2

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

INTRODUCTION
Acids, bases and salts are three important classes of chemical compounds. You may think, as many people
do, that all acids and bases are very corrosive. Bot do you know that your stomach contains hydrochloric
acid which is necessary for digestion ? And do you know that remedies for “acid stomach”, such a Tums,
contain bases, which, when swallowed, can provide relief from the symptoms of “acid stomach” ? Many of
the foods you eat and liquids you drink also contain acids and bases.
Acids and bases have been known by their properties since the early days of experimental chemistry. The
word "acid" comes from the Latin acidus, meaning "sour" or "tart," since water solutions of acids have a
sour or tart taste. Lemons, grapefruit, and limes taste sour because they contain citric acid and ascorbic acid
(vitamin C). Another common acid is vinegar, which is the sour liquid produced when apple cider, grape
juice, or other plant juices ferment beyond the formation of alcohol. Vinegar is a 5 percent water solution of
acetic acid. Besides having a sour taste, acids react with active metals to give hydrogen, they change the
colors of indicators (for example, litmus turns from blue to red), and they neutralize bases. Bases change
the colors of indicators (litmus turns from red to blue) and they neutralize acids. Hence, bases are considered
the chemical opposite of acids.

Acids can be classified in various ways, depending on the factors mentioned below:
(a) Classification Based on the Strength of the acid.
(b) Classification Based on the Concentration of the acid.
(c) Classification Based on the presence of Oxygen.
(d) Classification Based on the Basicity of the Acid.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE STRENGTH OF THE ACID

The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of the hydronium ions present in a solution. Greater
the number of hydronium ions present, greater is the strength of acid. However, some acids do not dissociate
to any appreciable extent in water such as carbonic acid. Therefore, these acids will have a low concentration
of hydronium ions.
Strong acid : An acid, which dissociates completely or almost completely in water, is classified as a strong
acid. It must be noted that in these acids all the hydrogen ions combine with water molecule and exist as
hydronium ions.
Examples : hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid etc.
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq)+ H + (aq) ; H COOH(aq) H COO (aq)+ H+ (aq)
Acetic acid Formic acid

H2CO3(aq) H+ (aq) + H CO 3(aq) OR H2CO3(aq) 2H + (aq) + CO 32 (aq)

Carbonic acid Carbonic acid

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE CONCENTRATION OF THE ACID

Concentration of an acid solution depends upon the percentage of the acid that is dissolved in water.
Concentrated acid : An acid that has a relatively high percentage of the acid in the aqueous solution is
classified as a concentrated acid e.g. concentrated hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid etc.
CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 1 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
 Dilute acid : An acid, which has a relatively low percentage of the acid in the aqueous solution, is classified
as a dilute acid e.g. dilute hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid etc.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF OXYGEN

Oxy-acids : Oxy-acids are those, which contain oxygen in their composition.
Examples are:Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Oxalic acid (H2C2O4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Hydracids : Acids, which contain hydrogen together with other elements and not any oxygen in their
composition, are called Hydracids. Examples are: Hydrochloric acid (HCl),Hydroiodic acid
(HI),Hydrobromic acid (HBr)

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE BASICITY OF THE ACID

The basicity of an acid is equal to the number of replaceable hydrogen ions in an acid. It is also one
hydrogen ion or hydronium ion that can react with one hydroxyl ion (OH–). Stated in another way, basicity
is the number of hydroxyl ions, with which one molecule of an acid can combine.
Monobasic acid : A monobasic acid has one hydrogen ion. Hence these acids combine with one hydroxyl
group of a base to form salt and water.
Since monobasic acids have only one hydrogen ion, they form only one kind of salt.
Hydrochloric acid: HCl, Hydroiodic acid: HI, Nitric acid: HNO3 , Acetic acid: CH3COOH, Hypochlorous
acid: HOCl
Formic acid: HCOOH, Hydrobromic acid: HBr
Dibasic acid : When an acid can combine with 2 hydroxyl groups it known as a dibasic acid. Such acids
dissociate in 2 steps in water.
(i) H2SO4(aq) H+ (aq) + HSO 4(aq) (ii) HSO 4(aq) H + (aq) + SO 24 (aq)

(iii) 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4 (aq) NaHSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

Since dibasic acid has two hydrogen ions, it can form two kinds of salts, i.e. the normal salt, given above,
and a hydrogen salt, as given below:

NaOH(aq) + H 2SO 4 (aq) NaHSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l)

Sodium Sulphuric Sodium hydrogen Water
Hydroxide acid sulphate
Example : Sulphuric acid: H2SO4, Sulphurous acid: H2SO3, Carbonic acid: H2CO3, Oxalic acid: (COOH)2
Tribasic acids : The tribasic acids can combine with three hydroxyl groups. These acids must have three
replaceable hydrogen ions, and as such they can form three types of salts e.g., phosphoric acid (H3PO4).
Phosphoric acid dissociates in water in three steps:
(i) H3PO4 H+ + H2PO (ii) H PO H+ + HPO2 (iii) HPO2 H+ + PO3
4 2 4 4 4 4

NaOH(aq) + H3PO 4 (aq) NaH2PO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

Sodium Phosphoric Monosodiumm dihydrogen Water
Hydroxide acid phosphate
2NaOH(aq) + H3PO 4 (aq) Na2HPO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Sodium Phosphoric Disodiumm monohydrogen Water
Hydroxide acid phosphate
3NaOH(aq) + H3PO4 (aq) Na 3PO4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)
Sodium Phosphoric Trisodium Water
Hydroxide acid phosphate

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Taste : Acids are generally sour in taste.
If your have tasted a lemon you are aware of its sour taste. Lemon juice contains an acid. Spoiled milk,
orange juice and grapefruit juice also taste sour due to the presence of acids. Sour test is a property common
to compounds classified as acids.

Change of colours with indicators :

Indicators are substances that undergo a change of colour with a change of acidic, neutral or basic medium.
Acids change the colour of indicators as given in the table.
Indicator Change of colour
From to
Litmus Blue Red
Methyl orange Organge of yellow Pink
Phenolphthalein Deep pink colourless

We will learn more about indicators after few sections.

