1. D.C.

Circuits

1. Define following terms

(a) Current

Free electron Copper wire

Conventional current V Electron current

Figure 1.1Concept of electric current

∙ Flow of electron in closed circuit is called current.

∙ Amount of charge passing through the conductor in unit time also called current.
∙ Unit of current is charge/second or Ampere (A).

I=t
Q

Where, I = Current
Q = Charge
t = Time
(b) Potential or Voltage
∙ The capacity of a charged body to do work is called potential.
∙ Unit of potential is joule/coulomb or Volt (V).

V= Q
W

Where, V = Potential or Voltage

W = Workdone
(c) Potential difference
A B

+ 12 V +7V
 V 2t
W = P ×t = VIt = I Rt =
2
R
Where, W =Energy
P =Power
t =Time
(f) Power
∙ Energy per unit in time is called power.
∙ Unit of Power is Joule/Second or Watt (W).

P= t
W

(g) Resistance
∙ Property of a material that opposes the flow of electron is called resistance.
∙ Unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
V
R= I
Where, R = Resistance
(h) Conductance
∙ Property of a material that allows flow of electron.
∙ It is reciprocal of resistance.
∙ Unit of conductance is (Ω-1) or mho or Siemens(S).

G=R
1

Where, G = Conductance
(i) Resistivity or Specific Resistance
∙ Amount of resistance offered by 1m length of wire of 1m2 cross-sectional area.
∙ Resistivity is denoted as a ρ .
∙ Unit of Resistivity is Ohm-meter (Ωm).

l
R∝ a

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 2

1. D.C.
Circuits
R = ρa
l

ρ= Ra
l
Where, R = Resistance
ρ = Resistivity
l = Length of wire
a = Cross section area of wire
(j) Conductivity
∙ Ability of a material to allow flow of electron of a given material for 1 m length & 1
m 2cross-sectional area is called conductivity. Unit of conductivity isΩ-1m -1 or Siemens m-
1.

σ =ρ
1

Where, σ = Conductivity
1.2. Explain types of electrical energysource
∙ Electrical source is an element which supplies energy to networks. There are two types
of electrical sources.
(a) Independent sources
Independent voltage source Independent current source

+
V v(t) i(t)
I
-

Figure 1. 2Independent voltage source

Figure 1. 3Independent current source
∙ It is a two terminal element that provide a ∙ It is two-terminal elements that provide
specific voltage across its terminal. a specific current across its terminal.
∙ The value of this voltage at any instant is ∙ The value and direction of this current at
independent of value or direction of the any instant is independent of value or
current that flow through it.
direction of the voltage that appears
across the terminal of source

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 3

1. D.C.Circuits

(b) Dependent sources

Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)

+ + + I cd +
a
c a c

V μV + V
ab cd -
ab V ab g V V cd
m ab

b d
- - b- d
-
Figure 1.5VCVS
Figure 1.6VCCS
∙ Voltage controlled voltage source is four
∙ Voltage controlled current source is four
terminal network components that
terminal network components that
established a voltage V cd between two-
established a current i cd in the branch of
point c and d.
V cd = μVab
circuit.
∙ The voltage V cd depends upon the i =g V
cd m ab

control voltage V ab and μ is constant ∙ i cd depends only on the control voltage V ab

so it is dimensionless. and constant gm ,is called trans

∙ μ is known as a voltage gain. conductance or mutual conductance.

∙ Unit of transconductance is Ampere/Volt
or Siemens(S).
Current controlled voltage source (CCVS) Current controlled current source (CCCS)
i i ab i cd
+ ab + + +
a c a c

+ V
-
r i cd β iab
ab

d d
b- b- -
-

Figure 1.7CCVS Figure 1.8CCCS

∙ Current controlled voltage source is four ∙ Current controlled current source is four
terminal network components that terminal network components that
established a voltage V cd between two- established a current Icd in the branch of
point c and d. circuit.
V cd = riab i cd = βiab
∙ V cd depends on only on the control ∙ i cd depends on only on the control current i ab
r r and constantβ and β is called current gain.
current i ab and constant and is called
Current gain is constant.
trans resistance or mutual resistance.
∙ Current gain is dimensionless.
∙ Unit of transresistance is Volt/Ampere
or Ohm (Ω).

