leadership

This approach focuses on individual leaders and attempts to determine the personal
characteristics (traits) that great leaders share. It assumes the existence of a leadership
personality and assumes that leaders are born and not made. That is, people inherit certain
qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify
particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. It was believed that through
this approach critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could
then be recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions.

4. The Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach to leadership attempts to identify what good leaders do. Should leaders
focus on getting the job done or on keeping their followers happy? Should they make decisions
autocratically or democratically? In behavioral approach personal characteristics are considered
less important than the actual behaviors leaders exhibit.

Three general categories of leadership behavior have received particular attention: behaviors
related to task performance, group maintenance, and employees participation in decision
making.

4 .Contingency/ Situational Approach to leadership

According to proponents of the situational approach to leadership, universally important traits
and behaviors do not exist. They believe effective leader behaviors vary from situation to
situation. The leader should first analyze the situation and then decide what to do. Contingency-
situational theories were developed to indicate that the style to be used is contingent upon such
factors as the situation, the people, the task, the organization, and other environmental variables.

5. Transactional and Transformational Leadership

a. Transactional Leadership:- is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes
compliance of his followers through both rewards and punishments. Unlike Transformational
leadership, leaders using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future; they are
looking to merely keep things the same. These leaders pay attention to followers' work in order
to find faults and deviations. This type of leadership is effective in crisis and emergency
situations, as well as when projects need to be carried out in a specific fashion.

Transactional leaders use reward and punishments to gain compliance from their followers. They
are extrinsic motivators that bring minimal compliance from followers. They accept goals,
structure, and the culture of the existing organization. Transactional leaders tend to be directive
and action-oriented.

Transactional leaders are willing to work within existing systems and negotiate to attain goals of
the organization. They tend to think inside the box when solving problems.

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b. Transformational leadership: Transforming leadership: is a process in which

"leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation".
Transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale and performance of followers
through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and
self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for
followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and
understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with
tasks that optimize their performance.

5.6 Qualities of leadership

Discussion
1. What are the qualities of great leaders?
2. Is there any one whom you consider as your role model as a leader? What are the
qualities he/she possessed?

Since leadership is a group process whereby individuals work together in order to foster change
and transformation, effective leaders necessarily requires to posses, at least, the following
qualities:

A. Group qualities
 Collaboration: Is a more effective approach because it empowers each individual,
engenders trust, and capitalizes on the diverse talents of the group members.
 Shared purpose: What needs to be changed and why? Reaching agreement on a
common purpose.
 Disagreement with respect: Differences among individual group members are both
inevitable and desirable, but that such differences must be engaged civilly in an
atmosphere of mutual respect and trust.
 Division of labor: Any collaborative effort requires that each member of the group
make a significant contribution to the overall effort, and that all members be clear
not only about their individual responsibilities but also about the responsibilities and
contributions of the other individual members.
 A learning environment: a collaborative learning environment to share knowledge,
interpersonal competencies, and technical skills that people will require to function
effectively.

B. Individual qualities that contribute to the effective functioning of the group

 Self-knowledge: This quality means being aware of the beliefs, values, attitudes, and
emotions that motivate one to seek change and transformation. It also implies an

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awareness of the particular talents and strengths, together with the personal
limitations, that one brings to the leadership effort.
 Authenticity/integrity: Requires that one’s actions be consistent with one’s most
deeply felt values and beliefs. It is perhaps the most critical factor in building trust.
 Commitment: Implies passion, intensity, and persistence. It supplies the psychic and
physical energy that motivates the individual to serve, that drives the collective
effort, and that sustains that effort during difficult times.
 Empathy/understanding of others: The capacity to “put yourself in the other
person’s place” is critical to effective collaboration, building trust and resolving
differences in viewpoint. It also requires the cultivation and use of what is probably
our most neglected communication skill: listening.
 Competence: Refers to the knowledge, skill, and technical expertise required for
successful completion of the transformation effort.

5.7 Leadership styles

The following are the types of leadership styles:

a. Authoritarian/Autocratic Leadership Style

It is closely associated with the classical approach to management. In this style, decision-making
is solely by the manager, in other words, the leader retains all authority and responsibility. In the
extreme case, the manager makes the decision and announces it to the work group. There is no
opportunity for input into the decision-making process by the subordinates and communication is
primarily downward.

b. Democratic/Participative Leadership Style

In this leadership style, the manager involves subordinates in making organizational decisions,
shares problems with them and shares authority to reach a decision. Subordinates take part in the
decision-making process through consultation. The leader delegates a great deal of authority
while retaining ultimate responsibility.

c. Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Leadership Style

In this leadership style, leaders generally give the group complete freedom, provide the
necessary materials, participate only to answer questions, and avoid decision-making whenever
possible. The leader either sets limits and the followers work out their own problems, or the
individuals set their own goals. In this style, leaders depend largely on subordinates to set their
own goals and the means of achieving them, and they see their role as one of aiding the
operations of followers by furnishing them information and acting primarily as a contact with the
groups external environment.

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d. Situational Leadership style

The situational leadership style states that for a manager to be democrat, autocratic or laissez-
faire, situations force him/her.

Discussion
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of the above leadership styles?
2. What are the situations / circumstances under which these leadership styles are
preferred?

Three factors that influence which leadership style to use

1. The manager’s personal background: What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and
experiences does the manager have. What does he or she think will work?
2. Staff being supervised: Staff individuals with different personalities and backgrounds;
The leadership style used will vary depending upon the individual staff and what he or
she will respond best to
3. The organization: The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the organization
influence how a manager acts

Determining the Best Leadership Style

 Should leaders be more task or relationship (people) oriented

 Leaders have a dominant style, one they use in a wide variety of situations
 No one best style - leaders must adjust their leadership style to the situation as well as to
the people being led
 Many different aspects to being a great leader - a role requiring one to play many
different leadership styles to be successful.

5. 8 Leadership Competencies
Competencies are general descriptions of the behavior or actions needed to successfully perform within a
particular context (e.g. Job, group of jobs, functions etc…). Most jobs are performed most effectively if a
person doing them deploys a combination of skills, knowledge, and behavior. Competencies can be
seen as technical and behavioral

Technical competencies

Skills and knowledge types of competencies are often called technical, functional “hard” or job
related. This competence could be a technical knowledge of, for instance, agriculture, education,
management or accounting instruments. These skills and knowledge comprises all the
techniques, instruments and specialized knowledge acquired through training. So, technical
competence is related to the detailed “what” of a job.
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Competency Application
Master yourself Reflect on yourself and be aware of your impact on others, manage your
emotions effectively, use your strengths, and work on your shortcomings
See the big Look beyond a narrow focus to take into account conditions outside your
picture immediate area of work
Courage It is the ability to confront fear, pain, danger, uncertainty or intimidation.
Create a shared Work with others to envision a better future and use this vision to focus all
vision your efforts
Passion It is an intense concentration (focus) on a belief that a task can be completed
despite scarcity of human support or any other resource.
Clarify purpose Know your own values and what is most important to accomplish
and priorities
Communicate Hold conversations focused on outcomes; balance advocacy with inquiry;
effectively and clarify assumptions, beliefs, and feelings within yourself and others

Motivate Create the clarity, trust, and recognition necessary to lead teams to high
committed teams performance that can be sustained over time
Negotiate conflict Reach agreements from which both sides can benefit

Lead change Enable your work group to own challenges, enlist stakeholders, and
navigate through unstable conditions

Behavioral competencies

Behavioral competence (soft competence) is about how to do something; it concerns the action
styles of the individual. It is about how one handles technical expertise and technical
competence. It refers to personal characteristics & behavioral skills that an individual - in a
professional environment - is required to bring to the job. It is needed for making constructive
and effective use of one’s technical knowledge or one’s management techniques and
instruments. {(InWEnt – Capacity Building International, Germany. (2007).}

Case:The worried manager

Ketema Balcha has recently been promoted to a branch manager position. Some of his initial
gratification/happiness over receiving the job was taken away when he heard that many of the
employees were upset about his appointment. Rumor had it that these employees were infuriated
/ irritated that the senior employee in the branch, Mesfin Debebe, did not get the position while
he deserves it. One morning Ketema met with his district manager, Ato Kumilachew Abebe and
shared the scenario prevailing.

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Ketema: I don't know what to do. I feel as I have never had a chance in this job. Everybody
seems to hate me from the start because I got this job instead of Mesfin Debebe.

Kumilachew: What has happened since you've been here?

Ketema: When I arrived, I was full of energy and was committed to being a good leader. The
very first thing I did was conducting a group meeting and tell all the employees that I welcomed
their input and that my door is always open. That was about four weeks ago, and not one
employee has come into my office yet. The next thing I did was send out a memo soliciting
suggestions for improving the branch. I did receive some suggestions, but no two were the same.
In fact, many were in direct conflict with one another. For example, one suggestion was to
implement more detailed procedures. Another suggestion was to relax the "overly rigid"
procedures.

Kumilachew: What have you done since you got the suggestions?
Ketema: To be honest, nothing. As I said before, no clear trends or ideas emerged. Some people
seemed to even resent / hate my original memo. One response said that good managers could
come up with their own ideas. Naturally, with the situation being as it is, I am reluctant to
implement anything for fear of making matters worse. At the same time, I know that the situation
is deteriorating every day.

Questions
1. What qualities and shortcomings do you see with Ketema?
2. How do you categorize the leadership style of Ketema and why?
3. How might you handle the situation now?

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SESSION SIX
CONTROLLING FUNCTION
6.1 Definition
 Controlling is the process through which managers assure that actual activities conform to
planned activities.
 Controlling is the process of regulating organizational activities so that actual performance
conforms to expected organizational standards and goals.
 It is checking current performance against predetermined standards contained in the plans.

Activity
 What is the importance of controlling?
 What are the steps that you have went through in the recent control that you have
carried on in your organization?
 How do you characterize an effective control?

6.2 Importance of controlling

All the good planning efforts and brilliant ideas in the world do little good if a firm has no
system of managing control. Control, therefore, is an essential part of effective organizational
management. Specifically, control helps an organization in the following ways:
1. Adapting to changing conditions
2. Limiting the magnification of errors
3. Determine whether people and the various parts of an organization are on target,
achieving the progress toward their objectives that they planned to achieve.
4. It supports the rest of managerial functions.

6.3 The controlling process

Although control systems must be tailored to specific situations, such systems generally follow
the same basic process. The controlling process has five major steps.
1. Determine Areas to Control
2. Establishing Standards
3. Measuring Actual Performance
4. Comparing Performance against Standards
5. Taking Corrective Action (on time)

6.4 Types of controlling

1. Preventive/Steering/ Preliminary / Input Control

Preventive control focuses on the regulation of inputs to ensure that they meet the standards
necessary for the transformation process. It attempts to monitor the quality and/or quantity of

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resources (financial, physical, human and information) before they become part of the system.
Preventive control is future oriented and takes place before the operation begins. It focuses on
prevention in order to preclude later serious difficulties in the production process - its aim is to
prevent problems before they arise. Nevertheless, since preventive control can’t cover every
possible contingency, other type of controls may also be needed.

2. Concurrent/Screening/ Yes-No/Checking Control

Concurrent control involves the regulation of ongoing activities that are part of the
transformational process to ensure that they conform to organizational standards. It is designed to
detect and anticipate deviations from standards at various points throughout the processes, i.e.
the controlling is carried out during the actual transformation process. The emphasis here is on
identifying difficulties in the productive process that could result in faulty outputs.

3. Feedback/Post-Action/ Output Control

As the name indicates post action control focuses on the end results of the process. It is
regulation exercised after the product (goods or services) has been completed in order to ensure
that the final output meets organizational goals and standards. The information derived is not
used for corrective action on a project because it has been completed.

6.5 Characteristics of effective control system

Controls may have many different characteristics, but some of the most important are:
1) Future–Oriented
2) Multidimensional
3) Economically Realistic/ Cost Effective
4) Accurate
5) Acceptable to Organization Members
6) Timely
7) Reliable and Valid
8) Monitorable
9) Organizationally Realistic
10) Flexible
11) Focus on Critical Control Points
12) Easy to Understand
13) Emphasize on Exception
14) Avoids over control and Under control

Discussion
 What are the strengths and weaknesses you observe on the controlling practice at
ELFORA?
 What remedies do you recommend to improve controlling

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SESSION SEVEN
COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENT

7.1 Introduction
An organization is a group of people working together to achieve a common goal, and
communication is a vital part of that process. Inflecting organizational vision, influencing others
to the group thinking, cultivating proactive listening, and tracking down the meaning of
nonverbal movements are some of the skills that mangers need to have in order to make their
routine smooth and productive.

Effective communication is all about conveying your messages to other people clearly and
creating an understanding. It's also about receiving information that others are sending, with as
little distortion and misunderstanding as possible. It's a process that can be fraught with error,
with messages muddled by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient.

7.2 Overview of Communication

Communication can easily be defined as a process of reaching mutual understanding, in which
participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.
Indeed communication skills are central to promoting excellence now and in the coming years,
and need seven skills: Creative insight, Sensitivity, Vision, Versatility, Focus, Patience and
Globalism.

The essence of communication in all contexts is that people exchange message to accomplish
goals and objectives. The followings are the common stages in the communication process.

Figure: Communication Process

Feedback Shared Meaning Feedback

a. Source: Is the person who creates a message. It is also referred to as a sender.

b. Message: The message is the information that is going to be sent.

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c. Encoding: This is the physical process of organizing elements and transferring the
information to be communicated into a form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the
other end.
d. Channel: Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal channels including face-
to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written channels including
letters, emails, memos and reports.
e. Decoding: The counter part of encoding, decoding is the process that recipients go
through to make sense of the message they receive.
f. Receiver: The destination of the messages is the receiver, includes all people that the
message is intended for.
g. Feedback: Feedback is any response, verbal or nonverbal, that a receiver makes to a
message. Understanding the response of the receiver is also important for effective
communication. Response implies the immediate reaction, could be emotional, of the
receiver for the message. The shows how they really feel about the meaning they drive
out of the communication process.
h. Context: The situation or setting in which message is delivered is the context. This may
include the physical, chronological, cultural, organizational, social, and relationship
among communicators.
i. Noise: Noise is anything that interferes with communication. Noise may take several
forms like physical, psychological, emotional, and physiological distractions.
j. Shared meaning: Shared meaning is the mutual understanding that results when the
sender and all intended receivers interpret the message in the same way.

7.3 Types of Communication

There are a number of ways to classify and analyze communication in organizational context.
The followings are some of them.

Functions: based on the basic function that the communication effort serves, we can have two
categories, internal and external communication. As per the size and geographical distribution
of the organization we can contextualize this classification even within the same organization.

Side: If the receiver role in the communication process is limited only on accepting what the
sender says, it is called one way of communication. Otherwise if the two parties have equal say
on the issues under consideration then that type will be called as two ways of communication.

Scope: according to the area that the communication process will cover, we can have other four
classifications of communication.

• Intrapersonal: is a communication within a person.

• Interpersonal: is a communication between two parties on common ground.

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• Group: is a communication between three or more people. Here the distinctive nature is
that all the members have a say with a relatively higher degree of frequency unlike to
mass communication.
• Mass: is a communication between crowds of people.