ACTION ON METALS
(a) Metals above hydrogen in the metal activity series (see in chapter 3) generally react with dilute acids to
form their respective salt and hydrogen.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Magnesium Hydrochloric Magnesium Hydrogen
acid chloride
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Zinc Hydrochloric Zinc Hydrogen
acid chloride
Fe(s) + H 2SO 4 (aq) FeSO 4 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Iron Sulphric Iron(II) Hydrogen
acid sulphate

(b) Very active metals like potassium, sodium and calcium also react similarly, but tend to explode when
combining with acids.

2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2 (g)

Sodium Dilute hydrochloric Sodium Hydrogen
acid chloride

(c) Nitric acid (of various concentrations) usually exhibits oxidizing property, rather than acidic properties.
Metals such as magnesium combine with extremely dilute (1%) nitric acid to liberate hydrogen.

Mg(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H 2 (g)

Magnesium Nitric acid Magnesium Hydrogen
nitrate

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 3 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACTIVITY
• Set the apparatus as shown in Figure. Thistle
funnel
• Take about 5 mL of dilute sulphuric acid in a test tube
and add a few pieces of zinc granules to it.
• What do you observe on the surface of zinc granules?
• Pass the gas being evolved through the soap solution. Woulfe
• Why are bubbles formed in the soap solution? bottle H2 gas
• Take a burning candle near a gas filled bubble.
• What do you observe?
• Repeat this Activity with some more acids like
dil.
HCl, HNO3 and CH3COOH. H2SO4
• Are the observations in all the cases the same or
different ?
Zinc granules
Reaction of zinc granules with dil. H2SO4 to liberate
hydrogen gas which burns with 'pop' sound
ACTION WITH BASIC OXIDES
Oxides that can add on hydroxyl ions to their molecules are called basic oxides. These oxides get neutralized
when they react with acids.
Basic oxide + Acid Salt + Water
Na 2 O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H 2 O(l)
Sodium oxide Hydrochloric Sodium water
acid chloride
PbO(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Lead oxide Nitric acid Lead nitrate water
CuO(s) + H 2SO 4 (aq) CuSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
copper oxide Sulphuric acid Copper sulphate water

ACTIVITY
• Take a small amount of copper oxide in a beaker and add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly while stirring.
• Note the colour of the solution. What has happened to the copper oxide?
You will notice that the colour of the solution becomes blue-green and the copper oxide dissolves. The
blue-green colour of the solution is due to the formation of copper(II) chloride in the reaction.

ACTION WITH BASIC HYDROXIDES

Acids undergo neutralization reaction with basic hydroxides to form salt and water.
Basic hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water
2KOH(aq) + H 2 CO3 (aq) K 2 CO3 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Potassium Carbonic acid Potassium water
hydroxide carbonate

3NaOH(aq) + H3PO4 (aq) Na 3PO4 (aq) + 3H 2 O(l)

Sodium Phosphoric Tri sodium water
hydroxide acid phosphate

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 4 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 2NH 4 OH(aq) + H 2SO4 (aq) (NH 4 )2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)
Sodium Sulphuric Ammonium water
hydroxide acid sulphate

ACTION WITH CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES

Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form their respective salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Carbonate/Bicarbonate + Acid Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Na 2 CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H 2O(l) + CO2 (g)

Sodium Hydrochloric Sodium water carbon
carbonate acid chloride dioxide
ZnCO3 (s) + H 2SO4 (aq) ZnSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + CO 2 (g)
Zinc Sulphuric Zinc water carbon
carbonate acid sulphate dioxide

2NaHCO3 (aq) + H 2SO4 (l) Na 2SO4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l) + 2CO 2 (g)

Sod. hydrogen Sulphuric Sodium water carbon
carbonate acid sulphate dioxide

ACTION WITH SULPHITES AND BISULPHITES

Acids react with sulphites and bisulphites to form their respective salt, water and sulphur dioxide.
Sulphite/Bisulphites + Acid Salt + Water + Sulphur dioxide
Na 2SO3 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) Na 2SO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + SO 2 (g)
Sodium Nitric acid Zinc nitrate water Sulphur
sulphite dioxide
ZnSO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ZnSO 4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + CO 2 (g)
Zinc Nitric acid Zinc nitrate water Sulphur
sulphite dioxide
KHSO3 (aq) + HCl(aq) KCl(aq) + H 2 O(l) + SO 2 (g)
Potassium hydrogen Hydrochloric Potassium water Sulphur
sulphite acid chloride dioxide

WITH METAL SULPHIDES

Acids react with metal sulphides to form their respective salt and hydrogen sulphide.
Metals sulphide + Acid Salt + Hydrogen sulphide
MgS(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H 2S(g)
Magnesium Hydrochloric Magnesium Hydrogen
carbonate acid chloride sulphide
FeS(s) + H 2SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H 2S(g)
Iron (II) Sulphuric Iron (II) Hydrogen
carbonate acid sulphate sulphide
These experimentally observed properties of acids and their solutions provide a definition for this class of
compounds. An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to give a solution that does all of the following:
(i) conducts electricity
(ii) tastes sour
(iii) changes the colour of litmus from blue to red

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 5 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 (iv) reacts with active metals such as zinc, liberating hydrogen gas
(v) reacts with carbonates, releasing carbon dioxide gas
Common Acids : Acids occur in both liquid and solid states. Some common acids in the laboratory are
sulfuric acid, H2SO4; nitric acid, HNO3; hydrochloric acid, HCl and acetic acid, CH3COOH. All of these
are dangerous, especially when concentrated, but even dilute solutions must be handled with care. Other
common acids are acetylsalicylic acid, ascorbic acid, and carbonic acid.