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 4

 I
V
I=V/R R

Figure 1. 9Source conversion

Network simplification techniques

+ +

V1 +
-
+
- V1 + V2
V2 +
-

- -
(a)
+ +

V1 +
-
+
- V1 - V2
-
V2
+

- -
(V1 > V2)
(b)

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 5

1. D.C.
Circuits
+ +

i1 i2 i1 + i2

- -

(c)
+ +

i1 i2 i1 - i2

- -
(i1 >
(d) i 2)
+ +

+ + + V1 = V2
V1
- - V2 -

- -
(e)
+ +

i1

i1 = i2
i2

- -
(f)

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 6

1. D.C.
Circuits

+ R + Vs
Vs
- -

(g)
R + +

is is

- -

(h)

Figure 1.10Rules under which source may be combined and separated

1.4. Explain ideal electrical circuit element.

∙ There are major three electrical circuit elements which are discussed below.
(a) Resistor
∙ Resistor is element which opposes the flow of current.

a
l
Figure 1.11Resistor Figure 1.12Conductor
∙ Resistance is property of material which opposes the flow current. It is measured in
Ohms (Ω).
∙ Value of resistance of conductor is
✔ Proportional to its length.
✔ Inversely proportional to the area of cross section.
✔ Depends on nature of material.
✔ Depends on temperature of conductor.
l
R∝ a

R = ρl
a
Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 7
 1.13Inductor

∙ Value of inductance of coil is

✔ Directly proportional to the square of number of turns.
✔ Directly proportional to the area of cross section.
✔ Inversely proportional to the length.
✔ Depends on absolute permeability of magnetic material.
NIμ μ
NI =
Φ=S = =
F NI 0 r

A
μ0 μr Al l
S
NIμ μ A
N ⎛⎜ 0 r ⎞
⎟ N 2μ μ A
Now, L =
NΦ ⎝ ⎠l = 0

=
r
I I
l
Where, L =Inductance of coil
N= Number of turns of coil Φ = Flux link in coil
F = Magneto motive force(MMF)
I = Current in the coil
l = Mean length of coil
μ0 = Permiability of free space
μr = Relative permiability of magnetic material
A = Cross sectional area of magnetic material
(c) Capacitor
∙ Capacitor is an element which stored energy in form of charge.
∙ Capacitance is the capacity of capacitor to store electric charge.
∙ It is denoted by C and measured in Farad (F).

Figure 1.14Capacitor
∙ Value of capacitance is
✔ Directly proportional to the area of plate.
✔ Inversely proportional to distance between two plates.
✔ Depends on absolute permittivity of medium between the plates.

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 8

1. D.C.
Circuits
A
C∝ d

C = εA
d

C = ε 0ε r A
d
Where,C=Capacitance of capacitor
A =Cross sectional area of plates d =Distance between two plates ε = Abolute
Permittivity
ε 0 = Permittivity of free space
ε r = Relative permittivity of dielectric material

1.5. Explain Ohm’s law and its limitations.

∙ Current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied to the conductor, provided that no change in temperature.
Voltage (V)

Current (A)
Figure 1.15Change in current w.r.t change in voltage for conducting material
V∝ I
∴V = IR
∙ Where R is constant which is called resistance of the conductor.

∴R = I
V

∙ Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

✔ It cannot be applied to non-linear device e.g. Diode, Zener diode etc.
✔ It cannot be applied to non-metallic conductor e.g. Graphite, Conducting polymers
✔ It can only be applied in the constant temperature condition.
1.6. State and explain the Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws
(a) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
∙ Statement:
“Algebraic sum of all current meeting at a junction is zero”
∙ Let, Suppose
9
1. D.C.Circuits

✔ Branches are meeting at a junction ‘J’

✔ Incoming current are denoted with (+ve) sign
✔ Outgoing currents are denoted with (-ve) sign

A R2 I1 J R4 B
I3

I2
+
E1
- R3
R5

R1 +
E2 -

E D C
Figure 1.16Kirchhoff’s law diagram
∙ Then,

∑I = 0
( + I 1 ) +(−I 2 ) +(−I 3 ) = 0
I1 − I2 − I3 = 0
I1 = I2 + I3
∴Incoming current = Outgoing current
(b) Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
∙ Statement:
“Algebraic sum of all voltage drops and all emf sources in any closed path is zero”
∙ Let, Suppose
✔ Loop current in clockwise or anticlockwise direction
✔ Circuit current and loop current are in same direction than voltage drop is denoted
by (-ve) sign.
✔ Circuit current and loop current are in opposite direction than voltage drop is
denoted by (+ve) sign.
✔ Loop current move through (+ve) to (-ve) terminal of source than direction of emf
is (-ve).
✔ If Loop current move through (-ve) to (+ve) terminal of source than direction of
emf is (+ve).
R R
+ +
I I
V= -IR V= +IR

E= -E1 E= +E1

Figure 1.17Sign convention for Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 10

1. D.C.
Circuits
∴∑ IR + ∑ E = 0
KVL to loop AJDEA
−I 1R 2 − I 2R 3 − E 2 − I 1R 1 + E 1 = 0
KVL to loop JBCDJ
−I 3R 4 − I 3R 5 + E 2 + I 2R 3 = 0
1.7. Explain series and parallel combination of resistor
Series combination of resistor Parallel combination of resistor
I1 R1
I1 R1 I2 R2