Form: communication might have different forms while it’s conducted. Accordingly there are
two major classifications of interaction:

• Oral/face to face: is a kind of communication happened in oral or face to face idea

sharing form. Under this form of communication, the two major components, speaking
and listening, would be practiced among the involving parties.
• Written: communicators use written Medias, letter, emails, reports and the like, in this
form of communication. Reading and writing are major skills required to transmit the
message and create understanding with the other end in the process.

Structure: similarly communication process could be seen from the structure it take while
conducting.

• Verbal: is a form of communication in which the encoded messages are transmitted

through verbal modes.
• Non-verbal: Body movements, gesture, physical environment, language usage and
similar matter will transmit meaning along with the forma verbal communication.

Formality: as per the formality nature of the engagement, communication could also be seen as
the form of formal and informal process. Formal communication can also be further classified
into three groups:
• Downward
• Upward
• Horizontal
• Cross-channel/Diagonal
In one way or another, the process could be made in one of the methods stated above. All ways
are an option for optimum utilization of the resource available. Choosing the right channel and
method of communication will vary as per the situation at hand. There would be points for
consideration while selected the right method of disseminating information and gain acceptance.

Discussion:
 What are the factors to take in to consideration in communication channel selection?

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Channel communication selection

Some of the decision criteria to consider for channel selection are:

• Message content:
• Need for immediate response
• Audience size and distance
• Audience reaction
• Need to show empathy, friendliness, formality
• Cost

Non Verbal Communication

A non-verbal message is that is not written or spoken. The eight common types of nonverbal
communication are discussed in the following section.

 Meta communication
 Facial and eye expression
 Body movement
 Physical appearance
 Paralanguage/Voice quality
 Time
 Touch
 Space and territory

o Intimate zone
o Personal zone
o Social zone
o Public zone

Kinesics is the study of gestures and body movements that can be intentional or unintentional.
Although it is difficult to monitor what you are doing with your hands and movements, the
followings are some of the interpretations.

o Emblems: are body movements that substitute for words. E.g. a thumb up signal to say
“go a head”
o Illustrator: amplify, accent or supplement what is being said orally. These are less
intentional than emblems and are of use without conscious thought. E.g. a habit of
waiving arms
o Regulators: usually automatic acts that help to maintain the flow of conversation. They
function in a number of ways. E.g. you can signal others that you are ready to give up the
conversation by reducing gesture or reducing eye contact.

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o Adaptor: are actions that reveal psychological or physical needs. Head scratching, ear
pulling, or hair-fussing, pointing, shrugging, or nodding can be interpreted either
positively or negatively by others.
o Affect displays: are also unintentional movements that reflect the sender’s true emotion.
Slumping or showing a sad facial expression could reflect problems in your own life or
could indicate empathic responses to the other person’s words.

7.4 Listening In Communication

Listening is the most frequently used communication skill. Researchers have estimated that
employers typically spend much of their workday communicating; a large portion of this time is
spent listening. Yet most people take listening granted. To better understand the matter lets first
clear the two interchangeably using words.

Listening Vs hearing

Hearing is an automatic process in which sound waves stimulate nerve impulses to the brain.
Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting to sounds and includes
understanding, analyzing, evaluating, and responding. Listening requires concentration and
entails synthesizing new information with what was already known.

Know your listening style:

There are four types of listening: for information, for enjoyment, for evaluation, and for feeling.
Know more about oneself listening style helps to improve the motivation that the person has
towards his/her job or others. The followings are some of the listening styles of individuals

o Appreciative listening: used to judge the aesthetic value of what is heard, such as public
speech. Play or comedian’s routine and is used most for enjoyment.
o Emphatic listening: concentrates on the feeling or attitudes of the speaker, rather than on
the message. It is used to discover the feeling of the speaker
o Discriminative listening: involves drawing inferences from auditory cues and evaluating
reasons for the message. This is “reading between the line” listening.
o Analytical listening: encompasses a concentration on the content and includes
understanding, interpreting, and analyzing a message. This style is useful in an exchange
of information or ideas such as at a staff meeting.

The effectiveness of the above styles of listening depends on the situation. Passive or negative
listening are undesirable styles.

o Passive listening: means that the receiver is not concentrating on the message and
consequently loses much of its meaning.

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o Negative listening: is defensive in nature. The receiver is listening to find fault with the
sender or is listening to attack what is being said. Sometimes negative listening could be
manifested by a situation when the receiver reacts to the information he/she receives with
a mindset biased by old thoughts, assumptions and experiences.

Factors that affect interactive listening:

There are a number of variables which can hinder interactive listening in the oral communication
process. The followings are some of them.

 Speakers’ communication style

 Environmental distraction
 Emotional distraction
 Message content:

7.5 Building Rapport and Assertiveness

Discussion:
 How can we develop a good rapport with others?
 What at are the causes that lead us to lose our rapport?

Building rapport is a lot more than just matching people’s behavior. It involves appealing to
styles of communication and people’s expectations. Rapport is essential for any meaningful
communication to take place. The more you subtly get into the style of the other person the more
you will understand what their motives, attitudes, values, beliefs and feelings are. Six of the most
common reasons for the loss of rapport are:

 Extreme self-consciousness
 An overwhelming need to be liked
 Judgment (relating others with some favorable or bad state of personality, behavior,
attitude and emotion)
 Imposing our values.
 Preoccupation with your own life’s events.
 Unawareness of getting stuck in particular ways of talking and communicating.

Rapport requires a cheerful and sincere wish to understand the other person – see the world as
they see it. At the same time you have to be self-aware and self-accepting, letting your own
barriers down, free of the need to defend yourself. When you no longer fear others you will not
feel the need to protect yourself from ‘being different’.

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Tips for building a good rapport

Lack, or absence, of rapport can fundamentally affect the outcome of any conversation. Here are
some tips for creating good rapport.

 Open the call with a smile

 Start the conversation with a ‘warm up’
 Let the colleague know you are listening
 Use words that your companion uses
 Show empathy
 Be yourself and relax
 Be friendly

Assertiveness is the other area of concern in communication. Building rapport in some situations
should not obscure the startling assertive behaviors. Assertiveness is based on the premise that
we are all created equal and should treat each other as such. Assertive interaction allows us to
stand up for our rights in a manner which ensures we do not violate the rights of others. There
are three basic interpersonal styles. These are:

 Aggressive: This involves fighting, blaming, accusing, threatening and a general

disregard for other people's feelings.
 Passive: Passive behavior occurs when you permit other people to push you around,
when you do not stand up for yourself and when you allow others to take advantage of
you.
 Assertive: You behave assertively when you do not let other people control you, when
you stand up for yourself and when you express your true feelings.

Assertiveness is the ability to express your ideas, beliefs and needs without violating the rights of
others. It is appropriately direct, open, and honest communication which is self-enhancing and
expressive. Assertiveness is not being aggressive or expressing your rights at the expense,
degradation, or humiliation of another. Assertive behavior involves non-verbal aspects also.

In general Effective communication brings about the achievement of individual and/or shared
goals. To effect this both building rapport and Assertiveness skills have a potential to increases
leaders ability to reach these goals while maintaining their rights and dignity.

7.6 Communication Strategy

Organizations need to see communications as a vehicle that is not only helpful or required but
essential to achieving core goals. The followings are some of the building blocks of sound
communication strategy. The components might have different color as per the working nature
and goal of the organization.

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1. Review – Performance and Perception

 How have we been communicating in the past? How effective has that been? How do our
audiences perceive us?

2. Objectives – Making them SMART

 What do we want our communications to achieve? Are our objectives SMART? What,
ultimately, do we want from communications?

3. Audience – Primary and Secondary Targets

 Who is our audience? Do we have a primary and a secondary audience? What

information do they need to take action on our work?

4. Message – Problems, Possibilities, Policies

 What is our message? Do we have one message for multiple audiences or multiple
messages for multiple audiences?

5. Basket – Tools and Products

 What kinds of communications “products” will best capture and deliver our messages?
What newspaper do audiences read? What radio station do audiences listen to? Where do
audiences gather? How can we marry scientific content with the right dissemination
channel?

6. Channels – Promotion and Dissemination

 What channels will we use to promote and disseminate our products? Having the right
message, the right audience, and the right products is one thing.

7. Resources – Materials, Finances, People

 What kind of budget do we have for this? Will this change in the future? What
communications skills and hardware do we have?

8. Timing – Events, Opportunities, Planning

 What is our timeline? Would a staged strategy be the most appropriate? What special
events or opportunities might arise? Does the work (or future work) of like-minded
organizations or ministries, etc., present possible dissemination opportunities?

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9. Brand – Creating one and being on it

 Are all of our communications products “on brand”? How can we ensure that we are
broadcasting the right message?

10. Feedback – Evaluative Thinking

 How will we know when our communications strategy is 100% successful? What will
have changed? How can we assess whether we used the right tools, were on budget and
on time, and had any influence?

7.7 Factors Influencing Communication

Activity:
1) What are the barriers to communication at ELFORA?
2) Provide a solution for the identified problems.

A number of experts have suggested reasons for communication errors and mistakes. The
followings are mostly raised ones in literatures. Inadequate information

1) Information overload
2) Poor-quality information
3) Linguistic barrier
4) Poor timing
5) Lack of feedback or follow up
6) Problems with channels
7) Incompetent communication
8) Communication anxiety
9) Distortions
10) Emotions
11) Stress
12) Noise (internal and external)
13) Ourselves (our mind setup)
14) Perception
15) Cultural difference
16) Environment
17) Stereotyping and prejudices
18) Lack of feedback
19) Physical distractions/barriers

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SESSION EIGHT
DECISION MAKING & PROBLEM SOLVING

8.1 Over view

Decision making is a daily task of a manager. Managers are constantly called upon to make
decisions in order to solve problems. Decision making and problem solving are ongoing
processes of evaluating situations or problems, considering alternatives, making choices, and
following them up with the necessary actions. Sometimes the decision- making process is
extremely short, and mental reflection is essentially instantaneous such as dealing with a violent
act at work. In other situations, the process can drag on for weeks or even months. Managers
need to find the perfect balance of knowing when to make quick and easy decisions on the fly,
and when to take time with the complex decisions. The entire decision-making process is
dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at the right times.

Here are six ways of making a decision:

 Managers decide
 Manager sells his/her decision to the team
 Managers announces the decision and permits questions from the team
 Manager presents tentative decisions and consult the team and then decide
 Manager present the problem ….ask the team for ideas and then decide, or
 Manager gives complete (full) permission to the team to define the problem and permits
the team to make the decision

The above ways of decision making depends on the decision making style of the manager. The
most common styles identified as autocratic, consultative and participative.

The ability to deal with problems effectively is a major requirement of management. The
responsibility and challenge for a manger is to find the most appropriate solutions. When faced
with problem, some managers react with a quick decision and provide an obvious answer to the
problem….which is not necessary the best solution. There is usually more than one possible
answer to any problem.

Exploring ways and generating alternative solutions to a problem involves creative thinking and
selecting the best solution requires analytical thinking. Combining the two thinking processes
improves the quality of your decision and resolves the problems more imaginatively and
effectively.

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8.2 Steps in Problem Solving/Decision Making

Discussion
1) What are the steps involved in making a decision?
2) What do you think are the common reasons to make poor decisions?
3) What are the problems you observe in the decision making practice of ELFORA?
4) What remedies/corrective measures do you suggest?

The following are the steps in decision making process:

1. Step One- Define the Problem

2. Step Two- Look at Potential Causes for the Problem
3. Step Three- Identify Alternatives for Approaches to Resolve the Problem
4. Step Four- Select an Approach to Resolve the Problem
5. Step Five- Plan the Implementation of the Best Alternative
6. Step Six- Monitor Implementation of the Plan
7. Step Seven- Verify If the Problem Has Been Resolved or Not

8.3 Decision-Making Conditions

When managers make decisions, the amount of information available to them or the degree of
knowledge they have about the likelihood of the occurrence of each alternative vary from
managers to managers or/and from situation to situation. To put it in other way, decisions are
made under three basic conditions. These are condition of certainty, condition of risk, and
condition of uncertainty.

1. Decision-making under Certainty:-Decisions under certainty are those in which the external
conditions are identified and very predictable; i.e. we are reasonably sure what will happen when
we make a decision.

2. Decision-making under Risk:- A more common decision-making situation is under risk.

Under the state of risk, the availability of each alternative, the likelihood of its occurrence and its
potential payoffs and costs are associated with probability estimates; i.e. decisions under risk are
those in which probabilities can be assigned to the expected outcomes of each alternative.

3. Decision-making under Uncertainty:- Under this condition the decision maker does not know
what all the alternatives are, what the probability of each will occur is or what consequences
each are likely to have. This uncertainty comes from the dynamism of contemporary
organizations and their environment. In decision-making under uncertainty, probabilities cannot
be assigned to surrounding conditions such as competition, government regulations,
technological advances, the overall economy, etc.

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8.4 Types of Decisions

Decisions can be classified in to: programmed and non programmed.

a. Programmed Decisions:- Programmed decisions are those made in routine, repetitive, well-
structured situations through the use of predetermined decision rules. The decision rules may be
based on habit, computational techniques, or established policies and procedures. Managers can
usually handle programmed decisions through rules, procedures, and policies.

b. Non-programmed Decisions:- Non-programmed decisions are used to solve non-recurring,

novel, and unstructured problems. No well-established procedure exists for handling them,
because it has not occurred before managers do not have experience to draw up on, or problems
are complex or completely new.

8.5 Reasons for making poor decisions

All managers recognize the importance of making sound decisions. Yet most managers readily
admit having made poor decisions that hurt their company or their own effectiveness. Why do
managers make mistakes? Why doesn’t decision always result in achieving some desired goal?
Making the wrong decision can result from any one of these decision-making errors:
1. Lack of adequate time
2. Failure to define goals
3. Using unreliable sources of information
4. Fear of consequences
5. Focusing on symptoms rather than causes
6. Reliance on Hunch and Intuition

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SESSION NINE
TEAM BUILDING

9.1 Introduction
Team and team work are popular terms in management circles these days. A cynic might dismiss
team work as a just another management fade or quick fix trick. But a close look reveals that
much more than catchy words are involved here. The team approach to managing organizations
is having diverse and substantial impacts. Teams promise to be the cornerstone of progressive
management for the foreseeable future. According to management expert Peter Drucker,
tomorrow’s organizations will be flatter, information based and organized around teams.

It is well-known that teambuilding and motivational skills are of crucial importance in

organizations and the leadership role in particular. Managers and leaders must be effective team
builders and motivators to be able to achieve their business aims and get the best out of people.
The skills needed in both these areas should be practiced and improved upon on a constant basis
to ensure they help build and maintain effective and efficient teams.

9.2 Team: Definition

A team is a small number of consistent people committed to a relevant shared purpose, with
common performance goals, complementary skills, and a common approach to their work. Team
members hold themselves mutually accountable for the team results or outcome.

Key terms of the definition are described below:

Relevant Shared Purpose: The purpose or goal is defined by the members of the team working
collaboratively; within this purpose each team member has specific tasks which are discussed
and agreed upon.

Consistent Membership: Members become comfortable with and knowledgeable about each
others’ skill levels and more committed to sharing their knowledge and skills.

Complementary Skills: Include technical or functional expertise, interpersonal skills, supervisory

or management skills.

Commitment to a Common Approach to the following areas: working methods and team process,
roles and responsibilities (team versus job roles); behavioral expectations; the environment of the
team which includes trust of each other.