BASE
A base is a compound, which on dissolving in water yields hydroxyl ions (OH–) as the only negative ions.
The characteristic property of a base is due to the presence of these negative hydroxyl ions. A base may be
an oxide or a hydroxide of a metal. If a base is soluble in water, it dissociates to form a metal ion and the
only negative hydroxyl ion.
Substances that combine with acids to form salt and water only are also called bases. It may be noted that
ammonium hydroxide is also a base. In water, it dissociates to form ammonium ion and a hydroxyl ion.
NaOH(aq) Na+ (aq) + OH (aq)
NH4OH(aq) Na+4 (aq) + OH (aq)
Alkali : All alkalis are bases that dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ion (OH–) as the only negative ions.
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide are the common
alkalis. NaOH(aq) Na+ (aq) + OH (aq) ; KOH(aq) K+ (aq) + OH (aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH (aq) ; NH4OH(aq) Na+4 (aq) + OH (aq)

CLASSIFICATION OF BASES
Bases can be classified in various ways, depending on the following factors:
Classification Based on the Strength of the Base
The strength of a base depends on the concentration of the hydroxyl ions when it is dissolved in water.
Strong base : A base that dissociates completely or almost completely in water is classified as a strong
base. The greater the number of hydroxyl ions the base produces, the stronger is the base.
Example: NaOH Na+ + OH
Weak base :A base that dissociates in water only partially is known as a strong base.
Example: NH4OH(aq) Na+4 (aq) + OH (aq)
Examples of Bases :
Strong Weak
Sodium hydroxide : NaOH Magnesium hydroxide : Mg(OH)2
Potasium hydroxide : KOH Ammonium hydroxide : NH4OH
Calcium hydroxide : Ca(OH)2
On the Acidity of Bases : The acidity of a base is equal to the number of hydroxyl ions it has. It is also the
number of hydrogen ions with which a base can combine as one hydrogen ion combines with one hydroxyl
ion.
Monoacidic base : It is a base that has only one hydroxyl ion. It combines with only one hydrogen ion.
Example: Sodium hydroxide
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium Hydrochloric Sodium Water
Hydroxide acid chloride
CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 6 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
 Monoacidic Bases : Sodium hydroxide: NaOH, Potassium hydroxide: KOH, Lithium hydroxide: LiOH,
Ammonium hydroxide: NH4OH

Diacidic base : It is a base that has two hydroxyl groups and combines with two hydrogen ions.
Example: Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl 2 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l)

Calcium Hydrochloric Calcium Water
Hydroxide acid chloride
Iron (II) hydroxide: Fe(OH)2, Magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH)2, Copper hydroxide: Cu(OH)2,
Zinc hydroxide: Zn(OH)2, Lead hydroxide: Pb(OH)2.

Triacidic base : A base that has three hydroxyl ions and can combine with three hydrogen ions, is known as
a triacidic base.
Example: Aluminium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(aq) AlCl3 (aq) + 3H 2 O(l)
Aluminium Hydrochloric Aluminium Water
Hydroxide acid chloride

PROPERTIES OF BASES
Taste : Bases are bitter to taste. If you have ever gotten soap in your mouth, you have noted a bitter taste.
Feel : They are soapy and slippery to touch.
Electrical Conductivity : Some bases are good conductors of electricity. For e.g., soluble bases like sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are used as electrolytes.
Corrosive Action : Strong alkalis like sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are highly corrosive or
caustic in nature. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are commonly called caustic soda and caustic
potash respectively. Organic tissues like skin, etc. get completely corroded by these two alkalis. However,
the other alkalis are only mildly corrosive.

Action with Air : When exposed to air, alkalis combine with the carbon dioxide of the air, to form the
respective carbonate.
2NaOH(aq) + CO 2 (g) Na 2CO3 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Sodium carbon Sodium water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
2KOH(aq) + CO 2 (g) K 2 CO3 (aq) + H 2O(l)
Potassium carbon Potassium water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Calcium carbon Calcium water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
An application of an alkali reacting with carbon dioxide is the drying of lime i.e. white washing. The white
washing of walls is due to the action of carbon dioxide of the air on calcium hydroxide. When milk of lime,
a watery paste of calcium hydroxide, is applied on a wall, it reacts with the carbon dioxide of the air to form
a white layer of calcium carbonate.

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 Action with Ammonium Salts :
Alkalis combine with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia.
Alkali + Ammonium salt Salt + Water + Ammonia
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + 2NH 4Cl(g) CaCl2 (s) + 2H 2O(l) + 2NH3 (g)
Calcium Ammonium Calcium water Ammonia
hydroxide chloride chloride
2NaOH(aq) + (NH 4 )2 SO 4 (aq) Na 2SO4 (aq) + 2H 2 O(l) + 2NH3 (g)
Sodium Ammonium Sodium water Ammonia
hydroxide sulphate sulphite

Action with Acids :

Bases combine with acids to form salt and water only. It is a neutralisation reaction.
Base + Acid Salt + Water
PbO(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Lead Nitric acid Lead nitrate water
oxide
3NaOH(aq) + H3PO 4 (aq) Na 3PO 4 (aq) + 3H 2 O(l)
Sodium Phosphoric acid Trisodium water
hydroxide phosphate
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) (CH3COO) 2 Ca(aq) + 2H 2 O(l)
Calcium Acetic acid Calcium acetate water
hydroxide
Non-metallic oxides also react in same manner hence non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.

Acid or a Base in a Water Solution :

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic one. Care must be taken while
mixing concentrated nitric acid or sulphuric acid with water. The acid must always be added slowly to
water with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated may cause the
mixture to splash out and cause burns. The glass container may also break due to excessive local heating.
Look out for the warning sign on the can of concentrated sulphuric acid and on the bottle of sodium
hydroxide pellets. Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions (H3O+/
OH–) per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution and the acid or the base is said to be diluted.
Acids give H3O+ or H+(aq) ion in water. The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the
absence of water.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecules. Thus hydrogen ions
must always be shown as H+(aq) or hydronium ion (H3O+).
H+ + H2O H3O+
Let us see what happens when a base is dissolved in water.
H2O
NaOH (s) Na+(aq) + OH– (aq)
H2O
KOH (s) K+(aq) + OH– (aq)
HO
Mg(OH)2 (s) 2 Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH (aq)
Bases generate hydroxide (OH–) ions in water. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
Now as we have identified that all acids generate H+(aq) and all bases generate OH–(aq), we can view the
CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
 neutralisation reaction as follows –
Acid + Base Salt + water
HX + MOH MX + HOH
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) H2O(l)
Experimentally observed properties of bases and their solutions provide a definition for this class of
compounds. A base is a compound that dissolves in water to give a solution that does all of the following :
(i) conducts electricity, (ii) tastes bitter, (iii) changes the colour of litmus from red to blue,
(iv) feels slippery on the skin
(v) reacts with an acid to destroy its properties.