I V1
V1
I V2 R2
I2
+
V2
V - +

V -

Figure 1.18Series combination of resistors

Figure 1.19Parallel combinations of resistors

Here, I 1 = I 2 = I As per KVL, Here,V 1 = V 2 = V As per KCL,
V = V1 + V2 I = I1 + I2
V = IR1 + IR2 V = I(R 1 + R 2 )
I= V+ V
= (R + R )
V
R1 R2
I 1 2
⎛ ⎞
I=V 1+ 1
R eq = R 1 + R 2 ⎜R R⎟
For n resistor are connected in series ⎝ 1 2 ⎠
R eq = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ......... + R n ⎛ ⎞
I= 1+ 1
⎜ ⎟
V R R
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
1= 1+1
⎜ ⎟
R R R
eq ⎝1 2 ⎠
For n resistor are connected in Parallel

= + + + ......... +
1 1 1 1 1
R R R R R
eq 1 2 3 n

∙ Value of equivalent resistance of series ∙ Value of equivalent resistance of parallel

circuit is bigger than the biggest value of circuit is smaller than the smallest value of
individual resistance of circuit. individual resistance of circuit.

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1. D.C.Circuits

1.8. Explain Voltage divider law and current divider Law.

Voltage Divider Law Current Divider Law
I1 R1 I2 R2 I1 R1

V1 I V1
I V2
I2 R2

+ V2
+
V -
V -

Figure 1.20Voltage divider circuit

Here, I 1 = I 2 = I As per KVL,

Figure 1.21Current divider circuit
Here,V 1 = V 2 = V
V = V1 + V2 As per KCL, I = I 1 + I 2
V = I 1R 1 + I 2R 2 V = IR1 + IR2 V
I= +
V1 V2
= I(R 1 + R 2 )
R1 R2
I= I= I=
V
I= +
V V
1 2
(R + R )
1 2 R1 R2
Now ,V 1 = I 1R 1 ⎛⎞
I=V 1 + 1
V=
V
R ⎜R R⎟
1
R+ R 1 ⎝ 1 2 ⎠
1 2
⎛ ⎞
⎛R ⎞ I= 1+1
V1= V ⎜1 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
R +R V R R
⎝ 1 2 ⎠ ⎝1 2 ⎠
Now ,V 2 = I 2R 2 V= V= V= I
⎛ R 1R 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 2 R +R
V=
V
R ⎝ ⎠
R+ R
1 2

Now, I =
2 2
1 2
V1
⎛R ⎞
V = V ⎜2
1 R
⎟ 1

R +R ⎛ ⎞
2
⎝ 1 2 ⎠ I R 1R 2
R⎜ +R ⎟
I=⎝ 12 ⎠
1 R
1

⎛ R2 ⎞
I1= I ⎜ ⎟
R +R
⎝1 2⎠

Now , I =
V2
2 R
2

⎛ ⎞
I R 1R 2
⎜ ⎟
R +R
I = ⎝ 1 2(3110005)
Basic Electrical Engineering
⎠
12
2 R
2
1. D.C.Circuits

1.9. Derive the equation of delta to star and star to delta transformation

1 1

R1 R1 R31
R 12 R31
R 12

R2 R3 R2 R3
2 2

R 23 R 23

3 3

Figure 1.23Star connected network

() ()
Figure 1.22Delta connected network

() ()
Resistance between terminal 1 & 2
Resistance between terminal 1 & 2

= R12 (R23 + R31 ) = R1 + R2

R (R +R )
Resistance between terminal 2 & 3
() ()
= 12 23 31
= R2 + R3
R +R +R
Resistance between terminal 3 & 1
() ()
12 23 31
Resistance between terminal 2 & 3
() ()
= R3 + R1
= R23 (R12 + R31 )

= R23(R12 + R31 )
R +R +R
12 23 31
Resistance between terminal 3 & 1
() ()
= R31 (R12 + R23 )
() ()
Resistance between terminals 1 & 2 in delta equal to resistance between
= R31(R12 + R23 )
( ) R ( +) R + R
terminals 1 & 2 in star
12
R12(R3123 + R31 )
23
R1 + R = (i)
R12 + R +
Similarly,
2
R23 31

R23(R12 + R31 )
R2 + R (ii)
=3 R12 + R +
R31(R12 + R23
R23) 31

R3 + R = (iii)
R12 + R +
1
R23 31
(a) Delta to star conversion
Simplify i
( ) + (ii ) −(iii ) on both the side of equations

R1 + R + 2R + R - R - R = R12(R23 + R31 ) + R23(R12 + R31 ) - R31(R12 + R23 )