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Mutually Accountable: Everyone is accountable all the time for the accomplishment of the
results of the team, the process and functioning of the team as well as their own responsibilities.

Common performance goals: Needs to have a common performance goal that is closely related
to the team’s purpose.

9.3 Teams vs. Groups

A group is a collection of individuals who gather and interact for a common purpose. For
example, a bird-watching club, a community association, a study group, or volunteer societies
are all groups. They gather and usually focus their attention on an activity or common interest.
They may or may not have stated goals or rules to govern membership in the group. Being a
member of a group probably requires minimal expertise and may or may not be professional in
nature.

A team is a more specialized kind of group. Team members also have a common objective or
purpose, but focus on performance and collective improvement. An example would be a football
team, a work project team, or emergency medical team. Teams frequently have structure and
certain criteria for membership. Teams almost always have stated goals. Team members
frequently have an area of expertise and may be professionals. More specifically we can see
differences in the following table.

Table 9.1: Team vs. Group

CHARACTERISTICS GROUP TEAM

1. Accountability Members may not be Members share a common goal
accountable to the action of the and purpose, therefore, each
group. They are only team member is mutually
accountable for individual effort accountable for the team’s
of action. outcome.

Focus on individual roles, tasks Individuals cooperate,

2. Areas of
and responsibility, even though communicate and share
responsibility
group may cooperate responsibility among each other.

They communicate the They discuss as a team and

assessment and tasks are determine goals. They jointly
3. Approach to work distributed to individuals. develop action plan. They have
Individualized approach to common approach to work.
work.
The leader is equally responsible
The leader is more responsible and authorized like any member

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CHARACTERISTICS GROUP TEAM

and authorized than the of the team.
members.
4. Level of authority

9.4 Importance of Team Work

Discussion:
1. What are the significances of team building?
2. How do you characterize an effective team?

Advantages of having teamwork approach for individuals, managers and organizations.

Individually seen team work increases self-esteem and self-actualization of members, creates
opportunity to learn new skills, increases job satisfaction and autonomy, and increases peer
respect, belongingness, overall relationship among colleagues.

Managerial wise, it creates flexibility to do own job, creates to share the load and responsibility,
increases time for coaching/mentoring, provides different perspectives, reduces confusion and
widens the possibility of accepting decisions since there is participation.

Organizationally team work has been found to be effective because it increases productivity,
creation of better ideas/decisions due to work group synergy, it increases accountability, makes
more goal consistency, increases client satisfaction, increases commitment, results in less
expense and improves the value of work. Much more other importance have also been observed
through working on teams as the Amharic saying goes “ድድ ድድድድ ድድድድ ድድድድድ”

9.5 Types of Teams

There are many different kinds of teams. Teams differ from each other on the following four
dimensions:

I] Purpose or mission: Some teams are mainly concerned with the work done in the
organization such as developing new products, providing services to the customers and so on.
Such teams are known as “work teams”. Their focus is on optimal utilization of organizational
resources in order to yield the best possible results.

Some teams on the other hand are concerned with ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the
work environment. Such teams are referred to as problem solving teams or improvement teams.
Their mission is to increase the effectiveness of the processes that are used by the organization.

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II] Time: teams differ with regard to their period of existence. Some teams are established for a
specific project and for a specific time only. They are disbanded once the job is done. Teams of
such kinds are known as temporary teams. A permanent team, on the other hand, has an infinite
existence and remains intact as long as the organization exists. For example, teams focusing on
customer service exist permanently in the organization.

III] Degree of autonomy: The amount of operational autonomy or freedom that teams have is
another feature that distinguishes one team from another. Teams with little autonomy are referred
to as work groups. In such teams, the leader makes all the decisions on behalf of group members
who in turn follow the leader’s orders. Such teams are becoming increasingly less popular in
organizations today. These teams have high level of autonomy at work. In self-managed work
teams, team members are permitted to make key decisions about how their work is done.

IV] Authority structure: Teams differ with regard to their organizational functions. In some
teams, people operate within area only and do not move away from their area of expertise. Such
teams are known as “intact teams”. In contrast, cross-functional teams have employees from
about the same level but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish specialty
areas with the organization. Cross-functional teams represent an effective way of bringing people
from across the organization together to cooperate with each other on diverse tasks needed to
complete large projects.

9.6 Characteristics of Effective Team

An effective team has certain characteristics that allow the team members to function more
efficiently and productively. These characteristics are discussed below:

1. Clear goals- high performing teams have a clear understanding of the goal to be
achieved. Members are committed to the teams goals, know what they are expected to
accomplish, and understand how they will work together to achieve these goals.
2. Relevant skills- effective teams are composed of competent individuals who have the
necessary technical and interpersonal skills to achieve the desired goals while working
well together.
3. Mutual trust- effective teams are characterized by high mutual trust among members.
This is, members believe in each others ability, character and integrity.
4. Unified commitment- is characterized by dedication to the team’s goals and a
willingness to expend extraordinary amount of energy to achieve them and are willing to
do whatever it takes to help their team succeed.
5. Good communication- Members convey messages, verbally and nonverbally, among
each other in a way that are clearly and readily understood. Also feedback helps guide
team members and correct misunderstandings.

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6. Negotiation skills- effective teams are continually making adjustments as who does
what. This flexibility requires team members to possess negotiating skills. Since
problems and relations are regularly changing in teams, members need to be able to
confront and reconcile differences.
7. Appropriate leadership- effective leaders can motivate a team to follow them trough the
most difficult situation by clarifying goals, demonstrating that change is possible by
overcoming inertia, increasing the self-confidence of the team members, and helping
members to more fully realize their potentials.
8. Internal and external support- Internally, the team should have a sound infrastructure,
which means having proper training, a clear and reasonable measurement system that
team members can use to evaluate their over all performance, an incentive program that
recognizes and rewards team activities, and supportive human resource systems.

9.7 Process of Team Building

A model developed by J.R. Hackman provides some useful guidelines as to how to design the
work effectively. According to this model, the process of developing a team involves four stages:

I. Pre-work: The first and most important step of team building is to determine whether there
is a necessity for a team to be created. Before creating a team a manger should decide on: the
work that needs to be done, the objective of the team, the composition of the team – the skills
needed to do the job and the authority of the team would have – would it be working merely
as an advisory to the manager or whether it would have full responsibility and authority in
carrying out the task.
II. Create performance conditions: The team must be provided with necessary resources and
support to ensure the success. Resources include material resources (such as money,
equipments) as well as human resources (a proper mix of skilled people). The team is likely
to fail in the absence of the right conditions.
III. Form and built the team: There are things that a manager can do in order to help the team
to get off to a good start.

a) Selection of participants - The first important ingredient for team building is selecting
of participants to be in the activity. The team leader usually looks for specific things in
his or her members in order to ensure success in the project.
b) Boundaries: The manager should make it very clear as to who is a member of the team
and who is not. If this is not made clear then the members get confused and experience
frustration.
c) Mission acceptance: The manager must ensure that all the team members are committed
to the team’s purpose and mission. Lack of acceptance of the team’s mission by its
members will result in certain failure.

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d) Clarify responsibilities: It is very important to let the team know what exactly is
expected of them. What is their area of responsibility and what they are supposed to do?
Ambiguity of any kind should be avoided.
e) Training on how to work together –If a team can work together, they will be able to
raise and resolve issues that are standing in the way of accomplishing a goal. Working
together may not come easy at first, but with proper training the team will be able to
adapt quickly.

IV. Provide ongoing assistance: The manager should provide whatever support and assistance
the team needs. He can support the team by removing any obstacles that the team encounters
such as replacing uncooperative members, ensuring regular supply of material resources and
so on.

9.8 Stages of Team Development:

There are many models that describe team developmental progression. They are more or less
similar and suggest that the process occurs in five predictable stages. The implication is that all
teams must develop through this predetermined sequence if they are to be fully functioning
teams.

1. Forming:

The Forming stage of team development is an exploration period. Team members are often
cautious and guarded in their interactions not really knowing what to expect from other team
members. They also assess the group task and the ground rules that will apply to that task. There
would be no clear idea of goals or expectations. This is the stage where the team needs to write
its own charter or mission statement as well as clarify goals. The most important thing here is
that goals must have a personal buy-in.

Table 9.2 Forming Stage: team members feeling and leaders’ responsibility

Observable Feelings and Team Needs Leadership

Behaviors Thoughts Required
 Politeness  Many feel excited,  Team mission and  Visionary, Director
 Orienting with others optimistic, and vision  Provide structure
personally and full of anticipation  Specific objectives and clear task
professionally  Others may feel and tasks direction
 Avoids controversy suspicious,  Identified roles &  Allow for getting
 Cliques may form fearful, and responsibilities of acquainted
 Need for safety and anxious team members  Create an
approval  Pride in being  Established ground atmosphere of
chosen for the rules confidence and

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Observable Feelings and Team Needs Leadership

Behaviors Thoughts Required
 Attempts to define team  Team membership optimism
tasks, processes, and  What is expected  Measurement and  Leader makes many
how it will be of me? feedback decisions
decided here  Why are they  Team members’  One-way
 Discussion of here? expectations communication
problems not  Uncertainty  Operational from leader to
relevant to the task  Apprehension guidelines employee
 Effective meetings

2. Storming:
This stage of is characterized by competition and strained relationships among team members.
There are various degrees of conflict that teams experience but basically the Storming stage deals
with issues of power, leadership, and decision making. Conflict cannot be avoided during this
stage. It is the most crucial stage the team must work through.

Table 9.3 Storming Stage: team members feeling and leaders’ responsibility

Observable Feelings and Team Needs Leadership Required

Behaviors Thoughts
 Arguing among  Feel Defensive  Interpersonal  Facilitator and Teacher
members  Confusion relationships  Acknowledge conflict
 Vying for  Resistance to tasks  Identify stylistic  Guide others toward
leadership  Fluctuations in and personal consensus
 Differences in attitude about the differences  Get members to assume
points of view and team  Effective listening more task
personal style  Unsure if I agree  Giving and responsibility
 Lack of role with teams receiving feedback  Teach conflict
clarity mission &  Conflict resolution resolution methods
 Team organizing purpose.  Clarify and  Offer support and
itself  Question the understand the praise
 Power struggles wisdom of others team’s purpose
and clashes  Increase in tension  Reestablish roles
 Lack of consensus and jealousy and ground rules

3. Norming:
This stage is characterized by cohesiveness among team members. The team begins to co-operate
with the leader and with each other as they formulate their plans and communication develops.
Mutual support comes into play as group cohesion grows.

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Thus, during the norming stage, there is conflict resolution. There is greater involvement of team
members. There is a greater “we” feeling rather than “I” feeling.

Table 9.4 Norming Stage: team members feeling and leaders’ responsibility

Observable Feelings and Team Needs Leadership Required

Behaviors Thoughts
 Processes and  Sense of  Develop a  Coach and Sponsor
procedures are belonging to a decision making  Give feedback
agreed upon team process  Plan celebrations
 Comfortable with  Confidence is high  Be prepared to  Allow for less structure
relationships  Many feel a new offer ideas and  Promotes discussion
 Focus and energy ability to express suggestions  Asks for contributions
on tasks constructive  Problem solving from all employees
 Effective conflict criticism  Utilizing all  Observant if there is a
resolution skills  Acceptance of all resources to groupthink
 Sincere attempt to members in the support the team  Encourages team
make consensual team effort decision making
decisions  General sense of  Management  Continues to build
 Balanced trust coaching strong relationship
influence, shared  Assured that will  Begin to take
problem solving work out okay responsibility in
 Develop routines  Freedom to leadership skills
 Sets and achieves express and
task milestones contribute

4. Performing:
The team structures itself to its best advantage in relation to the particular task. The focus is on
achievement. This phase is characterized by a high task orientation and the smooth running of
the team. This stage is when team members are trained, competent, as well as able to do their
own problem-solving.

Table 9.5 Performing Stage: team members feeling and leaders’ responsibility
Observable behv. Feelings & thoughts Team Needs Leadership Required
 Interdependent  Empathy for one  Coaching and  Consultant and Sponsor
 Team able to another counseling  Observing
organize itself  High commitment  Maintain flexibility  Inquiring
 Flexible Trusting friendships  Measure  Provides little direction
members  Fun and excitement performance and decisions
function well  Lots of personal  Customer focus  Leader sets goals: team

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individually, in development and  Continue consensus accomplishes

subgroups or as a creativity process  two-way
team  General sense of  Complete action communication needed
 Better satisfaction items &  Give positive
understand each  Continual discovery accountability reinforcement and
other’s strengths of how to sustain  Provide information support
and weaknesses feelings of  Giving and  Share new information
and insights into momentum and Receiving Feedback
group processes enthusiasm  Dialogue

5. Adjourning:
The performing stage is the last stage of team development for permanent work teams. However,
temporary teams-such as project teams, taskforces, and similar teams that have a limited task to
perform-have this fifth stage. In this stage, teams prepare to disband. High level of task
performance is no longer the team’s top priority as attention is directed at wrapping up activities.

Table 9.6 Adjourning Stage: team members feeling and leaders’ responsibility
Observable Feelings and Team Needs Leadership Required
Behaviors Thoughts
 Visible signs of  Sadness  Evaluate the  Facilitator
grief, crying,  Humor (that to efforts of the team  Good listening
withdrawn, anger outsiders could  Tie up loose ends  Provide information
 Momentum slows appear cruel) and tasks  Offer direction to move
down  Others feel  Recognize and group back through
 Picking up trivial frustrated at not reward team initial stages, if
projects being recognized efforts necessary
 Rehashing old  Underappreciated  Acknowledge and  Guide the process
issues  Increased recognize their  Carry forth learning to
 Absence from discontent contribution to the next opportunity
meetings  General hilarity team
 Restless Behavior  Discuss future
plans

9.9 Exchanging feedback in team for success:

The “Johari Window” Model

The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-
awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a team. The Johari Window

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model was developed by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in the 1950's,
while researching group dynamics.

The Johari Window actually represents information- feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills,
intentions, motivation, etc - within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four
perspectives, which are described below. Johari Window terminology refers to 'self' and 'others':
'self' means oneself, i.e., the person subject to the Johari Window analysis. 'Others' mean other
people in the person's group or team.

Figure 9.1 Johari Window

Known by me Unknown by me

Known by Others OPEN BLIND

AREA AREA
Unknown by Others HIDDEN UNKNOWN

AREA AREA
Open Area: This is the area which is known to oneself and to others. This window of your life is
also called the public area. The behavior revealed in this area is behavior about which one is not
defensive and about which the individual himself and others around him are familiar with or
know about.

Hidden Area: This is the area which one knows about oneself but which others are not aware of.
This window is also known as the hidden area. This is the area where one keeps secrets about
oneself. Secrets are kept for fear of others' reaction to them. Secrets may pertain to feelings,
attitudes and behavior.

Blind Area: This is the area in oneself about which others are aware but about which the
individual himself is not aware. This area remains blind to the individual because the others who
are aware of this area may abstain from telling the individual for fear of offending him. This
window is also called your bad breath area.

Unknown Area: This is the area about which neither the individual nor others around him are
aware of, but in this area exist many undiscovered or unknown potentialities and aptitudes.
Others would like to call this area "the future", the undiscovered area.

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Figure 9.2: Johari window: using feedback

The open area can also be developed through

the process of disclosure, which reduces the
hidden area.
Blind
Open
Area Area The unknown area can be reduced in different
ways: by others' observation (which increases
the blind area); by self-discovery (which
increases the hidden area), or by mutual
Hidden Unknown
enlightenment - typically via group experiences
Area Area
and discussion.