Common Bases : Many bases are very caustic or corrosive; that is, they are capable of damaging a number
of materials including skin. As a result, sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is called caustic soda and potassium
hydroxide, KOH, is called caustic potash. Caustic means burning. Bases require very careful handling.
Other common bases are calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2; sodium carbonate, Na2CO3; sodium hydrogen
carbonate, NaHCO3 and ammonia solution, NH4OH(aq). Bases that are soluble are called alkalis and their
solutions are called alkaline solutions.
From above discussion we can arrange comparative property for acid and bases as:
Acid Property-1 : The word acid comes from the Latin word acere, which means "sour." All acids taste
sour. Well known from ancient times were vinegar, sour milk and lemon juice. Aspirin tastes sour if you
don't swallow it fast enough. Its scientific name is acetosallicylic acid. Other languages derive their word
for acid from the meaning of sour.
Base Property-1 : The word "base" has a more complex history and its name is not related to taste. All
bases taste bitter. Mustard tastes bitter. Many medicines, cough syrup is one, taste bitter. This is the reason
cough syrups are advertised as having a "great grape taste." The taste is added in order to cover the bitterness
of the active ingredient in cough syrup.
Acid Property-2 : In 1663, Robert Boyle wrote that acids would make a blue vegetable dye called "litmus"
turn red.
Base Property-2 : Bases are substances which will restore the original blue color of litmus after having
been reddened by an acid.
Acid Property-3 : Acids destroy the chemical properties of bases.
Base Property-3 : Bases destroy the chemical properties of acids.
Neutralization is the name for this type of reaction.
Acid Property-4 : Acids conduct an electric current.
Base Property-4 : Bases conduct an electric current.
This is a common property shared with salts. Acids, bases and salts are grouped together into a category
called electrolytes, meaning that a water solution of the given substance will conduct an electric current.
Non-electrolyte solutions cannot conduct a current. The most common example of this is sugar dissolved in
water.

Acid Property-5 : Upon chemically reacting with an active metal, acids will evolve hydrogen gas (H2).
The key word, of course, is active. Some metals, like gold, silver or platinum, are rather unreactive and it
takes rather extreme conditions to get these "unreactive" metals to react. Not so with the metals in this
property. They include the alkali metals (Group I, Li to Rb), the alkaline earth metals (Group II, Be to Ra),
as well as zinc and aluminum. Just bring the acid and the metal together at anything close to room temperature
and you get a reaction. Here's a sample reaction:
Zn + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2 + H2

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 9 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 Another common acid reaction some sources mention is that acids react with carbonates (and bicarbonates) to
give carbon dioxide gas: HCl + NaCO3 CO2 + H2O + NaCl

Base Property-5 : Bases feel slippery, sometimes people say soapy. This is because they dissolve the fatty
acids and oils from your skin and this cuts down on the friction between your fingers as you rub them
together. In essence, the base is making soap out of you. Yes, bases are involved in the production of soap.
In the early years of soap making, the soaps were very harsh on the skin and clothes due to the high base
content. Even today, people with very sensitive skin must sometimes use a nonsoap based product for
bathing.

ACTIVITY
• Take solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.
• Fix two nails on a cork, and place the cork in a 100 mL beaker.
• Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6 volt battery through a Ammeter and a switch, as shown in
Figure.
Battery Ammeter
+ – Battery Ammeter
A + – A
Switch
Switch
+ –
+ –

Graphite
rods Graphite
rods

H2O + HCl
Glucose
solution
Aqueous solution of acid
conducts electricity Glucose solution is
non-conducing in nature

• Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current.
• Repeat with dilute sulphuric acid.
• What do you observe?
• Repeat the experiment separately with glucose and alcohol solutions. What do you observe now?
• Does the Ammeter deflect in all cases?
The Ammeter will deflect in the case of acids, as shown in Figure. But you will observe that glucose and
alcohol solutions do not conduct electricity. Ammeter deflection indicates that there is a flow of electric
current through the solution. The electric current is carried through the solution by ions.
Since the cation present in acids is H+, this suggests that acids produce hydrogen ions, H+(aq), in solution,
which are responsible for their acidic properties.

INDICATORS: SOURCES AND USES

Litmus: A Common Indicator
Acids and bases can be recognized by the colour change they cause in certain coloured substances called
indicators. One of these coloured substances often used in the laboratory is called litmus. Litmus is extracted
from a lichen. As you already know, this dye has a red colour in acidic solution and a blue colour in basic
solution.
CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 10 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
 Indicator : Acids and bases cause colour changes in many other coloured materials like litmus. These
coloured materials can be used to indicate to us whether a substance is an acid or a base. As a result, they are
called indicators.
Indicators can be extracted from a wide variety of plants. Flowers, fruits, roots, leaves, and other parts of
plants which make good indicators include tea leaves, black currants, beet roots, rose petals of various
colours, red cabbage leaves, tumeric, blackberries, and delphinium flowers.

Indicators and Neutral Substances : Some substances do not cause any colour change in litmus or any
other indicator. These substances do not behave chemically in the same way as acids or bases and do not
have the general characteristic properties of either group. Their solutions are neither acidic nor basic. These
substances are called neutral substances and their solutions are called neutral solutions. Distilled water and
alcohol are neutral liquids. Sodium chloride solution and sugar solution are neutral solutions.

Synthetic Indicators : Synthetic indicators are often used in chemistry laboratories rather than plant extracts.
This is because most natural indicators lose their colours and sensitivities when stored for long periods of
time. Also, plants suitable for making indicators do not grow in all locations. Where they do grow, they may
be available only for short seasons during which indicators can be extracted. Therefore, it would be difficult
to have fresh natural indicators all year round. Synthetic indicators, however, can be prepared in large
quantities as powders. These can be stored, without losing their properties, for long periods of time. The
powder can be dissolved in an appropriate solvent to produce a fresh sample of the indicator when needed.
There are many synthetic indicators which you can find around the science laboratory in your school.
Examples of common indicators are bromthymol blue, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, methyl red, methylene
blue, alizarine yellow R, and indigo carmine. These indicators show characteristic colour variations in
acids, bases, and neutral solutions as shown in table.