R12 + R 23+ R R31 + R 12+ R R23 + R
+31R
2 3
3 1 12 23 31

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 13

1. D.C.
Circuits
(R R + R R ) (R R + R R ) (R R + R R )
= 12 23 12 31 + 23 12 23 31 - 31 12 31 23

R +R +R R +R +R R +R +R
12 23 31 12 23 31 12 23 31

+R R +R R +R R
(R12 +
(R R -R R -R R )
=
R23 + R31 )
12 23 12 31 23 12 23 31 31 12 31 23

2R2 =
2R R
R12 + R +
12 23

R23 31

R2=
R12 +12R 23 +
R R

R23 31

Similarly , R =
R R
R + R12 +
1 12 31

R 23 31

R3=
R12 + 23R 31+
R R

R23 31
(b) Star to delta conversion
Simplify i
( )(ii ) + ( ii )(iii ) + ( iii )(i ) on both the side of equation
(R 1 + R 2 )(R 2 + R 3 ) +(R 2 + R 3 )(R 3 + R 1 ) +(R 3 + R 1 )(R 1 + R 2 )

+ R )23R (R+ 31+ 12 R )23

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
= R12 (R
23 + R31 ) R (R 23 + R )+ 23R 12(R+ R 31 ) R (R 31 R 12 +R )
⎝+
⎜ 12 R + ⎟⎜+R 31 ⎠⎝R ⎟12+ ⎜ R23 + 12 31 R ⎠ ⎝+12 ⎟⎜+ R +31 R⎠⎝ ⎟12+⎜ RR23 + R + (R
R 3131+
⎠⎟⎜⎝RR12 ⎟
12 31 23
R 23
R
23

R1R2 + R23R +1 R3 2 + 31R ⎠⎝R 2+12 R R 23+ R 2R3 + R312 +⎠ R2 3R + R R +2 1R R + R 2 + R R

R R R

⎛ R12 R23 + R 12R 31⎞⎛ R23 R12 + R ⎞23⎛R 31 R23 R12 + ⎞⎛ R31 R12 ⎞ +⎛ R 31R 23 ⎞⎛ + R
3 3 1 3 1 3 2 1 1 2
⎞
= + +
R 23R 31 R31 R12
23 + R 12R 31
31
⎜⎝+R
R
23
12 R +
23
R12 R
⎟⎜+R 31 ⎠⎝R ⎟
12+
⎜ R
R 23 + R + +
31 ⎠ ⎝ 12
R R + ⎟⎜
23R +
R R +31 ⎠⎝+ R
⎟R⎜ R 12 +23R ⎟⎜
31 ⎠ ⎝ 12
R 23 ⎟ 31

3R1 R2 +⎠⎝ 3R12R2 +3 3R R +3 R + R2+ R2

231 ⎠
R 23
1
1 2 3
⎛ 2 2 ⎞⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
12 +12R23
= ⎜⎜ R23 R R 312 R + R R + R12R23R 312 ⎟ +R⎜2 R
R 31 23+31R R
12 R R +31 R R 12
R 23 +31R 2 R 23 31R⎟ +R R + R 2 R 2 +12R31R 2 R + R
12 R
23 R31
2 2 2 2

+( 12 R + ) +( 12 R + ) +( R12 R + )
12 23 12 23 2 ⎜ 12 23 31 12 23 31 ⎟
R 2
⎟ ⎜ R ⎟ ⎜ 2
⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
R 2R 2 + R R 2R + R 2R R + R R R 2 + R 2R R + R R 2R + R R R 2 + R 2R 2 + R 2R R + R 2R 2 + R R 2R + R R R 2
R 3123 23 R 31 23 R 31

=
+( R12 R + )
23 12 12 23 31 12 23 31 12 23 31 12 23 31 12 23 31 12 23 31 23 31
2 12 23 31 12 31 12 23 31 12 23 31

(R12R 232 R +31 R 12R R23+31R R12R 23+31R 2 R12R +23R31R 2 R

12 +23R R
31R 12+ 23
R 231R R + R 231R +12R 23
R R 312 ) +(R 31 + 23
R 2 R122 + R 232 R 231)
23 R 31

= 12 R 23 12 23 R
2 2 2 2 2
12 31

( R12 + R +R
)
2

R R R (R + R + R + R + R + R + R + R + R ) (R 2 R 2 + R 2 R 2 + R 2 R 2 )
23 31

=
R +) +( R +( R12 R + )
12 23 31 23 12 31 2 12 23 31 12 2

+
12
23 31 23 12 23 31
R 12 3131 23 23 R 31
R R R (3R + 3R + 3R ⎛ ⎞
R 2R 2 R 2R 2 R 2R 2
= )12 23 31 R 12 31 + ⎜ + +
+( 12 R + ) ⎝ +(12 R 23+ ) +31 R +12 ) + R + )
23 2 23 12 23 31 2 12
⎜ R 2
23
2
⎟
31 ⎟ R
23 31 R 12 R 31 ⎠ R
3R R R (R + R + R ⎛ ⎞
31 23

