For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 1

Module 1: Simple Stress

Module Overview

In statics and dynamics of rigid bodies, the member forces in

structures are determined, such as statically-determinate beams,
trusses and frames. However, structures are not rigid but deform when
loaded. This reality becomes the focus of the Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies. Specifically, it explains the relationship between
externally applied loads and its internal effects.
One of the effects is simple stress, which is the main topic of this
module. Specifically, the first lesson deals with the classification of
loads and the analysis of internal forces. The next lessons cover the
different kinds of simple stresses - centric (or axial), shearing, and
bearing – in statically determinate structures. In these lessons, your
knowledge in computing the member forces is necessary to calculate
these stresses. Nonetheless, each material has allowable stresses.
Given this value, you can determine the sizes of the structural
members.
Aside from the trusses and other typical structures, internal reaction
analysis is extended to a thin-walled pressure vessel. One can
understand the design of liquid- and gas-pressured containers.

Motivation Question
We are surrounded by various human-made structures, such as
machines, buildings, bridges, tunnels, and towers. These things are
designed to support the loads and pressures that are put on them.
Of these load-bearing structures, how does an engineer choose the
structural members and their sizes?

Module Pretest

Instruction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. A structural member is twisted by force, which is called:
(a.) axial (b.) torsional (c.) centric
(d.) shearing (e.) bearing

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 Esci132: Mechanics of Deformable Bodies/Strength of Materials

2. A component of a force that shows stretching or pressing action on

the perpendicular section.
(a.) compressive (b.) tensile (c.) axial
(d.) perpendicular (e.) parallel

3. Normal stress is also called:

(a.) axial (b.) parallel (c.) perpendicular
(d.) shear (d.) bearing
4. A lap joint is fastened by three rivets, which are 10 mm in diameter
and 20 mm in length. If the rivets carry 15-kN force, what is the
shearing stress in the rivets?
(a.) 15.92 MPa (b.) 25 MPa (c.) 47.75 MPa
(d.) 63.66 MPa (d.) 190.99 MPa

5. In a thin-walled cylindrical vessel, the formula for the longitudinal

stress is:
𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷
(a.) (b.) (c.)
𝑡 2𝑡 3𝑡
𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷
(d.) (d.)
4𝑡 5𝑡

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 For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 3

Lesson 1.1: Classification of Loads and

Analysis of Internal Forces

Lesson Summary
The lesson is about the various classification of loads. According to
distribution, loads are classified into either concentrated or distributed.
Based on the location and application method, loads are identified as
either centric, torsional, flexural, or a combination. The lesson also
provides an analysis of internal forces.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Define the mechanics of deformable bodies.
2. Classify structural loads.
3. Explain the internal effects of loads.

Motivation Question
We hear tragic stories about the collapse of buildings, buckling of
roads, and homes destroyed by typhoons. What do these happenings
have in common? They are the product of the forces acting on the
structure, but the structure could not withstand the force.
What are these forces and their classification?

Discussion
Mechanics of deformable bodies deal with the relations between
externally applied loads and their internal effects on bodies (Pytel,
1987).

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 Esci132: Mechanics of Deformable Bodies/Strength of Materials

The definition underlines two technical terms: loads and bodies. For
their illustration, see the wooden vertical post (Figure 1) supporting a
birdhouse. Here, the post is the body, while the house's weight is the
externally applied load. As observed, the post in Figure 1a has
adequate strength to carry the small birdhouse. When the house is
enlarged and even more massive (Figure 1b), the post still vertically
stands. However, buckling happens with a further increase in weight
(Figure 1c). This phenomenon indicates internal effects, which also
exist in other cases (Figure 1a & 1b) but are not visible.

There are two internal effects. The first is the deformation,

which refers to the change in shape. For example, the post in Figures
1a & 1b is compressed under the birdhouse's weight: the more massive
the house, the longer the linear change. Such deformation, however, is
in a nanometer and, thus, can not be seen visually. It becomes evident
when the post supports enormous weight, and buckling is prevented.
The second internal effect is stress, which is the pressure (force per
unit cross-section area) developed in the body.

Comparison between (i) mechanics of deformable bodies and (ii)

statics and dynamics of rigid bodies

In statics and dynamics, the body is assumed as rigid, meaning

the body does not deform. For instance, a post is assumed to retain its
shape regardless of the superimposed load. Specifically, even if the
post is loaded by a too-heavy object such as a bulldozer, the structural
deformation or fracturing is ignored. Instead, only the external effects
are considered: (i) development of friction between bodies and (ii)
change in the state of motion of the body. In comparison, the post's
deformation is considered in the mechanics of deformable bodies, as
the body is no longer thought to be rigid. Theoretically, the body
deforms even how light the sustained load.

Classification of Load

Loads are classified according to (a) distribution and (b)

location and method of application.

A. According to Distribution

1. Concentrated load (or point load) refers to a force acting on a

point or a small distance. It is represented with an arrow. An
example is a person's weight acting on a beam:

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 For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 5

2. Distributed load refers to a load distributed along a

considerable length or a surface. It is represented with
several arrows, whose number has no meaning. For instance,
five cement bags per stack are piled on a beam. Such loading
is called uniformly distributed.

The load distribution can also be increasing. For example, the

cement bags on a beam are arranged in the following order:
one bag on the first stack, two bags on the second, and three
bags on the third.

The distribution can also be a combination of increasing and

uniform, as illustrated below.

It can also be a combination of uniformly distributed loads:

B. According to Location and Method of Application

1. Centric load is a force that passes through the centroid of
the resisting section. It will either compress or stretch the
body. For example, the post in Figure 1 carries an axial load,
the weight of the birdhouse.
2. Torsional load is a force that twists a body. It is illustrated
below wherein a twisting load is applied at the right end of the
circular bar.

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 Esci132: Mechanics of Deformable Bodies/Strength of Materials

3. Flexural or bending load is a force that is applied transversely

to the longitudinal axis of a structural member, which bends
the body. An illustration is shown below.

4. Combined loading is any combination of the above loads.

Analysis of Internal Forces

Consider a body of arbitrary shape acted upon by four external

forces (Figure A). The resultant of these forces is zero. To investigate
the internal reactions, let us cut the body into two parts (Figure B):

Figure A Figure B

Take one of the parts, as shown below. At the cutting section,

there are internal reactions to maintain equilibrium. These forces'
components are denoted by Pxx, Pxy, Pxz, Mxx, Mxy, and Mxz. Their first
subscript denotes the face on which the components act, while the
second indicates its direction. For instance, Pxy is a force on the x face
acting along the y-direction.

Each of the components has the following description:

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 For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 7

Axial force (Pxx) is the pulling (or pushing) action perpendicular to the
section. A pull or tensile force tends to elongate the member,
whereas a push or a compressive force tends to shorten. It is
often denoted by P, without a subscript.
Shear forces (Pxy and Pxz) are the components of the total resistance
that slide along the exploratory section. In other words, these
forces are parallel to the exploratory section. The resultant
shear force is usually designated by V. Its components are
denoted by Vy and Vz, wherein the subscript indicates their
directions.
Torque (Mxx) is the resistance to twisting the structural member and is
denoted by the symbol T.

Bending moment (Mxy and Mxz) is the resistance to bending the

structural member about the z or y-axes and symbolizing My or
Mz.

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