Indicator Colours :
Colour of indicator
Indicator Acidic medium Neutral medium Basic medium
Litmus red violet blue
Phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink
Bromthymol blue yellow green blue
Methyl orange red orange yellow

STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

Ionization: The source of strength :
You have likely noticed that some acids such as hydrochloric acid attack metals more vigorously than
others such as acetic acid. You also know that some acids are edible (aspirin, vitamin C, carbonated soft
drinks), whereas others should not be touched, much less consumed (sulfuric acid, nitric acid). Why are
acids so different ?
When dissolved in water, acids and bases ionize. That is, the molecules react with water and break apart
into ions. For instance, hydrochloric acid reacts with water according to the following equation:
Hydrochloric acid + Water Hydronium ion + Chloride ion
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
+ –
H3O and Cl are called ions because they have a charge. Some properties of chemicals like hydrochloric
acid depend on the presence of these ions.
The concentration of ions accounts for one common property of acids and bases: the ability to conduct
electricity. Substances that form ions in water are called electrolytes. If a substance dissolves and forms
11 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
many ions, it is a strong electrolyte. However, if only a few ions are formed, the substance is a weak electrolyte.
Electricity moves more easily through a strong electrolyte than through a weak one because of the greater
concentration of ions.

Strength of Acids :
The concentration of hydronium ion, H3O+, accounts for the properties of acids. All acids release hydronium
ions in water, as you can see from the following equations:
Acetic acid + Water Hydronium ion + Acetate ion
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COOH–
Nitric acid + Water Hydronium ion + Nitrate ion
HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3–
One definition of an acid is: any substance that releases hydronium ions in an aqueous (water) solution.
Acids behave in certain ways because of the hydronium ion concentration. Vinegar and vitamin C form acid
solutions that have small amounts of hydronium ion in solution. We say that these solutions are weak.
However, the liquid in a car battery has large concentrations of hydronium ion. We say that this acid solution
is strong.
Acid solutions with high concentrations of hydronium ion react vigorously with certain metals and can
chemically burn your skin. Acids with low concentrations react slowly with these metals and some are even
safe enough to eat or drink. Can you think of a way of measuring the strength or concentration of acid
solutions?

Strength of Bases :
Just like acids, bases form ions in water:
Sodium hydroxide Sodium ion + Hydroxide ion
NaOH Na+ + OH–
Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium ion + Hydroxide ion
NH4OH NH +4 + OH–
Since ions are formed, bases are electrolytes. We can also categorize basic solutions as strong or weak
electrolytes depending on how concentrated the Ions are.
Notice that both bases release hydroxide ions, OH–, when they dissolve. The behaviour of a base depends
on its hydroxide ion concentration. Concentrated bases are dangerous whereas dilute bases are not. How
would you define the term "base"? Can you think of a way to measure the concentration of a base?

Neutralization :
What happens when an acid and base are mixed together? The hydronium ions react with the hydroxide
ions to make water:
Hydronium ion + Hydroxide ion 2 molecules of water
H3O+ + OH– 2H2O
This reaction is called neutralization. After neutralization, the solution no longer has high concentrations of
either ion . Thus, it no longer has acidic or basic properties. Such solutions are said to be neutral. Is tap
water neutral ? How could you find out ?

The pH scale :
So far, we have explained the strength of an acid or base in terms of ion concentrations. We have used
qualitative terms like "concentrated", "dilute", "strong", and "weak". To improve accuracy we prefer to use
12 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
quantitative terms. Instead of descriptive terms which could be misinterpreted, we use a number scale called the
pH scale.
The term pH stands for “potential” of “Hydrogen”. It is the amount of hydrogen ions in a particular solution.
The more ions, the more acid the solution. The fewer ions the more alkaline (base) the solution.
Sorenson defined pH as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed
in moles per litre
pH = – log [H+], where [H+] is the hydrogen ion concentration in molecule/Litre
Remember that sometimes H3O+ is written, so pH = – log [H3O+] means the same thing.
The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. For acids, pH < 7. For bases, pH > 7. For neutral substances, pH = 7.
–
A change of one pH unit represents a ten-fold [H3O+] pH [OH ] pOH
change in the concentration of hydronium and 14.00 0.00
hydroxide ions. Thus pH 2 is ten times as acidic 13.00 1.00
as pH 3, one hundred times as acidic as pH 4, 12.00 2.00
11.00 3.00
one thousand times as acidic as pH 5, and so

More basic
10.50 3.50 BASIC
on. Similarly, pH 13 is ten times as basic as pH 10.00 4.00
12 and so on. 9.00 5.00
8.00 6.00
Let's try a simple problem: The [H+] in a 7.00 NEUTRAL
7.00
solution is measured to be 0.010 M. What is 6.00 8.00
More acidic

the pH? 5.00 9.00

4.00 10.00
The solution is pretty straightforward. Plug the 3.00 11.00 ACIDIC
[H+] into the pH definition: 2.00 12.00
pH = – log 0.010 1.00 13.00
0.00 14.00
An alternate way to write this is: pH = – log 10–2
Since the log of 10–2 is – 2, we have : pH = – (– 2) , Which, of course, is 2.

Approximate pH Values of Some Common Substance :

Subatance pH value Substance pH value
Hydrochloric acid 1.0 Bread 5.5
Sulphuric acid 1.2 Potatoes 5.8
Gastric juice 2.0 Rain water 6.2
Lemon 2.3 Milk 6.6
Vinegar (Acetic acid) 2.8 Pure water 7.0
Soft drink 3.0 Egg 7.8
Apple 3.1 Sea water 8.5
Grape 3.1 Ammonium hydroxide 11.1
Tomato 4.2 Sodium hydroxide 13.0
Banana 4.6
Battery acid, 0 Stomach acid, 1
1M sulphuric acid 0.1M hydrochloric acid
Baking soda, NaHCO3 8 Washing soda, Na2CO3 9
Milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2 10 Aqueous household 11
ammonia, NH3
Limewater, Ca(OH)2 12 Drano, 0.1 M NaOH 13
Drano, 1.0 M NaOH 14