) (+ ) (+
R 2R 2 R 2R 2 R 2R 2
= ) 12 23 31 ⎜ R+ ⎜ + +
+(R + ) ⎝ +( 12 R )
R R
+ R + R +
12 232 31 23 12 2 23 31 122
R 2
⎟
12 23 31 12 ⎠
23 ⎟
= 3R3 R12 + R 2 + R 2 + R 2
31
R 31 23 R 31 12 R 23 R
31

2
3 1 (R (R
Now
3R + 3R1R2 + become
R equation 3R R 2+3 R 2 + R 23+1 R 2 = 3R1 R + R 2 + 2R 2 + R 2
3 3 12 2 3 1

3R 1 R 2 + 3R 2 R 3 + 3R 3 R 1 = 3R 3 R 12

=R +R +R 1
R R2
R12
1 2 3

Similarl
y
= R + R3 + R 2 3
R R
R23
2 1

=R +R +R 3
R R1
R31
3 1 2

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 14

1. D.C.Circuits

1.10. Explain Node analysis

R1 R3 R5
A B

+ +
V1 - R2 R4 -
V2

Figure 1.24Node analysis network

∙ Node: Node refers to any point on circuit where two or more circuit elements meet.
∙ Node analysis based on Kirchhoff’s current law states that algebraic summation of
currents meeting at junction is zero.
∙ Node C is taken as reference node in this network. If there are n nodes in any network,
the number of equation to be solved will be (n-1).
∙ Node A,B and C are shown in given network and their voltages areVA, VB andVC . Value of
node VC is zero because VC is reference node.
∙ Steps to follow in node analysis:
✔ Consider node in the network, assign current and voltage for each branch and node
respectively.
✔ Apply the KCL for each node and apply ohm’s law to branch current.
✔ Solve the equation for find the unknown node voltage.
✔ Using these voltages, find the required branch currents.
∙ Node A
R1
R3VA VB R5
I1 I3

I2

+ +
V1 - R2 R4 - V2

VC

Figure 1.25Node analysis network for node A

Apply KCL at node A,
( ) ( ) ( )
−I
1
+ −I
2
+ −I
3
=0

I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

VA - V1 + VA −VC + VA - VB = 0
R1 R2 R3

PiyushRupala, EE Department Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 15

1. D.C.
Circuits
⎡1 ⎤
+ +
1
V ⎢ ⎥⎡ ⎢⎤ ⎥
1
(i)
+V − =
⎣
A R11 2
1R 3 ⎦
B R R
⎣ 3 ⎦ 1
V
∙ NodeR B

R1 VA R3 R5
VB
I3 I5
I4

+ +
V1 - R2 R4 - V2

VC

Figure 1.26Node analysis network for node B

Apply the KCL at node B ,

(−I ) + (−I ) + (−I ) = 0
3 4 5

I3 + I4 + I5 = 0

VB - VA + VB −VC + VB - V2 = 0
R3 R4 R5
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎥ − ⎢1 + V⎥ 1 2
V ⎢ (ii)
+ ⎣1 R + 31 ⎦ =R ⎣V 3
A B R R R
From,
4 5 ⎦
equation (i)5& (ii)
1 1 1 1 V
⎛ + + − ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎜ R12
R R ⎟ V ⎜R ⎟
3
⎟ ⎛ ⎞A
⎟=⎜ ⎟
1
R 3
⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎜ V2 ⎟
⎜ −1 1 + 1 + 1 ⎝ VB ⎠
5 R ⎟
⎝ R33 4
⎠ ⎝ 5⎜⎠R ⎟
R R
∙ One can easily find branch current of this network by solving equation (i) and (ii),if V1 ,
V2 and all resistance value are given.
1.11. Explain Mesh analysis
R1 R3 R5

+ +
I1 I2 I3
V1 - R2 R4 - V2

Figure 1.27Mesh analysis network

∙ Mesh: It is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
16
 + +
V1 - R2 R4 - V2
I1 I2

Figure 1.28Mesh analysis network for loop-1

Now apply the KVL in loop − 1,
- I R - I − I R +V = 0
1 1 ( 1 2 ) 2 1

- I 1 R 1 - I 1 R 2 + I 2 R 2 +V 1 = 0
(
- R + R I + R I = −V
1 2 ) 1 2 2 1
(i)

∙ Loop 2
R1 R5
R3
I2

+ +
V1 R2 R4 - V2
-
I1 I2 I2 I3

Figure 1.29Mesh analysis network for loop-2

Now Apply the KVL loop − 2,

-I R - I − I
2 3 ( 2 3 )R - (I 4 2
−I
1 )R 2
=0

- I 2 R 3 - I 2 R 4 +I 3 R 4 − I 2 R 2 + I 1 R 2 =
0
IR - I
1 2 2 (R 3
+R +R
4 2 ) +I R 3 4
=

0 R I -
2 1 (R 3
+ R + R
4 2 )I 2
+R I =
4 3
(ii)
0 Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 17
1. D.C.
Circuits

∙ Loop 3 R1 R3 R5

I3

+ +
V1 R2 R4 - V2
-
I1 I3

Figure 1.30Mesh analysis network for loop-3

Now Apply the KVL loop − 3,
- I R -V - I − I R = 0
3 5 2 (3 2 ) 4

- I3 R5 -V2 -I3 R4 + I2 R4 = 0
I R
2 4

- I
3 (R 5 + R
4 ) = V R I -
2 4 2
(iii)
(
R +R
5 4 )3 I =V
2

⎛-
(
From +R
2)
R equation (i),(ii)
R2 &(iii) 0 ⎞ I −V
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
R +R ( )
⎜ ⎟
1

R +R
⎟ ⎜2 I ⎟ = ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜
(R5 + R )⎟ ⎜⎝ I3 ⎠⎟
2 3
R4 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ −
4 2
⎝ 0 V⎝
R4 ⎠⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎛- R + R
( ) R2 4 0 2 ⎠

(R 3 R + R
+ )
1 2
⎜
Δ =⎜ R2
( 5R
− R +⎞ R
)
4
⎜ 0
4 2 ⎟
⎝ R4 ⎠
⎛ −V1 R2 0 ⎟
4
⎟
⎜
Δ =⎜ 0 (R 3 R 4 + R )
+ R4 ⎟
(R5 + R )⎟⎠⎟
1
⎞
⎜ V
⎝ 2 R24 −
⎛- R + R
( 1 2 ) −V1 4

⎜
Δ=
04
2 0 ⎟
( − 5⎞R )⎟⎠
R 2
⎜ 0
⎝ V2
⎜ +R
⎛- R + R
( ) −V1 ⎞
R
R2 4⎟
( R +R +R
)
1 2
⎜
Δ3= ⎜ R 2 3 4 0 ⎟⎟
⎜ 0 R24 V2 ⎟⎠
⎝
Now ,

I1= Δ , I 2= 2Δ, I = 3 3Δ
1
Δ Δ Δ
1. D.C.
Circuits
Step-1

R1 A R2

V1 +
-
I1 R3 I2
r

Figure 1.32Superposition theorem network for step-1

Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 1,
- I 1 R 1 - I 1 R 3 + I 2 R 3 - I 1 r +V 1 = 0
Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 2,
- I 2R2 - I 2R3 + I 1R3 = 0
Now , current flow from R 3 branch is a lg ebric sum of I1 and I 2

Step-2

R1 R2 A

+
I3 R3 I4
-
r V2

B
Figure 1.33Superposition theorem network for step-2

Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 1,

- I 3R1 - I 3R3 + I 4R3 - I 3r = 0
Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 2,
- I 4 R 2 -V 2 - I 4 R 3 + I 3 R 3 = 0
Now , current flow from R 3 branch is a lg ebric sum of I 3 and I 4 Finally, current flow from R 3 is a
lg ebric sum of step −1 and step - 2

1.13. Explain Thevenin’s theorem

∙ Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a
simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage.
∙ Thevenin’s can calculate the currents and voltages at any point in a circuit.
∙ Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and
resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance

, EE Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 20

1. D.C.
Circuits
Connected across the load“.
∙ In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series
with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
∙ Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery
systems and other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the
adjoining part of the circuit.
∙ Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
A RTH A

A Linear Network
+
containing RL RL
Several emf’s -
and Resistance E th

B B

Figure 1.34Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

∙ As far as the load resistor R is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of
L

multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single
equivalent resistance R and one single equivalent voltage E .
∙ th th

R is the thevenin resistance value looking back into the circuit and E is the Thevenin’s
th th voltage
(open circuit voltage) at the terminals.
∙ Steps to be followed to apply the Thevenin’s theorem:

✔ Remove the load resistor R or component concerned.

th

✔ Find R by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current
th sources.

✔ Find E by the usual circuit analysis methods.

th

✔ Find the current flowing through the load resistor R .