A team which understands itself - that is, each

person having a strong mutual understanding
with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not understand each other- that is,
whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown areas. Team members - and leaders -
should always be striving to increase their open free areas, and to reduce their blind, hidden and
unknown areas.

Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the open free
area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and experience, will reduce
the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas.

Tips for Giving Positive Feedback

Giving positive feedback is one of the more enjoyable tasks in the workplace. Regular
appropriate praise can enhance job satisfaction and boost motivation. But just saying 'thanks',
'well done', or 'great job' are throwaway insincerities that can do more damage than good, so here
are 7 tips for doing it well...

1. No Time like Now- Feedback goes stale when left unsaid too long, so give positive
feedback as close to the event as possible.
2. In Public and In Private- Praise in public; criticize in private, that’s the rule. But before
you go singing a person’s praises from the roof-tops, think about what they would prefer.
Public praise of an extremely shy person may cause an emotional response that
overshadows your good intentions. Do what’s right for the person.
3. Practice Makes Perfect- It’s easy to overlook good work or extra effort, so make it a
habit to praise regularly. Consider setting up a formal reward and recognition scheme that
everyone understands and can use.
4. Does the Reward Fit? - Going over the top with rewards can be mis-interpreted as
“buying” favors. Judge the amount of effort and reward appropriately.

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5. No Favorites! - Avoid creating “favorites” by doing quick mental tallies of whom you’ve
praised recently.
6. Be Clear and Mean It- The best positive feedback is sincere and specific. Tell the
person exactly why you are praising them; “Abebe, that extra analysis was really
appreciated by the project team and allowed them to make a decision immediately”.
Abebe now knows exactly what to do next time to get praise.
7. Catch People Doing Things Right- The more you catch people doing things right, the
more right things they will do! Encourage positive actions by letting people know when
they do things well.

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SESSION TEN
MOTIVATION AND WORK ENGAGEMENT

10.1 Introduction
All organizations are concerned with what should be done to achieve sustained high levels of
performance through people. This means giving close attention to how individuals can best be
motivated through such means as incentives, rewards, leadership and, importantly, the work they
do and the organization context within which they carry out that work. The aim is to develop
motivation processes and a work environment that will help to ensure that individuals deliver
results in accordance with the expectations of management.

Activity:
2. What is motivation for you?
3. How motivating employees has benefited your organization?

10.2 Motivation Defined

There is no generally accepted definition of motivation because motivation is somehow difficult
to define. However, for this training, motivation is operationally defined as the process that
account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
While generally motivation is concerned with effort toward any goal, we will narrow the focus to
organizational goals in order to reflect our singular interest in the work related behavior
(Robinson, 2000).

The three key elements in our definition are intensity, direction and persistence. Intensity refers
to how hard a person tries. His is the element most of us focus on when we talk about
motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to a favorable job performance outcomes
unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore, we have to
consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity. Effort that is directed toward, and consistent
with, the organization’s goals is the kind of effort that we should be seeking. Finally, motivation
has persistence dimension. This is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort.
Motivated employees stay long enough to achieve their goal.

10.3 The Need - Want - Satisfaction chain

We can look at motivation as involving a chain of reaction - starting out with felt needs, resulting
in wants or goals sought which give rise to tension (that is, unsatisfied desires), then causing
action toward achieving goals, and finally satisfying wants.

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Needs give rise to Wants Which causes Tension

Which gives rise Actions Which result in Satisfaction

Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes, and
similar forces. To say that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that they do those
things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act in
a desired manner.

10.4 Importance of Motivation

Motivation is a very important for an organization because of the following benefits it provides:

1) Puts human resources into action

2) Improves level of efficiency of employees
3) Higher Quality of Service or Product
4) Leads to achievement of organizational goals
5) Builds friendly relationship
6) Leads to stability of work force

10.5 Types of Motivation

Motivation at work can take place in two ways. First, people can motivate themselves by
seeking, finding and carrying out work (or being given work) that satisfies their needs or at least
leads them to expect that their goals will be achieved. Secondly, people can be motivated by
management through such methods as pay, promotion, praise, etc.

There are two types of motivation as originally identified by Herzberg et al (1957):

 Intrinsic motivation – the self-generated factors that influence people to behave in a
particular way or to move in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility
(feeling that the work is important and having control over one’s own resources), autonomy
(freedom to act), scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging
work and opportunities for advancement.
 Extrinsic motivation – is what is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes
rewards, such as increased pay, praise, or promotion, and punishments, such as disciplinary
action, withholding pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and
powerful effect, but it will not necessarily last long. The intrinsic motivators, which are
concerned with the ‘quality of working life’, are likely to have a deeper and longer-term
effect because they are inherent in individuals and not imposed from outside.

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10.6 Incentives to Motivate Employees

Incentive is an act or promise for greater action. It is also called as a stimulus to greater action.
Incentives are something which is given in addition to wagers. It means additional remuneration
or benefit to an employee in recognition of achievement or better work. Incentives stimulate
employees for better performance. It is a natural thing that nobody acts without a purpose
behind.

Therefore, a hope for a reward is a powerful incentive to motivate employees. Besides monetary
incentive, there are some other stimuli which can drive a person to better. This will include job
satisfaction, job security, job promotion, and pride for accomplishment. Therefore, incentives
really can sometimes work to accomplish the goals of a concern.

1. Monetary incentives- Those incentives which satisfy the subordinates by providing them
rewards in terms of money. Money has been recognized as a chief source of satisfying the
needs of people. Money is also helpful to satisfy the social needs by possessing various
material items. Therefore, money not only satisfies psychological needs but also the
security and social needs.
2. Non-monetary incentives- Incentives which cannot be measured in terms of money are
under the category of “Non- monetary incentives”. Whenever a manager has to satisfy the
psychological needs of the subordinates, he makes use of non-financial incentives. Non-
financial incentives can be of the following types:-
a. Job security
b. Praise or recognition-.
c. Job enrichment-
d. Promotion opportunities

A combination of financial and non- financial incentives help together in bringing motivation
and zeal to work in a concern.

10.7 Appreciative Inquiry as A motivation

Appreciative inquiry offers an effective and exciting way to re-think the way organizations make
sense of the world and the basic interactions between individuals. It is a collaborative process of
engaging people to build the kind of organization that inspires all the stakeholders, leading to
positive business results. The approach is based on the premise that ‘organizations change in the
direction in which they inquire.’ So an organization which inquires into problems will keep
finding problems but an organization which attempts to appreciate what is best in itself will
discover more and more that is good. It can then to use these discoveries to build a new future
where the best becomes more common.

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The practice of Appreciative Inquiry invites leaders to abandon problem solving in favor of
discovery. The Appreciative Inquiry process encourages the engagement of all of an
organization's stakeholders. The process involves:

Discovery - what is right with the organization by focusing on the best of "what is"
Dream - Envisioning a preferred future and describing it in a compelling proposition
Design - Co-constructing the future by developing the infrastructure that will ensure the dream
comes to life
Destiny - Creating ways for delivering the new vision as well as sustaining momentum for
future adjustment

The science of Appreciative Inquiry is a philosophy and leadership style as well as a

methodology for creating positive and inspiring change. The science is based on several
principles:
 As the people of an organization create meaning through positive dialog, they set
intentions for action.
 The more attention we give to something the more it expands as part of our experience.
 Change begins the moment we ask a question.
 Human beings and human systems make significant movement toward positive images;
therefore, creating a compelling future image is imperative.
 Positive emotion is foundational for human growth and optimal functioning.

Positive aspects of an organization are what keep an organization moving. If it is made a

culture to appreciate them it adds great value to employees’ motivation because for a change,
people will see the great aspects of what they are part of.

10.8 Motivational Challenges

Motivation seems to be a simple function of management in theory, but in practice it is more
challenging. The reasons for motivation being challenging job are as follows:

One of the main reasons of motivation being a challenging job is due to the changing workforce.
The employees become a part of their organization with various needs and expectations.
Different employees have different beliefs, attitudes, values, backgrounds and thinking. But all
the organizations are not aware of the diversity in their workforce and thus are not aware and
clear about different ways of motivating their diverse workforce.

Employees motives cannot be seen, they can only be presumed. Suppose, there are two
employees in a team showing varying performance despite being of same age group, having
same educational qualifications and same work experience. The reason being what motivates one
employee may not seem motivating to other.

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The vigorous nature of needs also pose challenge to a manager in motivating his subordinates.
This is because an employee at a certain point of time has diverse needs and expectations. Also,
these needs and expectations keep on changing and might also clash with each other. For
instance-the employees who spend extra time at work for meeting their needs for
accomplishment might discover that the extra time spent by them clash with their social needs
and with the need for affiliation.

10.9 From Theory to Practice: Suggestions for Motivating Employees

Although there’s no simple, all-encompassing set of guidelines, the following suggestions draw
on what we know about motivating employees.
 Recognize individual difference
 Match people to jobs
 Use goals
 Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable
 Individualize rewards
 Link reward to performance
 Check the system for equity
 Use recognition
 Don’t ignore money

10.10 Work Engagement

Engagement is the extent to which individuals are motivated to contribute to the organization’s
success and are willing to apply effort to accomplish tasks important for the achievement of the
organization’s goals.

Types of Engagement

Individuals engage in their organization in 4 distinct ways (Types of Engagement)

1) Organization – individuals feel personal attachment, affiliation, passion

toward the organization as a whole

2) Job - individuals value and feel personal involvement with their work and the tasks
associated with their specific jobs

3) Supervisor/Leader – individuals feel personal attachment, commitment, and affiliation

with their direct supervisors and higher level leaders.

4) Colleagues/coworkers – individuals value relationships and feel emotional attachment to

the other members of their team or to colleagues that they work with directly.

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Case Study

Employee Motivation - Case Study

Solomon’s disappointment
I am Solomon Hailu. I joined a private hi-tech project at Adama on MESKEREM 19,
2004(EC) after a successful completion of my assignment in one of the government
agencies at Addis, where I had worked as a consultant. I felt that the hi-tech project offered
better career prospects, as it was a new project and we were offered to work on the current
technologies that were in demand in the market. I was sure I would excel in my new
position at the hi-tech project, just as I had done in my old job at Addis. I joined as
Assistant Systems Engineer, with a handsome pay hike for becoming a confirmed employee
of the company. Knowing that this would give me a lot of exposure, besides looking good
on my resumes, I was quite excited about the new job. I joined Engineer Dawit’s five-
member team at the project. I had met Dawit during the interview sessions, and was looking
forward to working under him. My team members seemed warm and friendly, and
comfortable with their work. I introduced myself to the team members and got to know
more about each of them. Wanting to know more about my boss- Engineer Dawit, I casually
asked Zenebech, one of the team members, about Dawit. Zenebech, said, “Dawit, had an
excellent track record in project management and does not interfere with our work. In fact,
you could even say that he tries to ignore us as much as he can."I was surprised by the
comment but decided that Dawit was probably leaving them alone to do their work without
any guidance, in order to allow them to realize their full potential.

At Addis, I had worked under Engineer Ermias and had looked up to him as a guide and
mentor - always guiding, but never interfering. Ermias had let me make my own mistakes
and learn from them. He had always encouraged individual ideas, and let the team discover
the mistakes, if any, through discussion and experience.

He rarely held an individual member of his team responsible if the team as a whole failed to
deliver - for him the responsibility for any failure was collective. I remembered telling my
colleagues at Addis in my previous company that the ideal boss would be someone who did
not interfere with his/her subordinate's work.

I wanted to believe that Dawit too was the non-interfering type. If that was the case, surely
his non-interference would only help me to grow.

In my first week at work, I found the atmosphere at the office a bit dull. However, I was
quite excited. The team had been assigned a new project. I thought about the problem till
late in the night and had come up with several possible solutions. I could not wait to discuss
them with the team and Dawit. I smiled to myself when I thought of how Dawit would react

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when I told him that I had come up with several possible solutions to the problem. I was
sure he would be happy with me having put in so much effort into the project, right from
day one. I was daydreaming about all the praise that I was going to get when Dawit walked
into the office. I waited for him to go into his workplace, and after five minutes, called him
up, asking to see him. He asked me to come in after ten minutes. When I went in, he looked
at me uninterestedly and asked, "Yes?" Not sure whether he had recognized me, I
introduced myself. He said, "Ok, but why did you want to meet me?"

I started to tell him about the problems we were having with the new assignment. But
before I could even finish, he told me that he was busy with other things, and that he would
send an email with the solution to all the members of the team by the end of the day, and
that we could then implement it immediately. I was somewhat taken a back. However, ever
the optimist, I thought that he had perhaps already discussed the matter with the team.

I came out of Dawit’s office and went straight to where my team members sat. I thought it
would still be nice to reflect ideas off them and also to see what solutions others might
come up with. I told them of all the solutions I had in mind.

I waited for the others to come up with their suggestions but not one of them spoke up. I
was surprised, and asked them why they were so disinterested.

Samson, one of the team members, said, "What is the point in discussing these things?
Dawit is not going to have time to listen to us or discuss anything. He will just give us the
solution he thinks is the best, and we will just do what he tells us to do; why waste
everyone's time?"

I felt my heart sink. Was this the way things worked over here? However, I refused to lose
heart and thought that maybe, I could change things a little.

But as the days went by, I realized that Dawit was the complete opposite of my old boss,
Ermias. While he was efficient at what he did and extremely intelligent, he had neither the
time nor the inclination to develop his subordinates.

His solutions to problems were always correct, but he was not willing to discuss or debate
the merits of any other ideas that his team might have. He did not hold the team down to
their deadlines nor did he ever interfere.

In fact, he rarely said anything at all! If work did not get finished on time, he would
just blame the team, and totally disassociate himself from them.

Time and again, I found myself thinking of Ermias, my old boss, and of how he had been
such a positive influence. Dawit on the other hand, even without actively doing anything,
had managed to significantly lower my motivation levels. I gradually began to lose interest
in the work - it had become too mechanical for my taste. I didn't really need to think; my

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boss had all the answers. I was learning nothing new, and felt my career was going
nowhere. As I became more and more discouraged, my performance suffered.

Questions for Discussion

1. What is the first mistake Solomon had committed?
2. What, according to you, were the reasons for Solomon’s disappointment?
3. What should Solomon do to resolve this situation? What can a team leader do to
ensure high levels of motivation among his/her team members?
4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Ermias?
5. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Dawit?

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SESSION ELEVEN
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

11.1 Introduction
Conflict between group or team members is one of the biggest challenges faced by leaders,
particularly because it is so disruptive to the work place, reduces performance and diverts
attention from the achievements of goals, but also because it is hard for leaders to deal with.

Activity:
1. How do you define conflict?
2. Consider conflict situations in your organization & list down their causes.
3. Do you think that all organizational conflicts are destructive? Why? Or why not?

Leaders are often judged by those they lead on the basis of their ability to deal with conflict
successfully. Success or failure in doing so can spill over into all other aspects of the leadership
role, especially into the level of trust that people have in their leader.

Handling conflict is probably the biggest test of leaders’ character, leaders’ communication
skills, their personal integrity and their self-confidence.