13 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 The pH scale does not apply to concentrations greater than 1.0 M for a strong acid (pH = 0) or 1.0 M for a strong
base (pH = 14).
Convert each hydrogen ion concentration into a pH. Identify each as an acidic pH or a basic pH.
(1) 0.0015 : pH = – log 0.0015 ; pH = – (– 2.82) ; pH = 2.82. acidic
(2) 5.0 x 10–9 : pH = – log 5.0 × 10–9 ; pH = – log (– 8.30) ; pH = 8.30. basic
(3) 1.0 : pH = – log 1.0 ; pH = – (0) ; pH = 0.00. acidic
Yes, a pH of zero is possible, it is just uncommon. What's the pH when [H+] = 2.0 M? That's right, negative
0.30. It is possible to have a negative pH, it is just real uncommon to see them.
(4) 3.27 × 10–4 : pH = – log 3.27 x 10–4 = 3.489. acidic.
(5) 1.00 × 10–12 : pH = – log 1.00 x 10–12 = 12.000. basic.
6) 0.00010 : pH = – log 0.00010 = 4.00. acidic.

pOH :
Sorenson defined pH as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
pH = – log [H+]
We can define the pOH in a similar way: pOH = – log [OH–]
In words, the pOH is the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration.
So let's try a simple problem: The [OH–] in a solution is measured to be 0.0010 M. What is the pOH?
The solution is pretty straightforward. Plug the [OH–] into the pOH definition:
pOH = – log 0.0010
An alternate way to write this is: pOH = - log 10–3
Since the log of 10–3 is –3, we have: pOH = – (– 3)
Which, of course, is 3.
Convert each hydroxide ion concentration into a pOH. Identify each as an acidic pOH or a basic pOH.
(1) 0.0045 pOH = – log 0.0045 = – (–2.35) = 2.35. This is a basic pOH.
(2) 5.0 x 10–10 : pOH = – log 5.0 × 10–10 – (– 9.30) = 9.30. This is an acidic pOH.
(3) 1.0 : pOH = – log 1.0 = – (–0.00) = 0.00. This is a basic pOH.
(4) 3.27 × 10–3 : pOH = – log 3.27 × 10–3 = – (– 2.485) = 2.485. This is a basic pOH.
(5) 1.00 × 10–12 : pOH = – log 1.00 × 10–12 = 12.000. This is an acidic pOH.
(6) 0.00010 : pOH = – log 0.00010 = 4.0. This is a basic pOH.
Keep in mind that the pH + pOH = 14. So, if pOH = 4, then the pH = 10 and that this is a basic solution.
Suppose you know the pOH and you want to get to the hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–])?
Here is the equation for that: [OH–] = 10–pOH
That's right, ten to the minus pOH gets you back to the [OH–] (called the hydroxide ion concentration).

STRONG ACIDS
The key point is that strong means 100% ionized. That becomes:
The [H+] of a strong acid is equal to the concentration of the acid. After all, all of the acid dissociates. No
acid molecules are left. So, here is a problem:
Calculate the pH of a 0.100 M solution of HCl.
In essence, this becomes calculate the pH when the [H+] equals 0.100 M. So, to solve it, you write:
pH = – log (0.100) = 1.000
Calculate the pH of a 1.00 M solution of HBr.
The solution is: pH = – log (1.00) = 0.00
Yes, that's right, a pH of zero. In fact, you can even have a pH which is negative. It's unusual, but not
impossible

14 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

STRONG BASES
Strong bases is pretty much the same as strong acids except you'll be calculating a pOH first, then going to
the pH. This type of problem is where the relation pH + pOH = 14 is important.
So, the key point is that strong means 100% ionized. That becomes:
The [OH–] of a strong acid is equal to the concentration of the base.
After all, all of the base dissociates. No base molecules are left.
So, here is a typical problem: Calculate the pH of a 0.100 M solution of NaOH.
In essence, this becomes calculate the pH when the [OH–] equals 0.100 M. So, to solve it, you write:
pOH = – log (0.100) = 1.000
pH = 14.000 – 1.000 = 13.000
Here's another: Calculate the pH of a 0.050 M solution of KOH.
Since the [OH–] = 0.050 M (remember 100% dissociation),
we have this: pOH = – log (0.050) = 1.30
pH = 14.00 – 1.30 = 12.70

IMPORTANCE OF PH IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Blood pH :
In order to function properly, the human body needs to maintain a blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45. Large
deviations from this range are extremely dangerous. Values greater than 7.8 or less than 6.8 often result in
death. Any condition in which the blood pH drops below 7.35 is known as acidosis. If the pH rises above
7.45, it is known as alkalosis.
Normal

Death Acidosis Alkalosis Death

6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0

To prevent acidosis or alkalosis the body relies on the interaction of a chemical buffer system in the blood
with the body's respiratory and urinary systems
Acid rain: When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows into the rivers,
it lowers the pH of the river water. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
pH of the soil : Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth.
The effect of soil pH is great on the solubility of minerals or nutrients. Fourteen of the seventeen essential
plant nutrients are obtained from the soil. Before a nutrient can be used by plants it must be dissolved in the
soil solution. Most minerals and nutrients are more soluble or available in acid soils than in neutral or
slightly alkaline soils.
Phosphorus is never readily soluble in the soil but is most available in soil with a pH range centered around
6.5. Extremely and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of soluble aluminum, iron
and manganese which may be toxic to the growth of some plants. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7
promotes the most ready availability of plant nutrients.
But some plants, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, blueberries, white potatoes and conifer trees, tolerate
strong acid soils and grow well. Also, some plants do well only in slightly acid to moderately alkaline soils.
However, a slightly alkaline (pH 7.4-7.8) or higher pH soil can cause a problem with the availability of iron
to pin oak and a few other trees causing chlorosis of the leaves which will put the tree under stress leading
to tree decline and eventual mortality.
The soil pH can also influence plant growth by its effect on activity of beneficial microorganisms Bacteria
that decompose soil organic matter are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents organic matter from

15 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 breaking down, resulting in an accumulation of organic matter and the tie up of nutrients, particularly
nitrogen, that are held in the organic matter.

pH in our digestive system : It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It
helps in the digestion of food without harming the stomach. During indigestion the stomach produces too
much acid and this causes pain and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids. These
antacids neutralise the excess acid.
Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a mild base, is often used for this purpose.

pH change as the cause of tooth decay : Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body. It does not dissolve in
water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5. Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids
by degradation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after eating. The best way to prevent this
is to clean the mouth after eating food. Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth
can neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.

