Net2:expl term anal y digit: anal is continually changing.

La
grafik es: arriba: amplitude (volts) y  (a) continuous y time.//
digit is discretes, discontinuos voltaje pulses. Binary data
encoged into signal elements. Grafik: arrib =, y  (b) discrete y
time. Ej anal: voice and video. Ej dig: digital data, text. // b) i)
analogue data  telephoneanalogue signal//ii)analogue
dataen 1 box: PAM sampler PAM pulsesbox:quantizer 
PCM pulses box: encoder digital bit stream//iii) digital
datamodemanalogue signal//iv)digital datadigital
transmitterdigital signal c) sincr y asincr transm dats digit:
timing problems require a mechanism to synchronize the
transmitter and receiver.//two possible solutions:Asy->each
character is treated independent//Sy data sent in formatted
blocks with some form of synchronization.// Asy simple,
cheap, good for data with large gaps (keyboard)//Syclocks
must be synchronized. Can use separate clockline; good over
short distances. Subject to impairments.//clock embed signal in
datamanchester encoding. D) 300hz a 3,4khz. Voice channels
can be transported E1(2.048Mbps): sol: 3,4-0,3=3,1 x 2= 6,2=
6200 bps// 6,2khz + 1,8 (q sale de 900 del bandguard x 2) =
8Khz// (2048*10^6)/(8000x8)= 32 canales // 1channel
synchronization y 1 channel line signal.//// q2: a) broadcast
domain: is a restricted area in which information can be
transmitted for all devices in the domain to receive//LAN´s
Ethernet are broadcast domain. Any devices attached to the LAN
can transmit frames to any other devices because the medium as
shared transmission system.// collision domain:is a logical
network segment where data packets can “collide” with another
for being sent on a shared medium, in particular in the Ethernet
networks protocol.//This situation is typical in hub environment
where each host segment connects to a hub that represent only
one collision domain and only one broadcast domain.//
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Domain):
the protocol allows multiple devices connected to a shared
network cable to use that cable by taking turns accessing it. C)
Discuss the purpose in the network card: NIC – Network
Interface Card act as the interface between a computer and a
network cable. The purpose is to prepare, send and control data
on the Network. The address is unique and it can not change. D)
unicast, multicast, tormentas broadcast,anycast,Ethernet
addresses… unicast is the sending of information packets to a
single destination. Is the extreme opposite of
broadcasting. //Multicasting is used to regain some of the
efficiencies of broadcasting. When multicasting is unavailable,
unicasting the exact same content to many users can be costly.
These terms are also synonymous with streaming content
providers' services. Unicast servers provide a stream to a single
user at a time, while multicast servers can support a larger
audience by serving content simultaneously to multiple users.//A
broadcast storm is excessive transmission of broadcast traffic in
a network. In other words: An incorrect packet broadcast on a
network that causes most hosts to respond all at once, typically
with wrong answers that start the process over again. Broadcast
storms can be lessened by properly designing and balancing the
number of nodes on each network segment.//Ethernt adrresses:
sending a message, we must use a very simple protocol to
identify the computer. The identification used is based on the
ethernet address//Anycast: is a network addressing and routing
scheme whereby data is routed to the "nearest" or "best"
destination as viewed by the routing topology Q3: Broadband:
signalling would be how you view different channels through
your cable box and signal coaxial cable carrying multiple signals
in tv cable.However, broadband in data communications is
frequently used in a more technical sense to refer to data
transmission where multiple pieces of data are sent
simultaneously to increase the effective rate of transmission,
regardless of actual data rate//Baseband: A baseband bandwidth
is equal to a highest frequency of a signal or system, or an upper
bound on such frequencies.///b)Multiplexación por división de
tiempo: is a method for sending multiple digital signals along a
single telecommunications transmission path. Is a type of digital
or (rarely) analog multiplexing in which two or more signals or
bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-
channels in one communication channel, but are physically
taking turns on the channel//Multiplexado de estadistica:
STDM is an advanced version of TDM in which both the
address of the terminal and the data itself are transmitted
together for better routing. Using STDM allows bandwidth to be
split over 1 line. Many college and corporate campuses use this
type of TDM to logically distribute bandwidth.///c)flow control:
tells the sender how much data has to send. It makes the sender
for sort of an ACK before continuing sending more data. There
are two methods: stop and wait (the problem is that is very slow),
and sliding window// error control: involves retransmission of
the lost, damaged or corrupted frame.//ARQ (Automatic
Repeated Request) The transmitter sends the data and also an
error detection code, which the receiver uses to check for errors,
and request retransmission of erroneous data. In many cases, the
request is implicit; the receiver sends an acknowledgement
(ACK) of correctly received data, and the transmitter re-sends
anything not acknowledged within a reasonable period of time.//
Another way to detect errors is the CRC (cyclic redundancy
check) that considers a block of data as the coefficients to a
polynomial and then divides by a fixed, predetermined
polynomial. The coefficients of the result of the division is taken
as the redundant data bits, the CRC//ventajas y desventajas
ATM: advantages: -supports voice, video and data allowing
multimedia and mixed services over a single network –
scalability – Ability to connect LAN to WAN – support delay
close to that of dedicated services –provides the best multiple
service support – higher aggregate bandwidth –high speed Mbps
and possibly Gbps// Disadvantages: cost, although it will
decrease with time – new customer premises hardware and
software are required - Flexible to efficiency’s expense, at
present, for any one application it is usually possible to find a
more optimized technology. Q5:tcp, udp, icmp TCP: The
Transmission Control Protocol is one of the core protocols of the
Internet protocol suite. TCP provides reliable, in-order delivery
of a stream of bytes, making it suitable for applications like file
transfer and e-mail. //TCP is the transport protocol that manages
the individual conversations between web servers and web
clients. TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces,
called segments, to be sent to the destination client. It is also
responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages
are exchanged between the server and the client.//UDP User
Datagram Protocol is one of the core protocols of the Internet
protocol suite. Using UDP, programs on networked computers
can send short messages sometimes known as datagrams (using
Datagram Sockets) to one another. UDP does not guarantee
reliability or ordering in the way that TCP does. Datagrams may
arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without
notice. ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol is one of
the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It is chiefly used
by networked computers' operating systems to send error
messages—indicating, for instance, that a requested service is
not available or that a host or router could not be
reached.//However, it differs in purpose from other transport
protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is typically not used to
send and receive data between end systems.[esquema ahora] de
izq a dcha y arriba stos 3: application, application layer y
TCP/UDP/ICMP y abajo de app: file transfer, WEB, network
management, ping command.. debajo de app layer: FTP, HTTP,
SNMP y nada, y dbaj de TCP/udp/icmp: TCP, TCP, UDP y
ICMP. B) routed-protocols: Define the format and use of the
fields within a packet. Packets are generally conveyed from end
site to end site.//IP is an example of a routed protocol//routing:
supports a routed protocol by providing mechanism for sharing
routing information. The messages are moved between the
routers. This allows the routers to communicate with other
routers to update and maintain tables.// TCP/IP is an example.//
c) distance vector and link-state: A distance-vector routing
protocol is one of the two major classes of routing protocols used
in packet-switched networks for computer communications, the
other major class being the link-state protocol. A distance-vector
routing protocol uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate
paths.// Examples of distance-vector routing protocols include
RIPv1 and 2 and IGRP.// A distance-vector routing protocol
requires that a router informs its neighbours of topology changes
periodically and, in some cases, when a change is detected in the
topology of a network. Compared to link-state protocols, which
requires a router to inform all the nodes in a network of topology
changes, distance-vector routing protocols have less
computational complexity and message overhead.// The distance
vector is slow to converge, and susceptible to routing loop. A
disadvantage is that consumes a lot of bandwidth. The link-state
uses the shortest path. It is update every triggered and it is not
susceptible to routing loop. One disadvantage could be its
complexity to configure.
2007:b) how is possible to provide DSL on local telephone line,
and what services are possible? //sol:typically work by dividing
the frequencies used in a single phone line into two primary
'bands'. The ISP data is carried over the high frequency band (25
kHz and above) whereas the voice is carried over the lower
frequency band (4 kHz and below).// it is a technology network
access service that allows transmit forms various data such as
voice and video, transportation peer braided copper among
network service providers or telephone companies.////lower
25kbp voice channel: because the voice is carried over the
lower frequency band (4 kHz and below)//q2: MAC addresses:
Media Access Control address, is an identifier of 48 bits that
identifies a unique netcard.each device has its own Mac address
configured by the IEEE.// DHCP:Dynamic Host Configuration
is a protocol used by networked devices (clients) to obtain
various parameters necessary for the clients to operate in an
Internet Protocol (IP) network.//level 2 and level 3 addresses:
level 2: MAC, depends on the physical medium. To establish the
communication need to know the MAC. The MAC has to be
unique. Level 3: IP. It has to be set, and it is independent of each
computer./ Static routing:Static routing describes a system that
does not implement adaptive routing. In these systems, routes
through a data network are described by fixed paths
(statically).//Dynamic routing - is the process by which a
network adapts automatically to the changes in topology or
traffic as those changes occur.
Default routes - are very much like static route. The
administrator enters the default route, and it becomes the default
path the router uses to forward packets for which it knows no
other route to use. Without a default route, packets with
unknown destinations are dripped.//Dijkstra:is a graph search
algorithm that solves the single-source shortest path problem for
a graph with non negative edge path costs, outputting a shortest
path tree.//The best path to destination use the Dijkstra´s shortest
path firsh (SPF) algorithm against the link-state database to build
the shortest path first with the local router as the root. Then, the
best path is selected from the SPF tree and placed in the routing
table.//d) rip calculation is A to B.. B to A / B to (Y B to D) .. C
to D/ C to A.. D to C/ D to B// OSPF se calculan todos: ABD y
ABCD=59.8//// Q4:circuit switched and packet switched
networks: Packet switching is a communications paradigm in
which packets (discrete blocks of data) are routed between nodes
over data links shared with other traffic. In each network node,
packets are queued or buffered, resulting in variable delay. This
contrasts with the other principal paradigm, circuit switching,
which sets up a limited number of constant bit rate and constant
delay connections between nodes for their exclusive use for the
duration of the communication. ii) virtual circuit: is a
connection oriented communication service that is delivered by
means of packet mode communication.//datagram
network:NOC. Each packet is moving. Following packets can
use different paths, and could be or not reliable.//Switched
virtual circuits:Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are generally
set up on a per-call basis and are disconnected when the call is
terminated; however, a permanent virtual circuit (PVC) can be
established as an option to provide a dedicated circuit link
between two facilities/ X.25 to Frame Relay: X.25 is an ITU-T
standard network layer protocol for packet switched wide area
network (WAN) communication. An X.25 WAN consists of
packet-switching exchange (PSE) nodes as the networking
hardware, and leased lines, the phone or ISDN connections as
physical links.//With the widespread introduction of "perfect"
quality digital phone services and error correction in modems,
the overhead of X.25 was no longer worthwhile. The result was
called Frame relay, essentially the X.25 protocol with the error
correction systems removed, and somewhat better throughput as
a result.// b) classful routing protocols:is the name given to the
first round of changes to the structure of the IP address in
IPv4.Classful networking is obsolete on the modern Internet.
There is no longer any such thing as a class A/B/C
network.//VLSM: it allows a single autonomous system to have
different subnet mask. This is done by taking an existing subnet
and further subdividing.//NAT:is designed to conserve IP
address and enable networks to use private IP addresses on
internal networks. These private internal address is translated to
routable, public address. This is accomplished by internet work
devices (e.g. routers) running specialized NAT software which
can increase network privacy by hiding internal IP address.
Ping6:it is a ping to the loopback version 6 IPv6// IPv6 vs
IPv4:The main feature of IPv6 is the larger address space:
addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits long versus 32 bits in IPv4.//IPv6
hosts can be configured automatically when connected to a
routed IPv6 network using ICMPv6 router discovery messages//
Multicast is part of the base specifications in IPv6, unlike IPv4,
where it was introduced later//In IPv4, packets are limited to
64 KiB of payload. IPv6 has optional support for packets over
this limit, referred to as jumbograms which can be as large as
4 GiB.// The problem upgrading will be that is necessary to
upgrade every software and hardware, and this will be very
tedious./// OSPF:
The Open Shortest Path First protocol is a hierarchical interior
gateway protocol (IGP) for routing in Internet Protocol, using a
link-state in the individual areas that make up the hierarchy. A
computation based on Dijkstra's algorithm is used to calculate
the shortest path tree inside each area//Menos mal que esto es
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