 METACOGNITION

How metacognition can be implemented in

classroom?
 Meaning and concept:
 Use a Gradual Release Approach
→ “Thinking about thinking” or “learning how to
 Integrate Self-Assessment
learn.”
a) What they have already know (prior
→ Refers to higher order thinking which involves
knowledge)
active awareness and control over the cognitive
b) What they don’t know (areas of
processes engaged in learning.
improvement)
c) What they want to master (their goals)
 Practices of metacognition:
d) What they will do to improve (action plan)
 Practice Visualization
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and
→ helps improve executive functioning skills.
memory capacities.
 Incorporate Project Management
 Allow Mistakes and Reward Risk-Taking
 Knowing what learning task one can realistically
accomplish within a certain amount of time.
Recommended Instructional Strategies:
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective
 Teachers can incorporate into lesson plans.
and which are not.
 opportunities for learners to practice using these
questions during learning tasks
 Planning an approach to learning task that is
likely to be successful.
A. During the planning phase
Learners can ask,
 Using effective learning strategies to process and
 What am I supposed to learn?
learning new material.
 What prior knowledge will help me with this
task?
 Monitoring one’s own knowledge and
comprehension.
B. During the monitoring phase
Learners can ask,
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of
 How am I doing?
previously stored information.
 Am I on the right track?
 How should I proceed?
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is
keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure
C. During the evaluation phase
that a goal is met.
Learners can ask,
 How well did I do?
 Strategy:
 What did I learn?
 Did I get the results I expected?
A. Plan/Organize : Before beginning a task.
Benefits of metacognition:
1. Set goals.
2. Plan the content sequence
 Help students become aware of their strengths
3. Choose strategies
and weaknesses.
 One is able to-
B. Monitor : While working on as task
→ Recognize the limit of one’s knowledge or ability
→ Then figure out how to expand that knowledge or
1. Checking the comprehension
extend the ability.
2. Check the production
 Those who know their strengths and weaknesses
C. Evaluate: After completing the task
are able to-
→ actively monitor their learning strategies and
1. Access how well you have accomplished the
resources.
task
→ assess their readiness for particular tasks and
2. How well you have used the learning strategies.
performances.
3. Identify changes to be made next.
 → Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use to
Benefits: construct meaning from information, experiences,
and their own thoughts and beliefs.
 Changes the fixed versus growth mindset about
students’ ability to learn. 2. Goals of the Learning Process
 Increased student ownership of learning and → The successful learner, over time and with
students taking control over their own learning. support and instructional guidance, can create
 More positive attitudes in relation to school and meaningful, coherent representations of
learning. knowledge
 Improved performance not only academic but
also in relation to behavioral performance 3. Construction of knowledge
→ The successful learner can link new information
Other benefits… with existing knowledge in meaningful ways

 Makes able to differentiate between what’s right 4. Strategic thinking

and wrong → The successful learner can create and use a
 Makes the person able to see different repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
perspectives achieve complex learning goals
 Broadens horizon of knowledge and
understanding. 5. Thinking about thinking
 Builds personality and self-evaluation and self- → Higher order strategies for selecting and
regulation ability. monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
and critical thinking
Conclusion:
6. Context of Learning
 Metacognition refers to higher order thinking → Learning is influenced by environmental factors,
 Process includes- including culture, technology and instructional
a) Planning practices.
b) Monitoring
c) Evaluation
 Broadens horizon of knowledge, builds B. Motivational & Affective Factors
personality and widens perspective of thinking.
7. Motivational and emotional influences on
learning
 LEARNER-CENTERED
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (4) → What and how much is learned and influenced by
the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in
 Cognitive and Metacognitive turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional
 Motivational and Affective states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of
 Developmental and Social thinking.
 Individual Difference Factors
→ The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals,
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors and expectations for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of
1. Nature of the learning process thinking and information processing.
→ The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of → Student’s beliefs about themselves as learners and
constructing meaning from information and the nature of learning have a marked influence on
experience motivation.