Self defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare :

Have you ever been stung by a honey-bee? Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation. Use of
a mild base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief. The stinging hairs on nettle (herbaceous)are
sharp polished spines that contain histamine and formic acid(methanoic acid), irritating chemicals that are
released when the plant comes in contact with the skin.
While the hairs, or spines, of the stinging nettle are normally very painful to the touch, when they come into
contact with an area of the body that is already in pain, the chemicals can actually decrease the original pain.

SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as caustic soda. Caustic soda forms a strong alkaline solution
when dissolved in a solvent such as water. It is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in
the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as a drain cleaner.
Sodium hydroxide is the most used base in chemical laboratories.
Pure sodium hydroxide is a white solid; available in pellets, flakes, granules and as a 50% saturated solution.
It is deliquescent and readily absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, so it should be stored in an airtight
container. It is very soluble in water with liberation of heat. It also dissolves in ethanol and methanol,
though it exhibits lower solubility in these solvents than potassium hydroxide. It is insoluble in ether and
other non-polar solvents. A sodium hydroxide solution will leave a yellow stain on fabric and paper. Sodium
hydroxide is completely ionic, containing sodium ions and hydroxide ions. The hydroxide ion makes sodium
hydroxide a strong base which reacts with acids to form water and the corresponding salts, e.g., with
hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride is formed.

Chlor-Alkali Process : A chlor-alkali plant produces two principle products; chlorine (Cl2) and sodium
hydroxide, which is commonly known as caustic soda (NaOH). The term chloralkali is derived from the
two products produced; chlor from chlorine and alkali from sodium hydroxide (sodium hydroxide is part of
a group of chemicals called alkalis). The chlorine and sodium hydroxide are
produced from the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride brine (salt water solution). As an
alternative, a potassium chloride brine can be used to produce potassium hydroxide, which is commonly
known as caustic potash (KOH). Hydrogen gas is produced as a by product of the chloralkali process.

16 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

BLEACHING POWDER
Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with formula CaClO2. It is widely used for water treatment
and as a bleaching agent (bleaching powder). This chemical is considered to be relatively stable and has
greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach) It is a yellow white solid which has a
strong smell of chlorine. Calcium hypochlorite is not highly soluble in water. For that reason it should
preferably be used in soft to middle hard water. There are two types of calcium hypochlorite - a dry form
and a hydrated form. The hydrated form is safer to handle.
It is manufactured using the calcium process or the sodium process.
Calcium Process : 2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 CaOCl2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O
Sodium Process : 2 Ca(OH)2 + 3 Cl2 + 2 NaOH CaOCl2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O + 2 NaCl
Bleaching powder is actually a mixture of calcium hypochlorite CaOCl2 and the basic chloride CaCl2,
Ca(OH)2, H2O with some slaked lime, Ca(OH)2.
Calcium hypochlorite reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate and release chlorine:
2CaOCl2 + 2CO2 2CaCO3 + 2Cl2 + O2
Calcium hypochlorite reacts with hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride:
CaOCl2 + 4 HCl CaCl2 + 2 H2O + 2 Cl2
Extreme care should be used in handling this product. Always keep in a cool dry place away from any
organic material. When mixing it with water, it is safest to add the calcium hypochlorite to water. This
material has been known to undergo self heating and rapid decomposition accompanied by the release of
toxic chlorine gas.
Uses :
Calcium hypochlorite is used for the disinfection of drinking water or swimming pool water. For use in
outdoor swimming pools, calcium hypochlorite can be used as a sanitizer in combination with a cyanuric
acid stabilizer. The stabilizer will reduce the loss of chlorine because of UV radiation. Calcium does make
the water 'hard' and tends to clog up some filters. However, some types of calcium hypochlorite do contain
anti-scaling agents in order to prevent clogging up of pipes/filters. This grade of calcium hypochlorite can
also be used in hard waters. The main advantage of calcium hypochlorite is that it is unstabilised unlike
chlorinated isocyanurates such as sodium dichloroisocyanurate or trichloroisocyanuric acid. Latter products
do contain cyanuric acid. If the level of cyanuric acid becomes too high, it will influence the performance of
the chlorine.
Calcium hypochlorite (known as 'bleaching powder') is also used for bleaching cotton and linen and used in
the manufacture of chloroform.

BAKING SODA
Baking soda, otherwise known as bicarbonate of soda, sodium hydrogencarbonate, and, less commonly,
saleratus, is a chemical salt with diverse practical uses. With a chemical formula of NaHCO3, baking soda
is a white powder with crystalline grains. Although it can be produced by artificial means, in its natural
form, baking soda is called nahcolite, taking its name from its chemical formula.
It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
(Sodium chloride) (Ammonium chloride) (sodium hydrogencarbonate)
The following reaction takes place when it is heated during cooking –
2NaHCO3 heat Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(Sodium hydrogencarbonate) (Sodium carbonate)
Baking soda is weakly alkaline. As such, it acts to neutralize acids and break down proteins. This quality
accounts for its usefulness as a tenderizer and a leaven. Also, it is baking soda’s neutralizing action on