Conflict on teams is inevitable; however, the results of conflict are not predetermined. Conflict
might escalate and lead to nonproductive results, or conflict can be beneficially resolved and lead
to quality final products. Therefore, learning to manage conflict is integral to a high-performance
team. Although very few people go looking for conflict, more often than not, conflict results
because of miscommunication between people with regard to their needs, ideas, beliefs, goals, or
values.

Conflict management is the principle that all conflicts cannot necessarily be resolved, but
learning how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of nonproductive escalation. Conflict
management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict
modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict in
your environment.

11.2 Definition of conflict

Conflict is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or
negatively affected by another party.

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A Conflict may be defined as the pursuit by two different persons of goals that are incompatible
so that gains by one person must inevitably come about at the expense of the other.

11.3 Nature of Conflict

Conflict can flare up and die away in minutes or simmer for ages. Assessing the different types
of conflicts, for their strengths and length of time had occurred is important in working out how
best to deal with them.

Generally speaking, conflict disrupts the work place, makes if different for people to work
effectively and creates a lot of “negative vibes – people feel psychologically upset by the
conflict, even if they were not directly involved. How dysfunctional it is depends, in part, on its
nature. On the whole, longer lasting conflict, whether strong or weak, is more damaging, but
strong conflict is always likely to have significant impact. However, this is not always
dysfunctional, whereas longer lasting conflicts nearly always are.

There are occasions when conflict can be helpful in the process of identifying underlying
problems (the conflict is the result of the problem, not the problem) or in helping to generate how
ideas.

11.4 Basic Concept

Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in nature and
haven't been aligned or agreed about yet, including:

 Within yourself when you're not living according to your values;

 When your values and perspectives are threatened; or
 Discomfort from fear of the unknown or from lack of fulfillment.

Conflict is inevitable and often good, for example, good teams always go through a "form, storm,
norm and perform" period. Getting the most out of diversity means often-contradictory values,
perspectives and opinions.

 Conflict is often needed. It:

 Helps to raise and address problems.
 Energizes work to be on the most appropriate issues.
 Helps people "be real", for example, it motivates them to participate.
 Helps people learn how to recognize and benefit from their differences.

Conflict is not the same as discomfort. The conflict isn't the problem - it is when conflict is
poorly managed that is the problem.

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Conflict is a problem when it:

 Hampers productivity.
 Lowers morale.
 Causes more and continued conflicts.
 Causes inappropriate behaviors.

11.5 Forms of conflict

Conflict can take many forms, ranging from mild disagreements to out-and-out physical
violence. It includes:

 Disagreement or differences of opinions

 Complaints or criticisms of some one’s performance, behavior or attitude
 Excluding or ignoring others, or being disdainful or “silently contemptuous”
 A matching of wills, test of power or threat to someone’s control
 Deliberately acting in opposition to a request or instruction
 Perceptions that someone is being deliberately provocative or denigrating other’s beliefs
or rights
 Someone taking unnecessary risks or threatening the security of others
 Aggressive behavior, yelling at another or being threatening

11.6 Causes of conflict

The most widely assumed reason for conflict is when people with different personality’s clash. It
is not personality itself that causes conflict so much as the differences in behavior of people with
different personalities. Personality might be fixed, but behavior is a matter of choice (even if the
choices are limited or difficult). That is why people with different personalities can work
together quite effectively for many years, whereas others, with equally different personalities
find themselves in conflict.

What is it that makes people choose to behave in certain ways, ways that lead to conflict? The
reasons are many but they include

1. Emotional States

These may not be connected to the issue over which there is conflict, but could be due to quite
unrelated issues, not necessarily at work but at home or in some other areas of activity. If
someone is feeling anxious, upset, angry worried, or some other emotion, conflict can arise
through something quite trivial that just tips them over the edge. Such conflicts are likely to be
short-lived unless the person’s emotional state persists.

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2. Conflicting opinions, beliefs or values

When two people believe in something different, whether it is the existence of God or the
rightness of some course of action, if can lead to conflict, especially if the belief or values is
central to their life.

3. Power and Control

If people feel that their power or authority is being diminished, or that they are losing control
over aspects of their work or the work of others, then this can lead them into conflict with those
they see as taking their power and control.

4. Varying facts or Data

When two people have obtained different information about the same event or have used their
knowledge to arrive at different conclusions then this can lead to serious arguments.

5. Alternative Methods or Processes

If there are two or more ways doing something, people can frequently get info conflict over
which is better. This is frequently the result of new methods being introduced that are different
from traditional ways of doing things and which can seem to some to be inferior or less effective.
This can sometimes be due to people fearing their old skill are no longer as valuable when they
have not acquired now skills.

6. Conflicting goals

When individuals or groups have conflicting goals, this can all too often lead to conflict between
them.

Before you can resolve conflict, you need to be able to identify what is causing it, not the least
because some causes can be resolved far more easily than others. The steps you can take to
resolve conflict all start from this initial question - What is causing this conflict to occur?

11.7 Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Conflicts

i. Poor communications
ii. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient.
iii. "Personal chemistry",
iv. Leadership problems

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11.8 Managerial Actions/ Structures to Minimize Conflicts

The following are helpful in minimizing conflicts that occur in organizations:

1. Regularly review job descriptions.

2. Intentionally build relationships with all subordinates.
3. Get regular, written status reports and include:
4. Conduct basic training about; Interpersonal communications, Conflict management & Delegation
5. Develop procedures for routine tasks and include the employees' input.
6. Regularly hold management meetings
7. Consider an anonymous suggestion box in which employees can provide suggestions

Personal guidelines to solve conflict

1. Ask yourself what it is you do not know yet

2. Make a distinction between the problem and the person
3. Be clear, straight forward and concrete in your communication
4. Maintain contact between the parties
5. Look for the needs and interests that lie behind concrete positions
6. Make it easy for the parties to be constructive
7. Develop your ability to look at the conflict from the outside

11.9 Conflict Management Styles

Choosing a conflict management style is important in many areas of life, especially in the
workplace. When you are a manager in an organization, you will need to choose a conflict
management style to handle problems between employees, as well as between an employee and
yourself. There are different styles of conflict management styles.

1. OWL- Collaborating (I win, you win)

Owls highly value their own goals and relationships. They view conflict as a problem to be
solved and to seek solution that achieves both their goals and the goals of the other person. Owls
see conflicts as a means of improving relationships by reducing tensions between two persons.
They try to begin a discussion that identifies the conflict as a problem. By seeking solutions that
satisfy both themselves and the other person, owls maintain the relationship. Owls are not
satisfied until a solution is found that achieves their goals and the other person’s goals. They are
not satisfied until the tensions and negative feelings have fully resolved.

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Appropriate times to use an Owl Style

 when maintaining relationships is important

 when time is not a concern
 when peer conflict is involved
 when trying to gain commitment through consensus building
 when learning and trying to merge differing perspectives

2. Turtles- Avoiding (You bend, I bend)

Turtles withdraw into their shells to avoid conflicts. They give up their goals and relationships,
they stay away from the issues over which the conflict is taking place and from the persons they
are in conflict with. Turtles believe it is easier to withdraw from a conflict than to face it.

Appropriate times to use a Turtle Style:

 when the stakes are not high or issue is trivial

 when confrontation will hurt a working relationship
 when there is little chance of satisfying your wants
 when disruption outweighs benefit of conflict resolution
 when gathering information is more important than an immediate decision
 when others can more effectively resolve the conflict
 when time constraints demand a delay\

3. Shark- Competing (I win, you lose)

Sharks try to overpower opponents by forcing them to accept their solution to the conflict. Their
goals are highly important to them, and relationships are of minor importance. They seek to
achieve their goals at all costs. They are not concerned with the needs of others and do not care
if others like or accept them. Sharks assume that conflicts are settled by one person winning and
one person losing. They want to be a winner. Winning gives sharks a sense of pride and
achievement. Losing gives them a sense of weakness, inadequacy and failure. They try to win
by attaching, overpowering, overwhelming, and intimidating.

Appropriate times to use a Shark style

 when conflict involves personal differences that are difficult to change

 when fostering intimate or supportive relationships is not critical
 when others are likely to take advantage of noncompetitive behaviour
 when conflict resolution is urgent; when decision is vital in crisis
 when unpopular decisions need to be implemented

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4. Teddy Bear- Accommodating (I lose, you win)

To Teddy Bears, the relationship is of great importance while their own goals are of little
importance. Teddy Bears want to be accepted and liked by others. They think that conflict
should be avoided in favor of harmony and that people cannot discuss conflicts without
damaging relationships. They are afraid that if the conflict continues, someone will get hurt and
that would ruin the relationship. Teddy Bears say “I’ll give up my goals and let you have what
you want, in order for you to like me.” Teddy Bears try to smooth over the conflict out of fear of
harming the relationship.

Appropriate times to use a Teddy Bear Style

 when maintaining the relationship outweighs other considerations

 when suggestions/changes are not important to the accommodator
 when minimizing losses in situations where outmatched or losing
 when time is limited or when harmony and stability are valued

5. Fox- Compromising (You bend, I bend)

Foxes are moderately concerned with their own goals and their relationship with others. Foxes
seek a compromise; they give up part of their goals and persuade the other person in a conflict to
give up part of their goals. They seek a conflict solution in which both sides gain something; the
middle ground between two extreme positions. They are willing to sacrifice part of their goals
and relationships in order to find agreement for the common good.

Appropriate times to use a Fox Style

 When important/complex issues leave no clear or simple solutions

 When all conflicting people are equal in power and have strong interests in different
solutions
 When there are no time restraints

Activity:

1. Is there any situation in which managers should initiate a conflict? Justify.

2. Which one among the five conflict management styles is best? Why?

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Self Check exercise: what’s Your Conflict Management Style (Johnson, 1990)

Instructions: Give each a numerical value (i.e., 1=Always, 2=Very often, 3=Sometimes,
4= Not very often, 5= rarely, if ever.) Don't answer as you think you should, answer as you
actually behave.

____ a. I argue my case with peers, colleagues and coworkers to demonstrate the merits of
the position I take.
____ b. I try to reach compromises through negotiation.
____ c. I attempt to meet the expectation of others.
____ d. I seek to investigate issues with others in order to find solutions that are mutually
acceptable.
____ e. I am firm to resolve when it comes to defending my side of the issue.
____ f. I try to avoid being singled out, keeping conflict with others to myself.
____ g. I uphold my solutions to problems.
____ h. I compromise in order to reach solutions.
____ i. I trade important information with others so that problems can be solved together.
____ j. I avoid discussing my differences with others.
____ k. I try to accommodate the wishes of my peers and colleagues.
____ l. I seek to bring everyone's concerns out into the open in order to resolve disputes in
the best possible way.
____ m. I put forward middles positions in efforts to break deadlocks.
____ n. I accept the recommendations of colleagues, peers, and coworkers.
____ o. I avoid hard feelings by keeping my disagreements with others to myself.

Scoring:

Style Total
Competing/ Shark a. _____ e._____ g. _____
Collaborating Owl d. _____ i. _____ l. _____
Avoiding Turtle f. _____ j. _____ o. _____
Accommodating c._____ k. _____ n. _____
Teddy Bear
Compromising Fox b. _____ h. _____ m. _____

Results: My dominant style is ___________________________ (Your LOWEST score)

And my back-up style is_____________________________ (Your second Lowest score)

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Case
Managing Conflict and Diversity

The management of a given organization believed that the organization had to make a major shift
in its culture in order to retain and attract women and people from different ethnic groups. The
turnover rate for women and people from some disfavored ethnic groups was running very high.
When some males from the favored ethnic group did leave, exit interviews indicated that it was
mainly to grasp special opportunities offered by other employers. In contrast, women and
workers from some disfavored ethnic groups more often reported that they were leaving because
of conflict with some individuals and groups in an organization, unsatisfactory working
environment and sense of being discriminated. Many well qualified people were being lost. An
in depth cultural audit convinced the organization’s management that some fundamental changes
are necessary to build a climate that is more nurturing and supportive of a diverse work force. In
particular, the management of the organization felt that diversity promotes conflict because of
unshared assumptions and expectations between supervisors and employees who differed in
gender or race. Anyway, the organization wanted to manage workforce conflict more effectively
and stop turnover among its employees.

Questions:

1. How do you see the organization’s management perception regarding “diversity

promotes conflict because of unshared assumptions and expectations between
supervisors and employees who differed in gender or race”?
2. What are the major causes for the conflicts in this organization?
3. Are the conflicts encountered Constructive or destructive? Justify your position.
4. How do you express the existing situation regarding gender and empowerment?
5. How can the organization’s management manage conflicts associated with gender and
ethnic diversity?

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SESSION TWELVE
TIME MANAGEMENT
12.1 Introduction
Time is absolutely uncontrollable. It cannot be controlled, it can only be managed. And that is
what Time management is all about. It’s about managing your time effectively and efficiently. A
point that most people tend to forget is that time is the most valuable resource that we have, and
time once lost, is lost forever. One cannot control time as one can control other resources –one can
only control how one uses it. Hence we have the proverb, “time and tide waits for no man.”

“Things which matters most must never be at the mercy of which matters least.”
Goethe
It has often been said that time is our “most scarce resource”. Therefore, we all must invest in –
and use it – prudently. When you think about it, all of us have basically the same amount of time.
But you will still find many people saying they “do not have enough time”, or they “need more
time”. Why is it that some people have no problems accomplishing their tasks in a specified
amount of time, and others’ do?

Time Management plays a pivotal role in one’s personal as well as professional life. Time
management is the skill that most people would like to improve on. Even those with excellent time
management are constantly seeking to find ways in which they can improve their productivity.
There are many different methods/strategies you can use to improve your time management.
Which one you choose is a matter of personal preference. Whatever the choice may be, there are
some core principles of time management which will always be true. If you understand these core
principles of time management and you adhere to them; you will move a long way towards living
an effective productive life. These principles of time management are fundamental sill. As with
any other skill, mastering time management requires that you first master the basics. The basics of
time management are really just some core principles that you need to understand and adhere to.
The core principles of time management encourage you to focus on quality and effectiveness.
Everything that you do should have a purpose and importance. When you adhere to those core
principles of time management, you will start to see improvements in each and every area of your
life. Not only will you achieve more; you will experience a much greater sense of fulfillment in
doing so.

12.2 Definition of Time Management

Discussion:
1) What is time management for you?
2) What are the benefits of time management?

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Time management is that discipline that focuses on planning the amount or length of time that will
be spent on specific activities, often with the goal of increasing effectiveness and efficiency. Its
earliest roots can be traced back to when Frederick Taylor developed his scientific management
techniques for improving the productivity of workers on the job. Of course, the concept of time
management has evolved, making it more systematic and logical in its approaches.
In business, time management refers to the allocation and distribution of time among activities that
demand it, depending on a specific set of priorities. In this sense, time management may also be
referred to as the “budgeting” of time, such that the right amount of time is allocated to the right
task or activity.
Time Management refers to making the best possible use of available time. It is to be noted that
time itself will not, and cannot, be managed; what you manage is how you use that time that you
have, with the full knowledge that it is limited.
Time management is not a device to make you work harder and longer. Rather, it is a means to
help you "work smarter" to accomplish your work more easily and rapidly. Management of your
time can allow for work, rest, leisure, and social activities. It isn't necessary to become a
"workaholic" just because you manage all of your time.
“We all have time to either spend or waste and it is our decision what to do with it. But once
passed, it is gone forever.” Bruce Lee
Time management is goal-driven and results oriented. Success in time management is measured
by the quality of both your work and your personal life. Learning to manage time means learning
to manage yourself. One can maintain balance between one’s work and personal life. One finds
enough flexibility to respond to surprises or new opportunities. It is not how much time one has,
but rather the way one uses it. Time Management is more than just managing time. It is about
controlling the use of the most valuable - and undervalued - resource. It is managing oneself in
relation to time and setting priorities and taking charge of the situation and time utilization. It
means changing those habits or activities that cause waste of time. It is being willing to adopt
habits and methods to make maximum use of time. A record of the way you have spent your time
might be helpful to find ways to identify time wasters and to see what your particular day looks
like. (Refer annex for a time log)
Time management is setting priorities and scheduling activities to help you make the best use of
your time. By managing your time, you can make progress toward your goals and achieve greater
success.