→ Successful learners are active, goal oriented, → Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally
self-regulating, and assume personal enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
responsibility for contributing to their own performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance
learning learning and performance by focusing the
learner's attention on a particular task.
 → Effective strategies include purposeful learning
activities, guided by practices that enhance
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to
learn, and methods that increase learners’
→ The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, perceptions that a task is interesting personally
and natural curiosity all contribute to relevant.
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by task of optimal novelty and C. Developmental & Social Factors
difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
providing for personal choice and control. 10. Developmental influences on learning

→ Curiosity, flexible insightful thinking, and → As individual develop, there are different
creativity are major indicators of the learners’ opportunities and constraints for learning.
intrinsic to learn, which is large part a function Learning is most effective when differential
of meeting basic needs to be competent and to development within and across physical,
exercise personal control. intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
→ Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that
learners perceive as interesting and personally → Individuals learn best when material is
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in appropriate to their developmental level and is
complexity and difficulty to the learners’ presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed. → Individual development varies intellectual, social,
emotional , and physical domains , achievement
→ Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks in different instruction domains may also vary.
that are comparable to real-world situations and
meet needs for choice and control. → Overemphasis on one type of developmental
readiness– such as reading readiness.
→ Educators can encourage and support the
learners ‘ natural curiosity and motivation to → The cognitive, emotional, and social development
learn by attending to individual differences in of individual learners and how they interpret life
learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and experiences are affected by prior schooling,
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice home, culture, and community factors.
control.
→ Early and continuing parental involvement in
9. Effects of motivation on effort schooling, and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications
→ Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills between adults and children can influence these
requires extended learner effort and guided developmental areas.
practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn,
the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely → Awareness and understanding of developmental
without coercion. differences among children with emotional,
physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate
→ Effort is another major indicator of motivation to the creation of optimal learning contexts.
learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of 11. Social influences on learning
considerable learner energy and strategies effort,
along with persistence over time. → Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communications with
→ Educators need to be concerned with facilitating others.
motivation by strategies that enhance learners’
effort and commitment to learning and to → Learning can be enhance when the learner has an
achieving high standards of comprehension and opportunity to interact and to collaborate with
understanding. others on instructional task.
→ Learning settings that allow for social differences are accepted and adapted to by
interactions, and the respect diversity, encourage varying instructional methods and materials.
flexible thinking and social competence.

→ In interactive and collaborative instructional 13. Learning and Diversity

contexts, individuals have an opportunity for
perspective thinking that may lead to higher → Learning is most effective when differences in
levels of cognitive , social, and moral learners’ linguistic, cultural and social
development, as well as self-esteem. backgrounds are taken into account.

→ Quality personal relationships that provide → The same basic principles of learning, motivation,
stability, trust, and caring can increase learners’ and effective instruction apply to all learners.
sense of belonging, self-respect, self-importance, However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and
and provide a positive climate of learning. socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the
→ Family influences, positive interpersonal support instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
and instruction in self-motivation strategies can designing and implementing appropriate learning
offset factors that interfere with optimal learning environments.
such as negative beliefs about competence in a
particular subject, high level of test anxiety, → When learners perceive that their individual
negative sex role expectations, and undue differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures and
pressure to perform well. experiences are valued, respected and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts,
→ Positive learning climates can also help to levels of motivation and achievement are
establish the context for healthier levels of enhanced.
thinking, feeling, and behaving
14. Standards and Assessment
D. Individual Differences Factors
→ Setting appropriately high and challenging
12. Individual Differences in Learning standards and assessing the learner as well as
the learning progress – including diagnostic,
→ Learners have different strategies, approaches, process and outcome assessment – are integral
and capabilities for learning that are a function parts of the learning process.
of prior experience and heredity.
→ Assessment provides important information to
→ Individuals are born with and develop their own both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
capabilities and talents. learning process.

→ In addition, through learning and social → Effective learning takes place when learners feel
acculturation, they have acquired their own challenged to work towards appropriately high
preferences for how they like to learn and the goals, therefore, appraisal of the learner’s
pace at which they learn. However, these cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as
preferences are not always useful in helping current knowledge and skills, is important for the
learners reach their learning goals. selection of instructional materials of an optimal
degree of difficulty.
→ Educators need to help students examine their
learning preferences and expand or modify → Ongoing assessment of the learner’s
them, if necessary. understanding of the curricular material can
provide valuable feedback to both learners and
→ The interaction between learner differences and teachers about progress towards the learning
curricular and environmental conditions is goals.
another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
→ Standardized assessment of learner progress and
→ Educators need to be sensitive to individual outcomes assessment provides one type of
differences, in general. They also need to attend information about achievement levels both within
to learner perceptions of the degree to which the
 and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions.

→ Performance assessments can provide other What are erogenous zones?

sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes. → Erogenous zones are parts of the body that have
especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at
→ Self-assessments of learning progress can also particular stages of development.
improve students self-appraisal skills and
enhance motivation and self-directed learning. What is fixation?

 Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the → Fixation is the psychoanalytic defense
14 principles and distilled them into five areas: mechanism that occurs when the individual
remains locked in an earlier developmental stage
1) The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge because needs are under- or over-gratified
serves as the foundation of all future learning.
The learner’s previous knowledge will influence Examples of fixation:
new learning specifically on how he represents a) Weaning a child too early or until too late
new information, makes associations and filters b) Being too strict in toilet training the child
new experiences. c) Punishing the child for masturbation
d) Smothering the child with too much attention
2) Strategic processing and control. Learners can
develop skills to reflect and regulate their Stages of Psychosexual Development
thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more
effectively (metacognition). I. Oral Stage

3) Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic → It occurs during the first 18 months of life when
motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to the infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth.
learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning
tasks all have a crucial role in the learning → Chewing, sucking and biting are chief sources of
process. pleasure and these actions reduces tension in the
infant.
4) Development and individual differences.
Learning is a unique journey for each person Examples of Fixation:
because each learner has his own unique a) Eating lollipops
combination of genetic and environmental b) Putting things in your mouth
factors that influence him. c) Eating cookies
d) Smoking cigarettes
5) Situation or context. Learning happens in the e) Kissing
context of a society as well as within an f) Drinking alcohol
individual. g) Brushing your teeth

II. Anal Stage

 PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Theory of Sigmund Freud → It is the second stage of oral development that
occurs between 1 ½ until 3 years of age, in which
What is psychosexual development? the child’s greatest pleasure involves the anus or
the eliminative functions associated with it.
→ Freud believed that adult personality problems
were the result of early experiences in life. → In Freud’s view, the exercise of anal muscles
→ He believed that we go through five stages of reduces tension.
psychosexual development and that at each stage
of development we experience pleasure in one → Through toilet training, the child comes in contact
part of the body than in others. with the rules of society.
 → It occurs at approximately between 6 years of age
until puberty.
→ At this stage, the child represses all interest in
Examples of Fixation: sexuality and develops social and intellectual
skills.
a) If the parent are too lenient , the child will
delevoped a anal-explusive personality where → The pursuit of social and academic activities
they are messy,wasteful and destructive. channels much of the child’s energy into
emotionally safe areas and aids the child in
b) If the parent are too strict , the child will forgetting the highly stressful conflicts of the
delevoped a anal-retentive personality where phallic stage
they are orderly,rigid,obssesive.
V. Genital Stage

III. Phallic Stage → The final stage of psychosexual development

occurs from puberty onwards.
→ It occurs between the ages of 3-6. → It is the time of sexual reawakening, but the
source of sexual pleasure now becomes someone
→ The word “phallic” comes the Latin word outside the family.
“phallus,” which means “penis.”
→ Freud believed that unresolved conflicts with
→ During this stage, pleasure focuses on the parents re-emerged during adolescence.
genitals as the child discovers that self-
stimulation is enjoyable. → Once resolved, Freud believed that the individual
capable of developing a mature love relationship
→ In Freud’s view, the phallic stage has a special and functioning independently as an adult.
importance in personality development because
this period triggers the Oedipus Complex.
 FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
→ The Oedipus Complex is the young child’s
development of an intense desire to replace the By Sigmund Freud
parent of the same sex and enjoy the affection of
the opposite-sex parent.

Resolving the Oedipus Complex

→ At about 5-6 years of age, children recognize

that their same-sex parent might punish them for
their incestuous wishes.

→ To reduce the conflict, the child identifies with

the same-sex parent, striving to be like him/her.

→ If the conflict is not resolved, the individual may

become fixated at the phallic stage.

