Chapter#1: Introduction and basic concepts

THERMODYNAMICS (OLD DEFINITION)

1. In Greek, Therm means heat and Dynamics mean power.
2. In older days, thermodynamics was defined as the science to convert heat into power.
3. Examples:
a. In automobiles:
Heat from combusting fuel is ultimately converted into rotation of wheel.
b. In steam power plants:
Heat from burning coal is ultimately converted into generation of steam which drives turbine
and generate electricity.
c. In solar thermal collectors:
Heat from sun is ultimately converted into hot water.

THERMODYNAMICS (NEW DEFINITION)

1. In modern era, thermodynamics can be defined as science of energy.
2. Examples:
a. Study of wind mills:
Energy in blowing wind is ultimately converted into running mill.
b. Study of solar PV panels:
Energy in sunlight is converted into direct electricity.

SELECTED APPLICATION AREAS

1. Automobile engines 10. Heat pumps
2. Turbines 11. Cooling of electronic equipment
3. Compressors, pumps 12. Alternative energy systems
4. Fossil- and nuclear-fueled power stations 13. Fuel cells
5. Propulsion systems for aircraft and rockets 14. Thermoelectric and thermionic devices
6. Combustion systems 15. Solar-activated heating, cooling, and power
7. Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and generation
liquefaction 16. Geothermal systems
8. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning 17. Ocean thermal, wave, and tidal power
systems generation
9. Vapor compression and absorption 18. Wind power
refrigeration 19. Biomedical applications

ENERGY
1. Energy can be defined as an ability to cause change.
2. No energy, no change!

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE

1. During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.

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 Chapter#1: Introduction and basic concepts

2. Example: A rock falling off a cliff.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. It is an expression of conversation of energy principle
2. It asserts that, energy is a thermodynamic property.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. It asserts that, energy has quality as well as quantity.
2. Actual process occurs in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
3. Examples:
a. Heating a fan may melt it. It needs electricity, not heat!
b. Hot cup of coffee placed in a room having ordinary ambient
temperature will always cool down.

SUBSTANCE
1. A substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules.
2. The properties of substance naturally depend on the behavior of these molecules.
3. Example: Pressure of gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer between the molecules
and walls of container.

ANALYSIS APPROACH
Classical Thermodynamics
1. It utilizes macroscopic approach in which the overall behavior of a substance is considered.
2. Example: Temperature of coffee in a cup is 35°C.

Statistical Thermodynamics
1. It utilizes microscopic approach in which behavior of individual particles of a substance in
considered.
2. Example: Temperature of a particular particle of coffee is 20°C.
3. Note: We will not study this approach as it is beyond the scope of this course.

THE SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS AND THEIR SI UNIT

Dimension MKS FPS
1. Length Meter (m) Foot (ft)
2. Mass Kilogram (kg) Pound mass (lbm)
3. Time Seconds (s) Seconds (s)
4. Temperature Kelvin (K) Rankine (R)
5. Electric Current Ampere (A) Ampere (A)
6. Amount of light Candela (cd) Foot candle (ft-candle)
7. Amount of matter Mole (mol) Pound mole (lb-mol)

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STANDARD PREFIXES IN SI UNITS

10^ 12 9 6 3 2 1 -1 -2 -3 -6 -9 -12
Name Tera Giga Mega Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano Pico
Prefix T G M K H da d c m μ N P

SYSTEMS, SURROUNDINGS AND BOUNDARIES

System
1. A system is the mass or a region in space under consideration.
2. A system having no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion and surface tension effects is
called simple system.
3. A system can be open or closed type.

Open System Closed System Isolated System

Alternate name Control Volume (CV) Control Mass (CM) -
Mass transfer Yes No No
Energy transfer Yes Yes No
Example

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Surroundings
The mass or region outside the system is called surrounding.

Boundary
1. A real or imaginary surface which separate system from its surrounding is
called boundary.
2. A boundary can be fixed or movable.
3. Boundary of control volume is called control surface.
4. It has zero thickness.

PROBLEM
Which one is more important, system or surroundings?

PROPERTIES OF SYSTEM
1. Any characteristic of a system is called a properly.
2. Example:
 P = Pressure
 T= Temperature
 V = Volume
 m = Mass
 ρ = m / V =Density [kg/m³]
 SG or ρg= ρ / ρH20 = Specific Gravity or Relative Density
Note: @40ºC, ρ H20 = 1000 kg/m³
 v = V / m = 1 / ρ = Specific Volume [m³/kg]
 E = Energy

Types of Properties
Intensive Properties Extensive Properties
1. Those properties which are independent to 1. Those properties which are dependent on
the size of system. the size of system.
2. Examples: P, T, ρ, v, e 2. Examples: m, V, E

Specific properties
1. Property of a system per unit mass is called specific property.
2. These properties are usually denoted by small letters.
3. Examples:
 v = V / m = Specific volume [m³/kg]
 e = E / m = Specific energy [J/kg]

PROBLEM
Prove mathematically, density is an intensive property.

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Independent properties
1. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant.
2. For example, temperature and pressure of liquid water are independent.

STATE OF SYSTEM
When a system is not undergoing any change, the set of properties that completely describes the
system are constant. This condition of system is called state.

EQUILIBRIUM
The word equilibrium means state of balance. In the state of equilibrium, there are no unbalanced
potentials or driving forces within the system.

Types of Equilibrium
1. Mechanical equilibrium: When the pressure is same throughout system.
2. Thermal equilibrium: When the temperature is same throughout system.
3. Phase equilibrium: If system involves two phases and the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
4. Chemical equilibrium: When no chemical reaction occur and the composition does
not change with respect to time.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
1. A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies mechanical, thermal, phase and
chemical equilibriums.
2. Note: According to scope of this course, we will assume thermodynamic equilibrium in all problems.