R1 R2 th
A
∙ Example network:

r +
R3 RL
V1 -

B
Figure 1.35Thevenin’s theorem network

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 21

1. D.C.
Circuits
Step-1
R1 R2 A
+
V1 +
-
R3 E th
I1 I2
r

-
B
Figure 1.36Thevenin’s theorem network (step-1)

Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 1,

- I 1 R 1 - I 1 R 3 + I 2 R 3 - I 1 r +V 1 = 0
Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 2,
- I 2 R 2 - E th - I 2 R 3 + I 1 R 3 = 0
Loop - 2 is open that ' s way I2 = 0,
So, E th = I 1 R 3
E th = Thevenin equivalent voltage
R th = Thevenin equivalent Re sis tan ce RL = Load Re sis tan ce
Step-2

R1 R2 A

Rth = (((r+ R 1 ) R3 ) + R2 )
R3
Rth (
⎛⎛ r+ R × R ⎞
) ⎞
R=
( )
⎜⎜ r+ R + +R R ⎟ 2 ⎟
1 3

r th
⎝
⎝⎠ 1 3

Step-3 Figure 1.37Thevenin’s theorem network (step-2)

R th

IL
E
I= th

R +
+ L
- RL
E th R
th
L

Figure 1.38Thevenin’s theorem network (step-3)

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 22

1. D.C.Circuits

1.14. Explain Norton’s theorem

∙ Norton’s theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in parallel with a current source.
∙ Norton’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and
resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a
Single Resistor“.
∙ As far as the load resistance, R is concerned this single resistance, R
L N
is the value of the

and
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited
I is the short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.
N

∙ Norton’s equivalent circuit A A

A Linear Network
containing
Several energy RL IN RN RL
sources and
Resistances

B B

Figure 1.39Norton’s theorem equivalent circuit

∙ The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals
where shorted together while the Norton’s resistance would be measured looking back
into the terminals.
∙ The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as follows:
✔ Remove the load resistor R or component concerned.
L
✔
Find R by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current
N sources.
✔ Find I N by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B. Find the current
✔
flowing through the load resistor R .
∙ Example network: L

R1 R2 A

r +
R3 RL
-
V1

B
Figure 1.40Norton’s theorem network

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 23

1. D.C.
Circuits
Step-1
R1 R2 A

V1 +
-
I1 R3 I2 IN
r

B
Figure 1.41 Norton’s theorem network (step-1)
Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 1,
- I 1 R 1 - I 1 R 3 + I 2 R 3 - I 1 r +V 1 = 0
Now apply Mesh analysis in loop − 2,
- I 2R2 - I 2R3 + I 1R3 = 0
Here I 2 = I N
I N = Norton' s equivalent current
R N = Norton' s equivalent Re sis tance RL = Load Re sis tan ce
Step-2

R1 R2 A

RN = (((r+ R 1 ) R3 ) + R2 )
R3 RN (
⎛⎛ r+ R × R ⎞
) ⎞
R=
( )
⎜⎜ r+ R + +R R ⎟ 2 ⎟
1 3

r N
⎝
⎠⎝
1 3

Step-3 Figure 1.42 Norton’s theorem network (step-2)

IL

I= I
RN RL RN
IN L N
R +
R
N
L

Figure 1.43 Norton’s theorem network (step-3)

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 24

1. D.C.Circuits

1.15. Time domain analysis of first order RC circuit

Charging of Capacitor Discharging of Capacitor
R - - R
+ + VR

VR V + C
-
- V
+ + C +
V C
- VC
-

Figure 1.45Discharging of capacitor

Figure 1.44Charging of capacitor Apply KVL in circuit , 0 = VR + Vc

Apply KVL in circuit , 0 = iR + Vc

V -VR -Vc = 0 0=R +V
dq
V = VR + Vc V = iR + Vc dt c

d ( CVc )
V=
dq
R+V 0=R +V
dt c dt c

d ( CVc ) 0 = RC +V
dV c
V= R+V
dt c
dt c

V = RC +V V = -RC
dV c dV c c
dt
dV =
dt c 1 -1
∫ ∫ dt
V RC
V -V = RC
c
dV c c
dt c

∫
1
dV = ∫
1
dt
log V
( )= -t + K (i )
V -V c
RC c
RC
When, t = 0, Vc = V
c

Multiply min us sign both the side

-1
dV =
-1
log V
( )=K (ii)
∫ ∫ dt
V -V c
RC Solve equation (i) and (ii)

( ) = -t + log V
( )
c

( ) = -t + K
log V -V (i) log V

RC c
c
RC
When, t = 0, Vc = 0 ( )
log V - log V
( ) = -t
log V
( ) =K (ii) RC
c

V -t
Solve equation (i) and (ii) log ⎛ c ⎞=
⎜ ⎟
( ) = -t + log V
( )
log V -V ⎝ V⎠ RC
⎛V⎞ -t

⎜ ⎟ = e RC
c
RC c

(
log V -V - log V
) ( )= -t
⎝
V
⎠
c
RC -t
V -V -t Vc = Ve RC
log ⎛ c ⎞=
⎜ ⎟
⎝V ⎠ RC
V -V
⎛ ⎞= -t
c
⎜ ⎟ e RC
V
⎝ ⎠
⎛V ⎞= -t
c Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 25
1 - ⎜ ⎟ e RC
V
⎝ ⎠
1. D.C.
Circuits
-t
Vc = V(1- eRC )

Also,i =
dq
i=
dq
Also, dt
dt
i = d(CVc )
i = d(CVc )
dt
-t dt
i=C
d
i=C
(V (1 - e RC
)) dV c
dt
dt
d -t
i = VC (1 - e RC ) d -t
i=C (Ve RC )
dt
dt
⎛ ⎛ 1⎞ -t ⎞
i = VC ⎜ 0 - ⎜ - ⎟ e RC ⎟ -1 -t
i = CV e RC

⎝ ⎝ RC ⎠ ⎠ RC
-t
i=
VC V -t
e RC i=- e RC
RC R
V -t -t
i= e RC i = -Im e RC
R
-t
i = i m e RC

V λ

0.632 V
vc 0.37

vc

λ
t

t Figure 1.48Dicharging voltage of capacitor

Figure 1.46Charging voltage of capacitor

O λ t

I
-0.37 I m

ic 0.37

-I m
λ
Figure 1.47Charging current of capacitor
Figure 1.49Dicharging current of capacitor

1.16. Time domain analysis of first order RL circuit

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 26

1. D.C.
Circuits
Charging of Inductor Discharging of Inductor
R -
R- +
+

VR VR +
+
+ +
V L V L
- VL - VL

- -

Figure 1.50Charging of inductor Figure 1.51Discharging of inductor

From KVL,
From KVL,
-iR - L = 0
di
=0
di
V - iR - L dt
dt
=L
di
∴V - iR = L
di ∴-iR dt
dt ∴ di = -R di
∴ di = dt i L
V - iR L
=
1 -R
∴∫ di ∫ dt i L
di = () = ⎛ -R ⎞t + K
1 1 ∴log i
∴∫ ∫ dt V - iR L (i)
⎜L⎟
⎝ ⎠
di =
-R -R
∴∫ ∫ dt V - iR L
When, t = 0, i =
( ) = ⎛ -R ⎞t + K
V
∴log V - iR (i)
⎜L⎟ R
⎝ ⎠ ⎛V⎞
=K
When, t = 0, i = 0
log (ii)
⎜R⎟
⎝ ⎠
log V
( )=K (ii)
Solve (i) and (ii)

( ) = ⎛ -R ⎞t + log⎛ V ⎞
Solve equation (i) and (ii) ∴log i
(
∴log V - iR
) = ⎛ -R ⎞t + log V
⎜ ⎟
( ) ⎜ L ⎟
⎝
⎜R⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
()
∴log i - log⎛ V ⎞ = ⎛ -R ⎞t
⎝ ⎠
(
∴log V - iR - log V
) ( ) = ⎛ -R ⎞t ⎜R⎟⎜L⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
⎜L ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ -R ⎞
V - iR -R ∴log = t
∴log ⎛ ⎞=⎛ ⎞t ⎜⎜ V ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ L⎝
V L ⎠
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ R⎠
V - iR ⎛ -R ⎞t
⎟=e⎝ ⎠
⎜⎛ L ⎟ ⎞ ⎛ i ⎞ ⎛ -R ⎞⎜t L ⎟
∴⎜
V ∴⎜ ⎟=e ⎝ ⎠
V
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R⎠
⎟i = e ⎝ ⎠
-R

∴1- ⎜ ⎛⎜ RL ⎟⎞ ⎛ ⎞t

∴i = V e⎜ L ⎟
-R
⎛ ⎞t
V
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

R
∴i =
-R

⎜1- eV⎝⎜ L⎛⎠⎟ ⎟ ⎞

⎛ ⎞t

∴i =
V
e− λt
R⎜ ⎟
R
⎝ ⎠

∴i = I ⎜1-
-R
⎛ e⎜ L ⎟ ⎛ ⎟ ⎞t ⎞
⎝ ⎠
m
⎜ Basic
⎟ Electrical Engineering (3110005) 27
⎝ ⎠
− λt
1. D.C.
Circuits
λ

⎛ ⎜⎛
-R
⎞⎟t
⎞
0.632 Im i = Im ⎜1 - e ⎝ L ⎠
⎟
⎝ ⎠
V
iL i = R e− λ t
iL
0.37 I m

t λ t
Figure 1.52Charging current of inductor Figure 1.53Dicharging current of inductor

Basic Electrical Engineering (3110005) 28