Examples of Fixations:
a) Addicted to masturbating
b) Gazing at magazine with sexy woman

c) Sex maniac
d) Exhibitionist
e) Masochist

IV. Latency Stage

3 parts to the personality:

1) Id
2) Ego
3) Superego

A. Id

Pleasure Principle
→ the idea that all of your needs should be met
immediately

B. Ego

Reality Principle
→ the idea that the desires of the id must be
satisfied in a method that is both socially
appropriate and realistic

C. Superego

Ego ideal
→ your view of what is right

Conscience
→ your view of what is considered wrong

 THEORIES RELATED TO LEARNER’S

DEVELOPMENT (Focus on the learner)

3 Components of Personality
1) Id
- pleasure centered
2) Ego
- reality centered
3) Superego
- related to the ego ideal or conscience

5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

1) Oral
2) Anal
3) Phallic
4) Latency
5) Genital

The mind is like an iceberg. It floats with Erogenous zone.

one-seventh of its bulk above water. → A specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure
needs. This may be the mouth, the anus, orhe
-Freud genitals..

Fixation.
→ Results from failure to satisfy the needs of a
particular psychosexual stage.
 → Too strict or begin toilet training too early,
1)Oral stage an anal-retentive personality develops in which
→ 0-18 m0nths or 0-1 yr & 6 months the individual is stringent (demanding), orderly,
→ Erogenous zone: Mouth rigid, and obsessive.
→ Pleasure centers on the mouth
→ Sucking, biting, chewing, swallowing gratifies 3)Phallic stage
the child → 3–6 years
→ develops a sense of trust and comfort through → child's primary erogenous zone: genitalia
this oral stimulation → learns the physical (sexual) differences between
→ The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning "male" and "female" and the gender differences
process--the child must become less dependent between "boy" and "girl“
upon caretakers. → Oedipus complex for boys(Freud) - the son–
father competition for possession of mother
Consequences of psychological fixation → Electra complex for girls (Carl Jung)- daughter–
mother competition for psychosexual possession
- Orally aggressive: chewing gum and the ends of father
of pencils, bite his/her nails, use curse words,
gossip, etc. Phallic stage (Implication)
- Orally passive/recepive: smoking, overeating,
kissing, oral sexual practices → Unresolved psychosexual competition for the
- Oral stage fixation might result in being too opposite-sex parent might produce a phallic-
dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack stage fixation leading to:
leadership traits
→ Abnormal family set-up leading to unusual
2) Anal stage relationship with the mother and the father
→ 18 to 36 months or 1 ½ to 3 years old → a girl to become a woman who continually strives
→ Erogenous zone: Bowel and bladder elimination to dominate men, either as an unusually seductive
→ Coping with demands for control woman (high self-esteem) or as an unusually
→ Conflict: toilet training submissive woman (low self-esteem).
-Too harsh: Anal Retentive (obsessively → In a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him
organized, or excessively neat) to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain
- Too lax : Anal repulsive (reckless, careless, man.
defiant, disorganized) → Therefore, the satisfactory parental handling and
resolution of the Oedipus complex and of
Implication the Electra complex are most important in
developing the infantile super-ego, because, by
→ The child has to learn to control his or her bodily identifying with a parent, the child
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense internalizes morality, thereby, choosing to
of accomplishment and independence. comply with societal rules, rather than having to
reflexively comply in fear of punishment.
→ Praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes 4) Latency stage
and help children feel capable and productive.
→ 6 years old until puberty
→ Positive experiences during this stage served as → The child consolidates the character habits they
the basis for people to become competent, developed in the oral, anal, and phallic stages
productive, and creative adults. → The Oedipus/electra complex becomes latent
(hidden)
→ Inappropriate parental responses (punish, → derive the pleasure of gratification from
ridicule or shame a child for accidents)can result secondary process-thinking that directs the
in negative outcomes. libidinal drives towards external activities, such
as schooling, friendships, hobbies, etc.
→ Too lenient training results to an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality.
5) Genital stage

→ Puberty through adult life, and thus represents

most of a person's life
→ Purpose: the psychological detachment and
independence from the parents
→ Affords the person the ability to confront and
resolve his or her remaining psychosexual
childhood conflicts
→ Secondary process-thinking to gratify desire
symbolically and intellectually
→ by means of friendships, a love relationship,
family and adult responsibilities.

Each stage demands satisfaction of needs,

and failure to do so results in fixations.