12.3 Benefits of Time Management

Time management is staying on top of your time, life, and activities. It shouldn’t take extreme
effort, but it does require discipline. The benefits of time management involve:

 Less Stress: Managing your time can directly reduce your stress level. Fewer surprises.
Fewer tight deadlines. Less rushing from task-to-task and place-to-place.

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 Get More Done: Of course, being productive is one of the main goals of time
management. When you are aware of what you need to do, you are able to better manage
your workload. You will be able to get more (of the right tasks) done in less time.
 Less Rework: Being organized results in less rework and mistakes. Forgotten items,
details, and instructions lead to extra work. How often do you have to do a task more than
once? Or make an extra trip because you forget something?
 Less Life Friction and Problems: How often do you create your own problems? Whether
it is a forgotten appointment or missed deadline, not managing your time results in
increased life friction. Avoid creating your own problems by planning and preparing for
your day.
 More Free Time: We can’t create more time, but you can make better use of it by
managing your time. Even simple actions like shifting your commute or getting your
work done early can produce more leisure time in your life.
 Less Wasted Time: When you know what you need to do, you waste less time in idle
activities. Instead of wondering what you should be doing next, you can already be a step
ahead of your work.
 More Opportunities: Being on top of your time and work produces more opportunities.
The early bird always has more options. As well, luck favors the prepared.
 Improves Your Reputation: Your time management reputation will proceed you. At
work and in life you will be known as reliable. No one is going to question whether you
are going to show up, do what you say you are going to do, or meet that deadline.
 Less Effort: A common misconception is that time management takes extra effort. To the
contrary, proper time management makes your life easier. Things take less effort,
whether it is packing for that trip or finishing up that project.
 More Time Where it Matters: Managing your time is allotting your time where it has the
most impact. Time management allows you to spend your time on the things that matter
most to you.
 Time Management makes an individual punctual and disciplined: One learns to work
when it is actually required as a result of effective time management. To make the
judicious use of time, individuals should prepare a “TASK PLAN“ or a “TO DO“ List at
the start of the day to jot down activities which need to be done in a particular day as per
their importance and urgency against the specific time slots assigned to each activity. A
Task Plan gives individuals a sense of direction at the workplace. An individual knows
how his day looks like and eventually works accordingly leading to an increased output.
 One becomes more organized as a result of effective Time Management: Keeping the
things at their proper places minimizes the time which goes on unnecessary searching of
documents, important files, folders, and stationery items and so on. People learn to
manage things well as a result of Time Management.
 Effective Time Management boosts an individual’s morale and makes him confident:
As a result of Time Management, individuals accomplish tasks within the stipulated time
frame, making them popular in their organization as well as amongst their peers. People

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who understand the value of time are the ones who manage to stand apart from the
crowd. Individuals who finish off work on time are looked up to by others and are always
the centre of attention everywhere.
 Individuals who stick to a time plan are the ones who realize their goals and objectives
within the shortest possible time span: Managing time effectively helps employees to
meet targets way ahead of deadlines and finish off task just when it is required.
 Effective Time Management helps an employee to reach the pinnacle of success
quickly and stay firm at the top for a longer duration: An employee who works just for
the sake of working fails to create an impression and is never taken seriously at work.
Effective time management plays a pivotal role in increasing an individual’s productivity.
Output increases substantially when people manage their time well.
 Better Time Management helps in better planning and eventually better forecasting:
Individuals learn to plan things well and know where exactly they stand five years from
now.
 Time Management enables an individual to prioritize tasks and activities at workplace:
It is foolish to stay overburdened. Do not accept anything and everything that comes your
way.
 Provides focus on the task: The time management skills initially provides relief from
stress and later helps you in focusing your target and performance in the task. A focused
person becomes successful in less time as compared to those who do more struggle for
getting their target in life. The people always desire to have successful and enjoyable life
and that can be obtained by keeping a focused view about everything and every step.
 Decrease procrastination: There is much duration in life and it also brings fluctuation.
The particular point in adopting time management is the ability to predict the results and
control the situations. Managing time isn’t something that requires extra skills, the only
need is to have some knowledge about how to and be dedicated to implement it within
your day to day activities.
 A way to the goal: Everybody has a desire to achieve his/her goal in life and dream to get
a relaxing future after attaining target. Managing time allots you time where it has the
most impact. Time management system allows every human to spend time on the things
that matter most to them. In this process, time management has a positive aspect to
perform and people consider the scheduling a better option.
 Become Healthy: Time management is helpful in making human life healthy; as if a
person will adopt scheduling in his life then he will definitely keep him/herself away
from stress and save sometime for doing exercise and other health related works. So, he/
she will become healthy definitely. Once you have decided to plan your time, you have to
discipline yourself and work on self-improvement with health as a key factor.

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12.4 Principles of Time Management

1) Each Activity Should Bring You Closer to Your Goals: If you have set the right goals,
you will have much more motivation in achieving them, thus you will be more time-
efficient and productive. Having the right goals and activities to reach them, you can now
prioritize those activities when planning your time.
2) Break Big Tasks into Small Pieces: This point is also known as a principle of time
management called ‘To Eat an Elephant Cut it into Little Pieces’. If you have a very big
task or project, you will be overwhelmed of its complexity and the lack of clarity of how
to do it. Break it into small step-by-step activities, so you will have a clear vision of how
to get it done. It may finally turn out not as big and difficult as you expected.
3) Unpleasant and Small Things First: When scheduling and planning your activities, you
should do the important and unpleasant things first. To remember this time management
principle easier, there is a term for it: ‘Eat the Frogs First’. If you do such activities in
the end of the day, you will think of it the whole day, and feel bad that you still need to
do it. If you start the day with such activities, you will feel relief and will be motivated to
do the next tasks.
Also, you should do the small things in the beginning of the day, as it will feel like
you have done a lot in just first 30 minutes of the day. They can be checking the email,
writing a message to a colleague, scheduling some activities for the day, calling your
friend etc.
4) Don’t Forget About Breaks: You might feel super motivated and productive for some
time, but then you start feeling tired and the rest of the day you almost don’t complete
anything. The reason for this is the lack of breaks in your work. You might be much more
productive and do more during the day if you make some regular breaks. It can be just a
5-minute break for coffee, a short walk around the office building, a breath of fresh air or
a small snack.
5) Pomodoro Technique: Another well-known time management principle is the Pomodoro
Technique. Italian man Francesco Cirillo developed it in the late 80s. The name of the
technique comes from the kitchen timer in the form of tomato (pomodoro in Italian). As
you could have guessed, the method uses a timer for each activity. The timer is set for
25 minutes per task with small 3-5 minutes breaks between them. After four
sessions, you have a 15-30 minute break. Each session lasts 25 minutes, because
according to the author of the method, you stay the most motivated for 25 minutes. In
contradiction to the method, there was a study that a person is the most motivated
within first 40-45 minutes, and then his concentration and motivation fall, so he needs a
break.
6) Change Different Kinds of Activities: If you are planning to do several activities, you
should better alternate these activities. Changing the activities could feel like rest.

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7) Leave Some Time for Unexpected Tasks: The study concerning time management
reveals that you need to allocate an average of 20% of your time for unexpected tasks as
a buffer. Sometimes, you are not able to estimate, how much time each particular task
will take, or some of them takes more than you thought. If you plan 100% of your time,
you will often have stressful situations under time pressure. To avoid this, leave some
time for unexpected tasks or unexpectedly long time for completing the expected ones.
8) Schedule Your Activities Using the above Principles of Time Management: Just
choosing the right activities is not enough to be successful and time-efficient. You need
to plan the activities, every hour of your working day, and even sometimes the
weekend, if you don’t want to waste it.
9) Make Small Rewards for Completed Tasks: Another way to stay motivated when
striving to your goals is to create some rewards for yourself when you complete some
tasks (especially the big ones). It can be a nice cappuccino from the nearest coffee shop, a
chocolate bar or something bigger in case of big achievements. Of course, you will be
happy to achieve your goal in the end, but if it is very far, you will have many chances to
lose motivation and give up. These small gifts to yourself will not let this happen.
10) No Multitasking and No Distractors: You shouldn’t do different activities at the same
time, as you will not be good and efficient enough in any of them. Of course, when
spending time in your car, doing some sports or just walking from point A to B, you can
listen to audio books or language audio courses to use this time efficiently. But, in case if
you need to do a particular activity, and you try to do something else at the same time, it
might take even more time, and maybe you’ll need to do it again, if the quality doesn’t
satisfy your boss or client. Another thing is Distractors. It probably happened to you
many times that you reply right away to the message you got on your face book, email or
start watching some funny video that your colleague sent you distracting from the task
you were doing before. You not only waste time on a not important activity, but also on
concentrating on your work again. What is recommend is allocating 20 minutes in the
beginning of your working day and 20 minutes during your lunch break or just the middle
of the day for all these Distractors. The rest of the time, simply close all unnecessary tabs
in your browser, turn off notifications on your laptop and mobile phone (you also don’t
need internet on your mobile phone when you’re at your laptop).

Activity: Measure yourself; How well do you manage your time?

Listed below are ten statements that reflect generally accepted principles of good time
management. Answer these items by circling the item most characteristic of how you perform
your job. Please be honest. No one will know your answers except you.

1. Each day I set aside a small amount of time for planning and thinking about my job.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.

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2. Often.
3. Almost always.
2. I set specific, written goals and put deadlines on them.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
3. I make a daily "to do" list, arrange items in order of importance, and try to get the important
items done as soon as possible.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
4. I am aware of the 80-20 rule and use it in doing my job. (The 80- 20 rule states that 80 percent
of your effectiveness will generally come from achieving only 20 percent of your goals)
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
5. I keep a loose schedule to allow for crises and the unexpected.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
6. I delegate everything I can to others.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
7. I try to handle each piece of paper only once.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
8. I eat a light lunch so I don't get sleepy in the afternoon.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
9. I make an active effort to keep common interruptions (visitors, meetings, telephone calls) from
continually disrupting my work day.

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0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
10. I am able to say no to others' requests for my time that would prevent my completing
important tasks.
0. Almost never.
1. Sometimes.
2. Often.
3. Almost always.
To get your score, give yourself: 3 points for each "almost always" 2 points for each "often" 1
point for each "sometimes" 0 points for each "almost never". Add up your points to get your total
score. If you scored:
0 -15 better give some thought to manage your time.
15-20 you are doing OK but there is room for improvement.
21-24 Very good
25-27 Excellent
28-30 you cheated!

12.5 Common Time Wasters

Discussion:
1) What are the common time wasters you observe in your work place?
2) From your experience & observation, what do you think are the signs for poor time
management?
3) Suggest strategies for effective time management at your work.

1. Multitasking and trying to do too much at once: You might think multitasking makes
you extra productive. Who wouldn’t want to do more than one task at a time? But the reality
is exactly the opposite. Studies have consistently found that the majority of people have
lower performance when trying to do multiple tasks at once (unless you’re part of the 2.5
percent of people who can multitask effectively.)
2. Noisy offices and chatty coworkers: Ambient noise and unnecessarily loud coworkers
can have a massive impact on your productivity. And modern, open-office floor plans often
exacerbate this issue. Researchers have found that to concentrate on cognitively demanding
work, we should be in an environment not louder. It might not seem like much, but the
sounds of conversation, laughter, clinking coffee cups or even mobile ringtones can quickly
wrench you out of a focused state.

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3. Workplace clutter and disarray: Messy, unorganized workspaces have been found to be
a productivity killer. Neuroscientists discovered that physical clutter in your surroundings
competes for your attention, adding to stress and decreasing your performance.
4. Unhealthy nutrition and hydration habits: You probably don’t think of food as a time
waster, but a drop of energy during the day can make it difficult to get things done. Our
bodies go through natural ebbs and flows of energy throughout the day, and what you eat and
drink will determine whether you spend the day on a high, or barely make it through.
5. Procrastination and a lack of motivation: Procrastination is simply the habit of putting
off for tomorrow what you can do today. Sometimes, when you find it hard to focus or simply
aren’t that interested you might procrastinate starting a project. Yet procrastination only
leads to more stress. Instead, it’s often better to simply force yourself to start (as creativity
and focus often come after the fact).
6. Social networks and online distractions; specially the face book: Just as smart phones
and similar devices can be major time wasters, so can websites, news, and, of course, social
media networks. The problem with these distractions are that they’re “Infinity Pools”—a
source of never-ending content that you can scroll through and refresh endlessly. In
fact, most workers spend a significant percentage of their working hours on social media.
7. Smart phones and other digital devices: smart phones are a bit of a conundrum for most
workers. On one hand, they enable us to be more connected and tuned in than ever. However,
as well all know, this connectivity comes with a cost in productivity.
8. Excessive meetings and “quick catch-ups”: Meetings tend to be huge time sinks. (It’s
probably safe to say you’ve been to at least one this week you didn’t need to be in.) If you
feel that a majority of your day is wasted on unimportant or unnecessary meetings it may be
time to seriously bring it up. Ask to do a calendar audit and see which meetings need to be
attended and which are just legacy bookings that can be killed. In the best case scenario,
you’ll help everyone spend less time in meetings or condense frequent meetings into a single
event that is better organized and more focused.

9. Decision fatigue from too many small decisions: Decision fatigue refers to the natural
deterioration of our decision-making abilities throughout the day. Once our decision-making
stores are spent, it’s hard to properly gauge what work is most important and we end up
thrashing and wasting time.
10. Email overload and never-ending communication: Collaboration and communication
are great for productivity but they turned in to becoming wasters if they pass the limit.

12.6 Symptoms of Poor Time Management

It's a well-known fact that time is both priceless and, unfortunately, irreplaceable. Every
minute that you spend is a minute lost forever - you're not going to get it back. Throughout
the past few decades, the world has picked up pace and understandably, people are trying to

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cram as much as they can into a limited amount of time and make the most of their days.
Without some time management and organization, however, it's easy for your day to become
chaotic and overwhelming. But how do you know you're managing your time well? What are
the most common symptoms of poor time management?
a) Missed Deadlines: Not being able to complete your tasks on time is one of the most
glaring signs of poor time management. Although it's not uncommon for people to
occasionally miss deadlines (after all, emergencies and mistakes do happen), if you find
that it becomes a regular occurrence, your time management skills definitely need
improvement. Sometimes you may not even realize you're whiling away your time rather
than doing the work you're supposed to do. This, as well as procrastinating until the last
minute, is also very common signs of poor time management.
b) Running Late: This is linked to missing deadlines. Instead of not finishing a task by a
predetermined time (which is missing deadlines), running late is about not arriving at
events on time. This one can be a symptom of poor time management. Difficulty
Concentrating: When you're swamped with work and have very little time left to do it,
you're bound to become distracted. Even though you're in a hurry to get everything done
as quickly as possible, you'll inevitably end up wasting your time thinking of how you're
going to finish everything on time instead of focusing on the task ahead of you.
Unfortunately, this will only make things worse. However, if you have good time
management skills, you won't reach this stage. Since you won't have a backlog of work
waiting to be completed, you'll be able to focus and finish your tasks in a timely manner
without becoming distracted.
c) Errors in Your Work: If you do something in a hurry, the quality of your work is likely
to suffer and there are bound to be some mistakes. This is another common sign of poor
time management. As a general rule, it's always a good idea to have comfortable
breathing room when you're working on something. For example, if you think you can
finish a certain task in an hour, it's best to give yourself an hour and a half to do it. This
extra time will help you improve the quality of your work and minimize your chances of
making mistakes. Not to mention that you'll feel more relaxed and confident because
you'll be working at a comfortable pace.
d) Stress and Anxiety: It's quite common for people to feel helpless and stressed when
they're pressed for time. In situations like this, most people panic and start to feel like
they just don't have enough hours in the day to get the work done - which would only add
to their stress. Unfortunately, this is another classic sign of ineffective time management
skills. Instead of focusing on how much work you have left to do, always try to focus on
the task ahead. This will help you keep the stress at bay and allow you to get things done
much more effectively.

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e) Lack of control: Linked to stress and anxiety is the feeling that you're never in control.
Now, while you may feel stressed and anxious, you may not specifically link that to poor
time management skills. You may simply feel (like a lot of people do) that modern life is
hectic, and that most people are stressed out and anxious. So you don't think of that.
But if it is common that you feel that you're not totally in control of things, that's easier to
spot. If you regularly feel like you're not in control, that is almost certainly down to not
managing things well.

f) Working overtime: Working overtime is not a guarantee that you manage your time
badly. You may want to work a lot of hours to earn overtime pay, or you may simply
have loads to do. But if you're permanently having to work extra while colleagues with
similar roles and functions do not, that may well be because they manage their time well
and get things done, but you don't. So, if you're always thinking, "How come they're all
leaving and I'm still here working?", it may be you, not them!
g) You're permanently being pressurized by others: Nobody operates within a vacuum.
Your life, both at home and at work, is likely to overlap with other people. And often,
they will be relying on you to get things done. At home, it can be children needing lifts to
school or sport. Or a partner wanting to leave on time in order to get to friends for a
dinner party on time. At work, it may be colleagues that need your report so that they can
make a decision. In both cases, if your work is continually late, or completed right on the
deadline, those around you are going to be pushing you to speed up and get going. The
constant nagging and demanding behavior from them is likely to irritate you, but it's a
problem of your own making. If you were not causing them to worry about being late,
they would not have to pressurize you. Obviously, anybody can run late occasionally, but
if being pressurized by others is a common thing in your life, it shows that your time
management issues are even affecting other people negatively.

12.7 Time management strategies

A number of strategies are suggested on how to best manage time. This section presents these
strategies that help you to significantly improve your time management.
1) Evaluate yourself: You have to ask yourself how important time is to you, personally
and professionally. You have to identify your reasons for wanting to manage your time
better. Is it so you can earn more money? Do you want to manage your time better so you
can gain more recognition at work and get that promotion you were always aiming for?
Or do you want to manage your time so you can have more time later for leisure
activities? More often than not, your personal goals and priorities will coincide with your
short-term objectives when it comes to accomplishing things. By evaluating yourself, you
will also come across some points that you are not satisfied with. Perhaps you are
spending too much time on activities that do not really provide benefits. You may also
realize that you are not putting a lot of time and attention on something that requires it.

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2) Determine your “prime time” and take advantage of your prime time: This is your most
productive time, so make sure that you do the more complex tasks in this interval. The
routine and repetitive work may be scheduled on your periods of lower energy. It is also
advisable to do your planning during your prime time, because your mind will be fresher
and clearer when creating your timetable. You may also identify two hours of the day as
your prime time. Find a way to be able to stretch that period into three or four hours. The
longer your prime time is, the more productive you will be.
3) Set SMART goals: You have to know what you are working towards. Without a goal,
you are just aimlessly working, with no direction at all. It would be a good idea to set
both short-term and long-term goals. Write them down so you can read them later on for
reinforcement. Then you can tick off the short-term goals once they have been achieved.
The goal you set needs to be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and
Time bounded)
4) Stay organized: This includes being neat and orderly in your workplace. Often, keeping
stacks of papers and documents on your desk will make finding anything more time-
consuming. Label the documents properly and neatly pile them in an area where you can
easily retrieve and return them after using them. This may also require having to clean up
from time to time. Throw away the things that you no longer need. Not only do they take
up space unnecessarily, but the clutter will also take more time to wade through.
5) Learn the art of delegation: Take responsibility for your actions, but you should also
learn to say no, to ask for help, and to assign responsibilities and tasks to others,
especially when they are the more qualified or skilled people to do them. This will save
you – and them – a lot of time that you can use for other activities.
6) Learn how to stay focused: Distractions are huge time wasters. You may have your day
all planned out, but when distractions strike – and you let them – then you were just
throwing precious time away. Be focused on the task at hand. Be strong against these
distractions, no matter how tempting and strong they are.
7) Complete most important tasks first: This is the golden rule of time management. Each
day, identify the two or three tasks that are the most crucial to complete, and do those
first. Once you’re done, the day has already been a success. You can move on to other
things, or you can let them wait until tomorrow. You’ve finished the essential.
8) Learn to say “no”: Making a lot of time commitments can teach us how to juggle various
engagements and manage our time. This can be a great thing. However, you can easily
take it too far. At some point, you need to learn to decline opportunities. Your objective
should be to take on only those commitments that you know you have time for and that
you truly care about.
9) Be conscientious of the amount of time you spend on social media, internet, TV &
games: Time spent on social Medias, browsing internet, watching TV and playing games
can be among the biggest drains on productivity. It is suggested to become more aware of

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how much time you spend on these activities. Simply by noticing how they’re sucking up
your time you’ll begin to do them less.
10) Start your day by looking at your calendar and your to-do list rather than your inbox:
This simple technique will ensure that you start your day in a pro-active rather than
reactive mode. By determining up front what meetings you have on, and what tasks need
to be completed today, you will make better decisions when you read your emails.
11. Prioritize your work based on the value it will add: Apply the 80/20 rule to your
workload so that you focus on the 20% of activities that will give you 80% of your
results. Perfecting this will ensure that you are effective as well as being efficient.

12.8 The Time Management Matrix

Urgent means it requires immediate attention. They are usually visible. They press on us; they
insist on action. They are usually right in front of us and often they are pleasant, easy, and fun to
do. But so often they are unimportant. Importance focuses on results. If something is important, it
contributes to your mission, your values, and your high priority goals. We react to urgent matters.
Important matters that are not urgent require more initiative, more proactively. We must act to
seize opportunity, to make things happen. If we don’t have a clear idea what is important, of the
results we desire in our lives, we are easily diverted into responding to the urgent.

Figure: Time Management Matrix

Urgent Not urgent

Important

I II
Activities: crises, pressing problems, Activities: prevention, relationship building,
deadline-driven projects recognizing, new opportunities planning, recreation.

III
Activities: interruptions, some calls, IV
Important
Not

some mails, some reports, some Activities: trivial, busy work, some mail, some
meetings, pressing matters, popular phone calls, time wasters, pleasant activities
activities

Quadrant I: Represents things that are both “urgent” and “important” – we need to spend time
here. This is where we manage, we produce, where we bring our experience and judgment to bear
in responding to many needs and challenges.

Many important activities become urgent through procrastination, or because we don’t do enough
prevention and planning. As long as you focus on quadrant I, it keeps getting bigger and bigger
until it dominates you.

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Results: stress, burn out, crisis management, always putting out fires. If urgency dominates,
when importance fades, you’ll slip into Quadrant III. But if you’re in Quadrant I because of
importance, when urgency fades you’ll move to Quadrant II.

Quadrant II: It includes activities that are important, but not urgent, Quadrant of Quality. Here’s
where we do our long-range planning, anticipate and prevent problems, empower others, broaden
our minds and increase our skills. Ignoring this Quadrant feeds and enlarges Quadrant I, creating
stress, burnout, and deeper crises for the person consumed by it. This quadrant is the heart of
effective personal management.

Effective people are not problem minded; they are opportunity minded. They feed opportunities
and starve problems. They think preventively. They have genuine Quadrant in crises and
emergencies that require their attention, but the number is comparatively small.

Results: vision, perspective, balance, discipline, control, few crises.

Quadrant III: It includes things that are urgent, but not important, Quadrant of Deception. The
noise of urgency creates the illusion of importance. Actual activities, if they’re important at all, are
important to someone else or the urgency of these matters is often based on the priorities and
expectation of others.
Results: short-term focus, crises management, see goals and plans worthless, feel victimized,
out of control, shallow and broken relationships.
Quadrant IV: It reserved for activities that are not urgent, not important, Quadrant of Waste. We
often “escape” to Quadrant IV for survival Reading addictive novels, watching mindless television
shows, or gossiping at office would qualify as Quadrant IV time-wasters.
Results: total irresponsibility, fired from jobs, depend on others or institutions for basics.
People who spend time almost exclusively in quadrants III and IV basically lead irresponsible
lives. Effective people stay out of Quadrant III and IV because, urgent or not, they aren’t
important. They also shrink Quadrant 1 down to size by spending more time in Quadrant II.

Activity:
Discussion Questions:
 What one thing could you do (you are not doing now) that if you do it on a regular basis,
would make a tremendous positive difference in your time management?
 Think of the achievements you are most proud of, and that have added most value to
your life and work. When you were working on them, how many of them fell into the
‘important but not urgent’ category?
 What difference would it make to your life if you devoted more of your time to
‘important but not urgent’ work?

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By focusing in Quadrant II and by cultivating proactively to go after it, you would find the same
result. Your effectiveness would increase dramatically. Your crises and problems would shrink to
manageable proportions because you would be thinking ahead, working on the roots, doing the
preventive things that keep situations from developing crises in the first place. In time
management jargon, this is called the Pareto Principle- 80 percent of the results flow out of 20
percent of the activities.

V. The Quadrant II Tool

In this quadrant there is a need to meet 6 criteria.

• Coherence: there must be a harmony, unity, and integrity between your vision and mission,
your roles and goals, your priorities and plans, and your desires and discipline.
• Balance: must keep a balance in your life, to identify your various roles and keep them right
in front of you, so that you do not neglect important areas such as your health, your family,
professional life or personal development. Effectiveness in one area should not be in
expense of other areas.
• Focus: have a tool that encourage you, motivates you, and actually helps you to spend time
in Quadrant II, so that you’re dealing with prevention rather than prioritizing crises. Like
organizing your life on weekly basis. The key is not to prioritize what’s on your schedule,
but to schedule your priorities.
• People: your tool needs to reflect how effectively you deal with people, to facilitate
implementation rather than create guilt when a schedule is not followed.
• Flexibility: your planning tool should be your servant, never your master. Since it has to
work for you, it should be tailored to your style, your needs, and your particular way.
• Portability: your tool must be portable so that you can carry it with you most of the time.

Being successful in quadrant two require everyone to perform the following key activities.

• Identifying roles: write down your key roles- just consider the week and write down
where you see yourself spending time during the next seven days. Example like having a
role as a father/mother, son/ daughter, manager/ employee, a member of extended family
uncle/ante/ cousin, and role in church/community affairs.
• Selecting Goals: write two or three important results you feel you should accomplish in
each role during the next seven days. Example as a father- my son science project, my
daughter bike. Remember- these short-term goals would be tied to the long-term goals you
have identified in conjunction with your personal mission statement.
• Scheduling: schedule time to achieve your goals i.e. to translate each goal to a specific day
of the week, or time.
• Daily Adapting: daily planning becomes more a function of daily adopting, of prioritizing
activities and responding to unanticipated events, relationships, and experiences in a
meaningful way.

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As you work to develop a Quadrant II paradigm, you will increase your ability to organize and
execute every week of your life around your deepest priorities, to walk your talk. You will not be
dependent on any other person or thing for the effective management of your life.

12.9 Pareto principle on time Management

Pareto Principle (80/20 rule) is coined by Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto. He was born in Italy
in 1848. One day he noticed that 20 percent of the pea plants in his garden generated 80 percent
of the healthy peapods. This observation caused him to think about uneven distribution. He
thought about wealth and discovered that 80 percent of the land in Italy was owned by just 20
percent of the population. He investigated different industries and found that 80 percent of
production typically came from just 20 percent of the companies. The generalization became: 80
percent of results will come from just 20 percent of the action.
Time management is the most common use for the Pareto principle, as most people tend to thinly
spread out their time instead of focusing on the most important tasks.

With all of this in mind, relating the principle to time management means that 80 percent of your
output could come from just 20 percent of your time. Now the question is, how do you
accomplish that? Here are four things that you can do.
a) Frequently evaluate your task
If 80 percent of results come from 20 percent of effort, then it stands to reason that 80 percent of
impact will come from 20 percent of your tasks. So identify the 20 percent of your tasks that will
yield the 80 percent of results you seek.

When reviewing your tasks, ask yourself these questions:

 Is every task on my list labeled as urgent?
 Are the tasks on my list within my purview or do they belong elsewhere?
 Am I spending too much time on certain types of tasks?
 Are there tasks that I should delegate?
 Are all of these tasks really necessary to the overall outcome?

b) Continually assess your goals

Your goals and tasks may be intertwined, but not always. Some might be completely separate.
So think about your goals and the activities needed to accomplish them. Remember that 80

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percent of those goals will be achieved with just 20 percent of the necessary activities. Take an
inventory and see which 20 percent of activities gets you closer to the majority of your
objectives. Check out these few examples and see if you can relate:
 If I work late today (20 percent activity), I can finish the item on my task list, make the
boss happy, AND take tomorrow off (80 percent goals).
 If I make a salad to eat at my desk for lunch today (20 percent activity), I can work on
that task, beat the deadline, AND get closer to my weight loss goal (80 percent goals).
 If I schedule regular meetings (20 percent activity), I can increase team communication,
have a more successful project, AND be a better leader (80 percent goals).
c) Determine your prime time
Everyone has specific times during the day when they are the most productive. You may do your
best work between 9 AM and 11 AM. Or you might get more done between 3 PM and 5 PM.
When do you feel the most energetic, focused, and productive? Determine when your prime time
is and use it to tackle the 20 percent of the tasks and goals that you have identified. This will
ensure that you are spending your most productive time of day on the tasks and activities needed
for the best results.
d) Identify and eliminate distractions
Whether you travel to the office each day or work from home, distractions are everywhere.
Those nasty, little interruptions can cause loss of focus, delayed tasks, and an overall reduction in
your productivity. 80 percent of your distractions comes from 20 percent of sources. To take on
those distractions and eliminate them, you must first identify them. Your list may look something
like this:
 Flurries of emails
 Incoming phone calls
 Unplanned visitors
 Thirst or hunger
 Social media notifications
After you have your list of distractions, review it and see which ones interrupt you the most. You
will likely find that only two or three (20 percent) are the bulk (80 percent) of the problem. Then
incorporate ways to eliminate those interruptions. Here are some suggestions:
 Block specific times to work on emails.
 Let non-urgent calls go to voicemail.
 Close your office door.
 Have a drink and snack handy.
 Stay away from social media during work.

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SESSION THIRTEEN
MEETING MANAGEMENT
13.1 Introduction
The ability to successfully organize and assemble a group of people with shared interests, usually
in a formal setting, for the purpose of discussions is known as meeting management skill.
Effective meeting management involves planning and organizing well-structured meetings where
members of the team can accomplish more in less time.

Within an organization, various types of meetings are conducted where information sharing takes
place e.g. for the purpose of problem-solving, planning, decision making, or a general staff
meeting. Such meetings serve as an important means for coordination between teams and
constitute a significant part of the life of every organization.

Activity
1) Suggest helpful guidelines in conducting effective meeting?
2) What are the steps to follow in conducting an effective meeting?
3) What are the problems you observe on meetings in ELFORA in general and your
Work Unit in particular?
4) Suggest solutions for the identified problems.

13.2 Guidelines to Conducting Effective Meetings

In order to conduct and mange meetings effectively, it is helpful to apply the following
guidelines:
1) Planning Effective Meetings
The process used in a meeting depends on the kind of meeting you plan to have, e.g., staff
meeting, planning meeting, problem solving meeting, etc. However, there are certain basics that
are common to various types of meetings. These basics are described below.

2) Selecting Participants
The decision about who is to attend depends on what you want to accomplish in the meeting.
This may seem too obvious to state, but it's surprising how many meetings occur without the
right people there. ·Don't depend on your own judgment about who should come. Ask several
other people for their opinion as well. If possible, call each person to tell them about the meeting,
it's overall purpose and why their attendance is important.

3) Developing Agendas
Develop the agenda together with key participants in the meeting. Think of what overall outcome
you want from the meeting and what activities need to occur to reach that outcome. The agenda

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should be organized so that these activities are conducted during the meeting. In the agenda, state
the overall outcome that you want from the meeting. Design the agenda so that participants get
involved early by having something for them to do right away and so they come on time. Next to
each major topic, include the type of action needed, the type of output expected (decision, vote,
action assigned to someone), and time estimates for addressing each topic. Ask participants if
they'll commit to the agenda. Keep the agenda posted at all times.

4. Invite less people

Ask yourself ruthlessly: Do all these people really need to attend the meeting? Most of the time,
a brief summary by email will work just as well. If you can reduce a half-hour meeting’s
attendee list by just two people whose presence isn’t essential, that’s an hour of productive time
returned to the company. The purpose of meetings is to make decisions, not to simply share
information. It’s easy to view the meeting as a waste of time when attendees don’t feel the
discussed topic is relevant to them.

5) Be prepared
The key to successful meeting management is in the preparation. Before the meeting starts,
provide all participants with an agenda.

The agenda should include:

 a list of topics to be covered
 a brief description of the meeting’s objectives
 a list of people attending the meeting
 who will address each topic
 the time and location of the meeting
 any background information participants need to know about the subject

6) Opening Meetings

Always start on time; this respects those who showed up on time and reminds late-comers that
the scheduling is serious. Welcome attendees and thank them for their time. Review the agenda
at the beginning of each meeting, giving participants a chance to understand all proposed major
topics, change them and accept them.

7) Establishing Ground Rules for Meetings

You don't need to develop new ground rules each time you have a meeting, surely. However, it
pays to have a few basic ground rules that can be used for most of your meetings. These ground
rules cultivate the basic ingredients needed for a successful meeting. Four powerful ground
rules are: participate, get focus, maintain momentum and reach closure. (You may want a
ground rule about confidentiality). List your primary ground rules on the agenda. · If you have

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new attendees who are not used to your meetings, you might review each ground rule. Keep the
ground rules posted at all times.

8) Stop multitasking
Multitasking is a testament to our modern, connected life. But it is taking its toll. Studies show; it
makes us less effective, increases stress, and costs the global economy an estimated $450 billion
every year. More frighteningly, Harvard Business Review reports that multitasking leads to a
40% drop in productivity and a loss of 10 IQ points; equivalent to pulling an all-nighter.
Nowhere is the problem more apparent than in the meeting rooms where email, texts, and web
browsing can have a significant impact on an organization’s bottom line.

How to prevent participants from multitasking at meetings?

 Assign roles for the meeting. Who will facilitate? Who will take minutes? Who will
take notes? When each person is assigned a job, meetings are more focused and
productive.
 Provide a timed agenda. Everyone’s time is valuable, so each person needs to focus on
the assigned topics and problems. The timed agenda can also discourage sidebar
conversations, or working on problems that the group isn’t prepared to address.
 Have a phone/computer parking lot. And encourage people to use it. It is estimated that
employees who use smart phones and computers are distracted on average after every 10
minutes. Unless the computer is absolutely necessary for the meeting, turn it off.

9) Time Management
One of the most difficult facilitation tasks is time management. Time seems to run out before
tasks are completed. Therefore, the biggest challenge is keeping momentum to keep the process
moving. You might ask attendees to help you keep track of the time. If the planned time on the
agenda is getting out of hand, present it to the group and ask for their input as to a resolution.

10) Evaluations of Meeting Process

It's amazing how often people will complain about a meeting being a complete waste of time; but
they only say so after the meeting. Get their feedback during the meeting when you can improve
the meeting process right away. Evaluating a meeting only at the end of the meeting is usually
too late to do anything about participants' feedback. Every couple of hours, conduct 5-10 minutes
"satisfaction checks". In a round-table approach, quickly have each participant indicate how they
think the meeting is going.

11) Don’t forget question and answer

The Q&A session is often pushed to the end of a meeting, leaving just a couple of minutes for it.
However, this segment is just as important as the rest of the meeting. When a concrete action

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plan is set up at the meeting, but follow-up questions are left unanswered, the result can spell
disaster. It is ineffective the least.

Another tip is collecting the questions about the topic in advance. This can help on several
levels: The manager can plan their talk more effectively, and the team will have the time to
consider ideas instead of scrambling to come up with questions at the end of a meeting.

12) Closing Meetings

Always end meetings on time and attempt to end on a positive note. At the end of a meeting,
review actions and assignments, and set the time for the next meeting and ask each person if they
can make it or not (to get their commitment). Clarify that meeting minutes and/or actions will be
reported back to members.

13) Follow-up
The art of follow up is a vital professional habit, and it also matters in the context of meetings.
It’s quite common for people to come away from the same meeting with very different
interpretations of what went on. Document the responsibilities given, tasks delegated, and any
assigned deadlines, and send out the meeting notes on the day of the meeting. That way,
everyone will be on the same page.

13.3 Steps to Meeting Management

Follow these steps to meeting management to run productive meetings that engage your team:

1) Establish your purpose: Meeting for the sake of meeting wastes time. Always have a
purpose. Are you looking for ideas for a new project? Requesting status updates on tasks for an
existing one? Solving problems that have—or could—put you behind schedule or over budget?
Addressing client concerns? Specify your goals and objectives so that you can achieve them in
your meeting.
2) Compile your invitation list: Get the right people at your meeting. Everyone in the
room should have something to contribute or gain from your meeting. Spare others the hassle of
attending a meeting that they really do not need to attend. If you will be making decisions,
ensure that you invite the decision-makers as well as the creative professionals who will carry
out the resulting tasks so that they can get the proper input and direction.

3) Create an agenda: Put your purpose on paper along with the items you need to cover to
fulfill it during your meeting. Arrange topics in order and detail the information that will be
covered in each portion of your meeting. Publish your agenda. Then share it with the meeting’s
intended participants in advance so that they can prepare.

4) Assign responsibilities: Tell each participant what they are expected to contribute. This
will increase accountability and affirm your appreciation for each individual contribution.

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5) Review agenda and objectives at the beginning of the meeting: Key to keeping
a meeting on track is summarizing what you will cover and what you hope to accomplish during
the meeting. Streamlining meetings by using agendas (especially those including agenda items
from everyone) and verbalizing the meeting objective at the outset has made a tremendous
impact on meeting productivity.

6) Lay the ground rules: Call your meeting to order by reiterating the objectives that you
outlined in your agenda. Confirm how long you will meet also so that participants can tailor their
responses to the time allotted and adjust their schedules accordingly as well. Avoid
distractions by banning the use of non-essential technology for a better session. Attendees may
say they need their smart phone, but unless they use it to pull up information to present to the
group then they really don’t need it after all. Nobody should be checking their messages instead
of listening to you or others.

7) Solicit participation: Again, you want everyone to contribute but some will be more
willing than others. Don’t let anyone dominate the discussion. Ensure that each person gets a
chance to talk and that their suggestions are treated fairly. If someone hasn’t spoken, ask them a
question that they should be able to answer with comfort to avoid discouraging them from
further participation.

8) Limit discussion: Keep the discussion focused on the matters at hand. Similarly, quell
challengers who try to hijack the meeting. You are gathered to cover your agenda, not anyone
else’s. If someone tries to take control, reestablish your leadership by reining them in politely but
firmly.

9) End on time:
Respect your attendees by respecting their time. If you promised them you would finish within
30 minutes, do it. Each minute that you go over is another minute that they could have spent
working on something else. They will appreciate having that time and appreciate you for
providing it to them through effective meeting management.

10) Give a recap at the end of the meeting: When the time limit has been reached,
close the meeting. Summarize the accomplishments, decisions and next steps. Recap my seem
like it takes unnecessary time, but it emphasizes just the opposite is true: You don't want people
going out with a different understanding of what's been decided, and those five minutes at the
end are crucial in that sense. You discuss so much during a meeting and can go off on tangents.
Tying it all together at the end is one of the best things.

11) Assign follow-up tasks: Encourage accountability by assigning tasks that arise during
the meeting and confirming that each participant is clear on what they are expected to do after
they leave.

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12) Deliver meeting minutes in a reasonable time: Ideally you should send out draft
meeting minutes and ask for input. Final versions should be sent once input has been
incorporated.

13.4 Meeting Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

Have you ever been in a meeting that seemed like a slow death? Don't be the manager of that
kind of meeting. You do have a choice. According to research, over half of all meetings are a
waste of time. Why? Many managers don't know how to conduct an effective meeting. They
make the same miserable mistakes day in and day out and never take the time to learn how to
conduct them better.
Meetings fail for many reasons but here are the most common ones followed by recommended
solutions are the following:

1. No agenda - Create a meeting agenda ahead of time and communicate it with your team.
Be clear on your purpose and what you hope to accomplish.
2. Poor agenda - Some managers who do have agendas try to rewrite world history during
the meeting. You have to focus. There are different types meetings such as: staff,
department, quality improvement, or training. Be clear on your reason for getting
together.
3. Lack of participation - Don't be the only one who talks. Managers need to learn
facilitation skills to engage their teams in the meeting. Get other team members on the
agenda to contribute as well. More engagement creates more commitment and energy.
4. Doesn't start on time - This is a common occurrence in meetings today. Let your team
know upfront that you will start on time. When someone comes late, acknowledge it and
remind them of your expectations. However, YOU start on time. Also, focus and aim to
complete most of your meetings in 30 minutes or less.
5. Doesn't end on time - Make a commitment to a certain time-frame and stick to it. If you
don't accomplish everything get permission from the team for more time or set another
meeting time if you have to.
6. Getting off the subject - At the start of any meeting, check you have a shared
understanding of the purpose. Unless the meeting is very informal, have a short, one-
sentence purpose statement displayed at all times. This will ensure all participants share
the same purpose and will act as reminder if they wander off onto another irrelevant topic.
7. No record:- Keep a record of what happens in the meeting. Ask someone to be a
recorder and take minutes. Share the minutes through a timely email as follow-up.
8. A few people dominate - A few people will often dominate a meeting because they like
to talk or because of their expertise. Use group discussion methodology to get all people
involved.

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9. Poor facilitation skills - It takes training and practice to run effective meetings. Key
facilitation skills include: listening, dealing with problems, giving feedback, designing
group input, problem-solving, dealing with disruptive people, keeping the meeting on
task, and creating consensus.
10. No Conflict Resolution - Conflict isn't bad. It just means people have differences in
opinion. Over time team meetings without conflict lose innovation and trust. Leaders
must create openness and learn how to constructively deal with issues when they arise.
11. No summary at the end - Near the end of every meeting you need to recap key points,
what was agreed to and the next step responsibilities. When you do this you reaffirm the
meetings outcomes and who is accountable for what.

13.5 A Guide to Writing Effective Meeting Minutes

Whether a small group or a larger conference, company meetings often need to be documented.
When this is necessary, a person is likely appointed to take meeting notes, otherwise known as
minutes. To take effective meeting minutes follow our guide below.

What Are Minutes? Why Are They Important?

Minutes are, simply, the record of a meeting. The term itself is actually a little intimidating.
Meetings are not usually recorded minute-by-minute. They capture the main points of the
meeting and future action items. Meeting minutes provide a source of information for those who
could not attend the meeting or need to refer to it at a later date.

Meeting Term Dictionary:

 Minute Taker: The person who prepares the notes of the meeting
 Quorum: Minimum number of meetings that regular participants need to attend
to decide on an issue. Usually half the meetings plus one
 Stakeholder: Someone interested in the outcome of the meeting
 Action: A task that is or will be completed as a result of the meeting’s decisions
 Apologies: List of meeting guests that were unable to make it to the meeting
 Motion: When a meeting attendee makes a formal proposal

How to Take Appropriate Minutes:

Taking meeting minutes requires a few necessary skills. A minute taker will need to be a good
listener. They should also be confident in transcribing what they hear into their notes and making
sure they are properly translated on a record. Organizational skills are also required – both for
recording and storing the meeting’s notes.
There are five steps involved in taking minutes: Pre-planning, Record-taking, Transcribing,
Distribution, and Storage.
a) Pre-Planning: Work out the format to take minutes. To make this easier, clarify the goals and
expectation of the meeting. You may have a template or outline available beforehand. Include a
meeting agenda to keep the meeting’s direction on track.

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b) Taking Notes During the Meeting: Start by identifying the location, date, and attendees of
your meeting. If a large group or committee is attending, prepare and pass around a sign-up
sheet. Also, create an “apologies for absence” list for those who could not make it to the meeting.
This will help when distributing copies of the minutes later. Other notes to record include:
 Action Steps
 Voting Outcomes
 Motions
 New Business
 Next Meeting Date/Time
 Remember to never use the word “I” when taking notes. As stated in an article
for resourcecentre.org.uk, “Minutes are not a personal record of your thoughts,
but an official account of what was discussed and agreed.”
c) Transcribing Your Notes: When transcribing your notes, make sure they are legible, neat,
and organized for future reference and handed out to other co-workers. Do it right away; you will
be more accurate while the information is still fresh in your mind. Use appropriate headings,
subheadings, and lists where you can.

d) Distributing or Sharing to the Right People

There are many methods of distributing meeting minutes. If you are not able to type them up, be
careful to write your notes legibly and clearly.

e) Filing and Storing for Future Reference: You may need to print and store hard copies of
your notes. Categorize these by date and topic for easy identification later on. As for electronic
copies, any of the distribution services listed above can double for storage. Your company will
likely have their own preferences for this.

Remember, when taking meeting minutes; don’t try to write everything down. Knowing what to
record and what to skip is perhaps the most difficult task. Stick to what is important. Concentrate
on what is going to happen and who is responsible. Remember that the purpose of minutes is to
record decisions made in a meeting, not everything that is said.

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