THE STATE POSTULATE

1. The state of simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
2. For example, state of nitrogen gas is defined by temperature and specific volume.

PROCESS
1. Any change that a system undergoes
from one from equilibrium state to
another is called process.
2. Describing a process require
information about:
a. Initial state
b. Final state
c. Path followed

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d. Interaction with surroundings

Quasi Equilibrium Process

1. When the process such that the system remains infinitesimally
(very) close to equilibrium state all the time, it is called Quasi-
static or Quasi-equilibrium process.
2. Such process proceeds at extremely slow rates.
3. All the parts of system undergo change at the same rate.
4. It is an idealized process.

Types of Process
1. Isothermal: Temperature remains constant.
2. Isobaric: Pressure remains constant.
3. Isochoric/Isometric: Specific volume remains constant.
4. Adiabatic: No heat and mass transfer.
5. Steady: Properties do not change with respect to time.(Otherwise,
unsteady)
6. Uniform: Properties do not change with respect to location (Otherwise, non-
uniform)

CYCLE
1. A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at
the end of the process.
2. In other words, initial and final states of a cycle an identical.

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FORMS OF ENERGIES OF A SYSTEM

Total Energy of a System
It is the sum of all energies of a system including thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical and nuclear etc.
Symbol: E [kJ]
Specific: e = E/m (kJ/kg)

Macroscopic Forms of Energies of a System

1. Energies with respect to some outside reference are called macroscopic forms of energies.
2. For example:
a. Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion
Symbol: KE = mV2/2 [kJ]
Specific: ke = V2/2 [kJ/kg]
b. Potential Energy (PE): Energy due to
elevation in gravitational field Symbol:
2
PE = mgz [kJ] ; where g=9.81 m/s or 32.2
ft/s2
Specific: pe = gz [kJ/kg]

Microscopic Forms of Energies of a System

1. Energies due to internal molecular activity and molecular structure are called microscopic
forms of energies.
2. For example:
a. Sensible Energy: It is associated with the kinetic energy of molecules.
e.g. temperature of liquid water rise and can be seen on thermometer when heated.
b. Latent Energy: It is associated with the charges of phase of a system.
e.g. temperature of water remains constant when it is boiling (changing phase)
3. Internal Energy: Sum of all microscopic energies is called internal energy.
i.e. Internal Energy = Sensible Energy + Latent Energy
Symbol: U [kJ]
Specific: u = U/m [kJ/kg]

Note:

a. E = Macroscopic + Microscopic
b. E = (KE + PE) + (Sensible + Latent)
c. E = KE + PE + U

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 Chapter#1: Introduction and basic concepts

TEMPERATURE
The measure of the degrees of hotness and coldness of body is called temperature.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

1. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
2. If TA = TC and TB = TC then TA = TB
3. It serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement.

Temperature Scales
Scale Unit System Ice point Steam point Notes
Celsius ºC SI 0 100 Depends on the properties
Fahrenheit ºF English 32 212 of some substances
Kelvin K SI Thermodynamic
Rankine R English temperature scale

Relations
ºF = 1.8 ºC + 32 K = ºC+ 273.15 R = ºF + 459.6 R = 1.8 K

∆ºF = 1.8 ∆ºC ∆K = ∆ºC ∆R = ∆ºF ∆R = 1.8 ∆K

PROBLEMS
1. If change in temperature is 10°C, what is the change in °F?
2. If change in temperature is 349°C, what is the change in Kelvin?

PROBLEM
A new temperature scale ºW is proposed such that the ice point of water is 150 ºW and steam
point is 300 ºW.

a. Graphically show the calibration of ºC versus ºW.

b. Determine ºC at 100 ºW & 400 ºW.
c. What is the ratio of the change in ºW to the change in K?

Solution:

a.

Ice point Steam point

ºC (x-axis) 0 100
ºW (y-axis) 150 300

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b.

Derive equation of straight line using two-point formula:

°W = 1.5°C + 150 ; Hence, at °W=100, °C=-33.33 and °W=400, °C=166.66

c. ∆°W:∆K = 3:2

PRESSURE
It is the force per unit area exerted by fluid.
Symbol: P
Units: N/m², Pa, bar, atm, psi

Relations
1 Pa = 1 N/m² ; 1 bar = 10² Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100kPa ; 1 atm = 14.696 psi = 101.328 kPa

Atmospheric Pressure
1. Atmospheric pressure at a location is simply the weight of air above that location
per unit surface area.
2. It decreases with elevation and also changes with weather conditions.
3. At high altitudes, a car engine generates less power and a person gets less oxygen
because of the lower density of air.

Absolute (Pabs), Gage (Pg) and Vacuum (Pvac) Pressure

1. The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure.
2. Pressures above atmospheric pressure are called gage pressures.
3. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures.

Pvac = Patm – Pabs Pg = Pabs - Patm

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PROBLEM
A vacuum gauge is connected to a chamber reads 5.8psi at a location where atmosphere pressure is
14.5psi. Calculate absolute pressure. (ans: 8.7psi)

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. However, this is not the
case in the vertical direction in a gravity field. Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more
fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced
by an increase in pressure.

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular fluid
element of height Δz, length Δx, and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium, as shown in Fig.
Assuming the density of the fluid ρ to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction
gives

where is the weight of the fluid element. Dividing by Δx

and rearranging gives

where is the specific weight of the fluid.

FLOW OF HEAT & MASS

1. Heat is transferred from high temperature to low temperature
2. Mass is transferred from high pressure to low pressure

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