17 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 acidic scent molecules that makes it an effective deodorizer. Added to the water when doing laundry, baking soda
stabilizes the pH level, enhancing the detergent’s effectiveness. Baking soda may also be added to swimming pool
water to balance the pH and keep the water clear.
The most common practical use for baking soda is as a leavening agent in baking. In combination with a
liquid and an acid, baking soda undergoes a chemical reaction that releases bubbles of carbon dioxide.
Trapped in butter these carbon dioxide bubbles enable the baked good to rise. Baked goods leavened with
baking soda, therefore, generally have a light crumb and are aerated with many holes left by the escaping
bubbles of carbon dioxide
Baking soda also has other uses in cooking. A pinch added to tomato sauce while cooking, or coffee while
brewing, will reduce acidity. A small amount added to the soaking water of beans will hasten the softening
and cooking processes and reduce the beans’ propensity to cause flatulence in the eater. Baking soda is an
effective meat tenderizer. It can be added to stews or rubbed directly on a cut of meat, and then rinsed off
before cooking, to make the meat more tender.
When heated, baking soda undergoes a chemical reaction that gives off carbon dioxide, which makes it
useful in extinguishing small grease or electrical fires.
Baking soda’s finely gritty texture makes it an excellent, gentle abrasive cleaner. It is inexpensive,
environmentally friendly, fragrance-free, and safe for nearly all surfaces, making it ideal for household use.
As a mild abrasive agent, baking soda can also be used in place of toothpaste. Sprinkled around the exterior
entrances to and foundations of homes, it may prohibit ants and other insects from crawling in, as it is
irritating to their chitinous exoskeletons and they avoid it.
As an acid neutralizer, baking soda has long been favored for its various first-aid applications. Dissolved
into a lukewarm bath, it will soothe the discomfort of sunburn and the itch of poison ivy. Made into a paste
with cool water and applied directly to the skin, it will ease the pain of bee stings. One-half teaspoon baking
soda mixed into 120 ml of water can be taken as an antacid.
Those taking prescription medications or following a reduced-sodium diet should check with a physician
before consuming baking soda.
Solvay process : The Solvay process, also referred to as the ammonia-soda process, is the major industrial
process for the production of soda ash (sodium carbonate). The ammonia-soda process developed into its
modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s. The ingredients for this process are readily available and
inexpensive: salt brine (from inland sources or from the sea) and limestone (from mines).

WASHING SODA
Washing soda is a highly alkaline chemical compound which can be used to remove stubborn stains from
laundry. It also has numerous uses around the house, and it is used in a range of industrial applications as
well. Washing soda should not be confused with washing powder, which is a powdered soap used as a
detergent; it is also not the same thing as baking soda, although the two compounds are closely related.
The chemical formula for washing powder is Na2CO3.10H2O , and it is also known as sodium carbonate. It
is a salt of carbonic acid, a chemical which produces a wide range of salts collectively known as carbonates.
One common source of washing soda is the ashes of plants; for this reason, it is sometimes called soda ash.
Sodium carbonate can also be extracted from sodium chloride, also known as table salt. Sodium carbonate
can be obtained by heating baking soda; recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also
a basic salt.
Na2CO3 + 10 H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
Sodium carbonate
Uses of washing soda :
(i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.

18 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 (iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
(iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
In laundry, washing soda accomplishes several things. The high alkalinity of washing soda helps it act as a
solvent to remove a range of stains, and unlike bleach, washing soda does not usually stain. It is also used
in detergent mixtures to treat hard water; the washing soda binds to the minerals which make water hard,
allowing detergent to foam properly so that clothing will come out clean, without any residue. Sodium
carbonate is also used by some textile artists, since it helps dyes adhere to fabric, resulting in deeper penetration
and a longer lasting color.
Around the house, washing soda can be used to descale things like coffee machines and bathroom tiles
which may accumulate mineral deposits as a result of exposure to hard water. It can also be used to strip
floors of wax so that they can be refinished, and for other touch cleaning jobs like scrubbing the stove.
However, you should wear gloves when cleaning with washing soda, because it is very caustic and it can
cause severe skin damage. Incidentally, the best way to treat a chemical burn is with baking soda, also
called sodium bicarbonate, as it is a buffer and it will neutralize both acids and alkalis. Apply baking soda
to the site of the burn for several minutes, flush the wound with water, and seek medical attention

PLASTER OF PARIS
Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of crystallisation. When we heat the crystals,
this water is removed and the salt turns white.
If you moisten the crystals again with water, you will find that blue colour of the crystals reappears.
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt. Five
water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper sulphate. Chemical formula for hydrated copper
sulphate is CuSO4. 5H2O.
One other salt, which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum. It has two water molecules as water of
cyrstallisation. It has the formula CaSO4.2H2O. It gives basic concept of developing plaster.
The oldest traces of plaster renders are 9,000 years old, and were found in Anatolia and Syria.
We also know that 5,000 years ago, the Egyptians burnt gypsum in open-air fires, then crushed it into
powder, and finally mixed this powder with water to make jointing material for the blocks of their monuments,
such as the magnificent Cheops Pyramid for example. The ancient Egyptians used models of plaster taken
directly from the human body.
The Greeks also used gypsum, in particular as window for their temples when it was of a transparent quality
("selenite gypsum"). The writer Theophraste (372-287 BC) described quite precisely the fabrication of
plaster as it was done at that time in Syria and Phenicia. The Romans cast in plaster many thousands of
copies of Greek statues.
Throughout the centuries, expertise was gained in many parts of the World with gypsum calcinations. In the
1700's, Paris was already the "capital of plaster" ("Plaster of Paris") since all the walls of wooden houses
were covered with plaster, as a protection against fire. The King of France had enforced this rule after the
big London fire literally destroyed this city in 1666. Large gypsum deposits near Paris have long been
mined to manufacture… "Plaster of Paris".
Gypsum is a sedimentary rock, which settled through the evaporation of sea water trapped in lagoons.
According to the nature of its impurities, gypsum can show various colors, ranging from white to brown,
yellow, gray and pink.
Gypsum selection and preparation (cleaning, classifying) are key factors to produce the best plasters. The
chemical reaction is : (CaSO4. 2H2O) + heat = (CaSO4, ½ H2O) + 1.5 H2O
Several processes are available to calcinate gypsum into Plaster of Paris.

19 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

We can distinguish two categories :
1st: Calcination under atmospheric pressure to produce Beta plaster ;
2nd: Calcination under elevated pressure to produce Alpha plaster.
Controlling some critical calcination parameters is essential to master the growth of the plaster crystals.
And the performance of the plaster depends a lot on its crystals' sizes and shapes.
Plaster of Paris is a calcium sulfate hemi-hydrate : (CaSO4, ½ H2O) derived from gypsum, a calcium
sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 , 2 H2O), by firing this mineral at relatively low temperature (373 k)at which it
loses its water molecule and then reducing it to powder. Calcination of the gypsum at higher temperatures
produces different types of anhydrites (CaSO4),
Plaster of Paris forms the basis of many commercial, Plasters used for interior decoration. As a false ceiling,
studio sets et

20 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

CHEMISTRY FOUNDATION-X 41 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS