Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things (IOT)

Course Code: BETCK105H

Total Hours of Pedagogy: 40 hours

Course objectives
Understand about the fundamentals of Internet of Things and its
building blocks along with their characteristics.

 Understand the recent application domains of IoT in everyday

life.
 Gain insights about the current trends of Associated IOT
technologies and IOT Analytics.
Module-4 (8- Hours Pedagogy)
Associated IoT Technologies :-
Cloud Computing-
Introduction
Virtualization
Cloud Models
Service-Level Agreement in Cloud Computing
Cloud Implementation

Sensor-Cloud-
Sensors-as-a-Service.

IoT Case Studies :-

Agricultural IoT
Introduction and Case Studies
Cloud Computing:-
Introduction:
Sensor nodes are the key components of Internet of Things (IoT). These nodes are
resource-constrained in terms of storage, processing, and energy. Moreover, in IoT, the
devices are connected and communicate with one another by sharing the sensed and
processed data. Handling the enormous data generated by this large number of
heterogeneous devices is a non-trivial task. Consequently, cloud computing becomes
an essential building block of the IoT architecture. This chapter aims at providing an
extensive overview of cloud computing. Additionally, Check yourself will help the
learner to learn different concepts are related to cloud computing.
Cloud computing is more than traditional network computing. Unlike network
computing, cloud computing comprises a pool of multiple resources such as servers,
storage, and network from single/multiple organizations. These resources are
allocated to the end users as per requirement, on a payment basis. In cloud computing
architecture, an end user can request for customized resources such as storage space,
RAM, operating systems, and other software to a cloud service provider (CSP) as
shown in Figure 10.1. For example, a user can request for a Linux operating system for
running an application from a CSP; another end user can request for Windows 10
operating system from the same CSP for executing some application. The cloud
services are accessible from anywhere and at any time by an authorized user through
Internet connectivity.
 Cloud computing comprises a shared pool of computing
resources, which are accessible dynamically, ubiquitously, and on-
demand basis by the users. This shared pool of resources includes
networks, storage, processor, and servers. These resources are accessible
by multiple users through a regular command-line terminal at the same
or different time instants. The services of cloud computing are based on
the pay-per-use model. The concept is the same as paying utility bills
based on consumption. In cloud computing, a user pays for the cloud
services as per the duration of their resource usage. On the other hand,
there is a CSP, that provides cloud services to end user organizations.
Figure: Network computing versus cloud computing
Virtualization:

The key concept of cloud computing is virtualization. The

technique of sharing a single resource among multiple end user
organizations or end users is known as virtualization.

In the virtualization process, a physical resource is logically

distributed among multiple users. However, a user perceives that the
resource is unlimited and is dedicatedly provided to him/her.

Figure 10.2(a) represents a traditional desktop, where an

application (App) is running on top of an OS, and resources are utilized
only for that particular application.

On the other hand, multiple resources can be used by different

end users through virtualization software, as shown in Figure 10.2(b).
Virtualization software separates the resources logically so that there is
no conflict among the users during resource utilization.
Figure 10. a & b : Traditional desktop versus virtualization
Advantages of virtualization :
With the increasing number of interconnected heterogeneous devices in
IoT, the importance of virtualization also increases.
In IoT, a user is least bothered about where the data from different
heterogeneous devices are stored or processed for a particular application.

Users are mainly concerned for their services.

Typically, there are different software such as VMware, which enable
the concept of virtualization With the increasing importance of cloud
computing, different organizations and individuals are using it extensively.

Moreover, there is always a risk of system crash at any instant of time.

In such a scenario, cloud computing plays a vital role by keeping backups
through virtualization.

Primarily, there are two entities in a cloud computing architecture:

end users and CSP. Both end users and CSP are benefited in several aspects
through the process of virtualization.
The major advantages, from the perspective of the end user and CSP,
are as follows:
i) Advantages for End Users:

(a)Variety:
(b) Availability:
(c) Portability:
(d) Elasticity:

(a)Variety:
The process of virtualization in cloud computing enables an end user organization to
use various types of applications based on the requirements. As an example, suppose
John takes up still photography as a hobby. His resource-limited PC can barely handle
the requirements for a photo editing software, say X-photoeditor. In order to augment
his PC’s regular performance, he uninstalls the X-photoeditor software and purchases a
cloud service, which lets him access a virtual machine (VM). In his VM, he installs the
X-photoeditor software, by which he can edit photos efficiently and, most importantly,
without worrying about burdening his PC or running out of processing resources. After
six months, John’s interest in his hobby grows and he moves on to video-editing too.
For editing his captured videos, he installs a video editing software, Y-videoeditor, in
his VM and can edit videos efficiently. Additionally, he has the option of installing and
using a variety of software for different purposes.
(b) Availability:
Virtualization creates a logical separation of the resources of multiple
entities without any intervention of end users. Consequently, the concept of
virtualization makes available a considerable amount of resources as per user
requirements. The end users feel that there are unlimited resources present
dedicatedly for him/her. Let us suppose that Jane uses a particular email
service. Her account has been active for over ten years now; however, it offers
limited storage of 2 GB. Due to the ever accumulating file attachments in
different emails, her 2 GB complimentary space is exhausted. However, there is
a provision that if she pays $100 annually, she can attach additional space to
her mail service. This upgrade allows her to have more storage at her disposal
for a considerable time in the future.

(c) Portability:
Portability signifies the availability of cloud computing services from
anywhere in the world, at any instant of time. For example, a person flying
from the US to the UK still has access to their documents, although they
cannot physically access the devices on which the data is stored. This has been
made possible by platforms such as Google Drive.
(d) Elasticity:
Through the concept of virtualization, an end user can scale-up or
scale-down resource utilization as per requirements. We have already
explained that cloud computing is based on a pay-per-use model. The end user
needs to pay the amount based on their usage. For example, Jack rents two
VMs in a cloud computing infrastructure from a CSP. VM1 has the Ubuntu
operating system (OS), on which Jack is simulating a network scenario using
Network Simulator-2 (NS2). VM2 has Windows 10 OS, on which he is running a
MATLAB simulation. However, after a few days, Jack feels that his VM2 has
served its purpose and is no longer required. Consequently, he releases VM2
and, after that, he is only billed for VM1. Thus, Jack can scale-up or scale-down
his resources in cloud computing, which employs the concept of virtualization.
(ii) Advantages for CSP:
(a) Resource Utilization:
(b) Effective Revenue Generation:

(a)Resource Utilization:
Typically, a CSP in a cloud computing architecture procures resources
on their own or get them from third parties. These resources are distributed
among different users dynamically as per their requirements. A segment of
a particular resource provided to a user at a time instant, can be provided
to another user at a different time instant. Thus, in the cloud computing
architecture, resources can be re-utilized for multiple users.

(b) Effective Revenue Generation:

A CSP generates revenue from the end users based on resource
utilization. As an example, today, a user A is utilizing storage facility from a
particular CSP. The user will release the storage after a few days when his/her
requirement is complete. The CSP earns some revenue from user A for the
utilization of the allocated storage facility. In the future, the CSP can provide
the same storage facility to a different user, B. Again, the CSP can generate
revenue from user B for his/her storage utilization.
Types of virtualization:
Based on the requirements of the users, we categorized virtualization as shown
in below figure.
(i) Hardware Virtualization: This type of virtualization indicates the sharing of
hardware resources among multiple users. For example, a single processor appears as
many different processors in a cloud computing architecture. Different operating
systems can be installed in these processors and each of them can work as stand-alone
machines.
(ii) Storage Virtualization : In storage virtualization, the storage space from different
entities are accumulated virtually, and seem like a single storage location. Through
storage virtualization, a user’s documents or files exist in different locations in a
distributed fashion. However, the users are under the impression that they have a single
dedicated storage space provided to them.
(iii) Application Virtualization: A single application is stored at the cloud end.
However, as per requirement, a user can use the application in his/her local computer
without ever actually installing the application. Similar to storage virtualization, in
application virtualization, the users get the impression that applications are stored and
executed in their local computer.
(iv) Desktop Virtualization: This type of virtualization allows a user to access and
utilize the services of a desktop that resides at the cloud. The users can use the desktop
from their local desktop.
Figure : Types of virtualization
Cloud Models :
As per the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
and Cloud Computing Standards Roadmap Working Group, the cloud
model can be divided into two parts:
(1) Service model
(2) Deployment model
as shown in below figure.

Further the Service model is categorized as:

Software-as-a-Service (SaaS),
Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS),
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS).

The Deployment model is further categorized as:

Private cloud,
Community cloud,
Public cloud, and
Hybrid cloud.
Figure: Cloud model
(1) Service Model :
The service model is depicted in the above figure.

(a) Software-as-a-Service (SaaS):

This service provides access to different software applications to an end
user through Internet connectivity.
For accessing the service, a user does not need to purchase and install
the software applications on his/her local desktop. The software is located
in a cloud server, from where the services are provided to multiple end
users.
SaaS offers scalability, by which users have the provision to use
multiple software applications as per their requirements.
Additionally, a user does not need to worry about the update of the
software applications. These software are accessible from any location.
One example of SaaS is Microsoft Office 365.
(b) Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS):

PaaS provides a computing platform, by which a user can develop and

run different applications.
The cloud user need not go through the burden of installing and
managing the infrastructure such as operating system, storage, and networks.
However, the users can develop and manage the applications that are running
on top of it.
An example of PaaS is Google App Engine.

(c) Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS):

IaaS provides infrastructure such as storage, networks, and computing

resources. A user uses the infrastructure without purchasing the software and
other network components.
In the infrastructure provided by a CSP, a user can use any composition
of the operating system and software.
An example of IaaS is Google Compute Engine.
Figure: Service Models
(2) Deployment Model :

(a)Private Cloud:
This type of cloud is owned explicitly by an end user organization. The
internal resources of the organization maintain the private cloud.

(b) Community Cloud:

This cloud forms with the collaboration of a set of organizations for a
specific community. For a community cloud, each organization has some
shared interests.

(c) Public Cloud:

The public cloud is owned by a third party organization, which
provides services to the common public. The service of this cloud is available
for any user, on a payment basis.

(d) Hybrid Cloud:

This type of cloud comprises two or more clouds (private, public, or
community).
Service-Level Agreement in Cloud Computing :
The most important actors in cloud computing are the end
user/customer and CSP.

The aim of Cloud computing architecture provides optimal and

efficient services to the end users and generate revenue from them as per their
usage.
Therefore, for a clear understanding between CSP and the customer
about the services, an agreement is required to be made, which is known as
service-level agreement (SLA).
An SLA provides a detailed description of the services that will be
received by the customer.
Based on the SLA, a customer can be aware of each and every term and
condition of the services before availing them. An SLA may include multiple
organizations for making the legal contract with the customers.
Importance of SLA :

An SLA is essential in cloud computing architecture for both CSP and

customers. It is important because of the following reasons:
• Customer Point of View:
• CSP Point of View:

• Customer Point of View:

Each CSP has its SLA, which contains a detailed description of the
services. If a customer wants to use a cloud service, he/she can compare the
SLAs of different organizations. Therefore, a customer can choose a preferred
CSP based on the SLAs.

• CSP Point of View:

In many cases, certain performance issues may occur for a particular
service, because of which a CSP may not be able to provide the services
efficiently. Thus, in such a situation, a CSP can explicitly mention in the SLA
that they are not responsible for inefficient service.
Metrics for SLA :
Depending on the type of services, an SLA is constructed with different
metrics. However, a few common metrics that are required to be included for
constructing an SLA are as follows:

(i) Availability :
This metric signifies the amount of time the service will be accessible
for the customer.
(ii) Response Time:
The maximum time that will be taken for responding to a customer
request is measured by response time.
(iii) Portability:
This metric indicates the flexibility of transferring the data to another
service.
(iv) Problem Reporting:
How to report a problem, whom and how to be contacted, is explained
in this metric.
(v) Penalty:
The penalty for not meeting the promises mentioned in the SLA.
Cloud Implementation:
 Cloud simulation:
With the rapid deployment of IoT infrastructure for different
applications, the requirement for cloud computing is also increasing.
It is challenging to estimate the performance of an IoT system with the
cloud before real implementation.
On the other hand, real deployment of the cloud is a complex and
costly procedure. Thus, there is a requirement for simulating the system through
a cloud simulator before real implementation.
There are many cloud simulators that provide pre-deployment test
services for repeatable performance evaluation of a system.
Typically, a cloud simulator provides the following advantages to a
customer:
• Pre-deployment test before real implementation
• System testing at no cost
• Repeatable evaluation of the system
• Pre-detection of issues that may affect the system performance
• Flexibility to control the environment
Different types of Cloud Simulators are available.
A few cloud simulators are listed here:

(i) CloudSim

(ii) CloudAnalyst

(iii) GreenCloud
(i) CloudSim
(a)Description:
CloudSim is a popular cloud simulator that was developed at the
University of Melbourne.
This simulator is written in a Java-based environment. In CloudSim, a
user is allowed to add or remove resources dynamically during the
simulation and evaluate the performance of the scenario.
(b) Features:
CloudSim has different features, which are listed as follows:
(1) The CloudSim simulator provides various cloud computing data centers
along with different data center network topologies in a simulation
environment.
(2) Using CloudSim, virtualization of server hosts can be done in a simulation.
(3) A user is able to allocate virtual machines (VMs) dynamically.
(4) It allows users to define their own policies for the allocation of host
resources to VMs.
(5) It provides flexibility to add or remove simulation components dynamically.
(6) A user can stop and resume the simulation at any instant of time.
(ii) CloudAnalyst :
(a)Description:
CloudAnalyst is based on CloudSim. This simulator provides a
graphical user interface (GUI) for simulating a cloud environment,
easily.
The CloudAnalyst is used for simulating large-scale cloud
applications.

(b) Features:
(1) The CloudAnalyst simulator is easy to use due to the presence of the
GUI.
(2) It allows a user to add components and provides a flexible and high
level of configuration.
(3) A user can perform repeated experiments, considering different
parameter values.
(4) It can provide a graphical output, including a chart and table.
(iii) GreenCloud
(a)Description:
GreenCloud is developed as an extension of a packet level
network simulator, NS2.
This simulator can monitor the energy consumption of different
network components such as servers and switches.

(b) Features:
(1) GreenCloud is an open-source simulator with user-friendly GUI.
(2) It provides the facility for monitoring the energy consumption of the
network and its various components.
(3) It supports the simulations of cloud network components.
(4) It enables improved power management schemes.
(5) It allows a user to manage and configure devices, dynamically, in
simulation.
An open-source cloud: OpenStack
For the real implementation of cloud, there are various open-
source cloud platforms available such as OpenStack, CloudStack, and
Eucalyptus.
The OpenStack is free software, which provides a cloud IaaS to
users.
A user can easily use this cloud with the help of a GUI-based web
interface or through the command line.
The service components of OpenStack along with their functions
are depicted in the below table.
Features of OpenStack :
(i) OpenStack allows a user to create and deploy virtual machines.
(ii) It provides the flexibility of setting up a cloud management
environment.
iii) OpenStack supports an easy horizontal scaling: dynamic addition or
removal of instances for providing services to multiple numbers of users.
(iv) This cloud platform allows the users to access the source code and
share their code to the community.
Table: Components in OpenStack
A commercial cloud: Amazon web services (AWS)

The popular commercial cloud infrastructures are Amazon Web

Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google App Engine.

A user can launch and manage server instances in AWS.

Typically, a web interface is used to handle the instances.

Additionally, AWS provides different APIs (application

programming interfaces), tools, and utilities for users.

Amazon AWS follows the pay-per-use model.

This cloud infrastructure provides a virtual computing

environment, where different configurations, such as CPU, memory,
storage, and networking capacity are available.
.
Features of AWS :
(i) It provides flexibility to scale and manage the server capacity.
(ii) AWS provides control to OS and deployment software.
(iii) It follows the pay-per-use model.
(iv) The cloud allows a user to establish connectivity between the
physical network and private virtual network.
(v) The developer tools in this cloud infrastructure help a user for fast
development and deployment of the software.
(vi) AWS provides excellent management tools, which help a user to
monitor and automate different components of the cloud.
(vii) The cloud provides machine learning facilities, which are very
useful for data scientists and developers.
(viii) For extracting meaning from data, analytics play an important role.
AWS also provides a data analytics platform.
Sensor-Cloud: Sensors-as-a-Service
In a sensor-cloud, virtualization of sensors plays an essential role
in providing services to multiple users.

The main aim of sensor-cloud infrastructure is to provide an

opportunity for the common mass to use Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs) on a payment basis.

Similar to cloud computing, sensor-cloud architecture also

follows the pay-per-use model.
Importance of sensor-cloud :
The sensor-cloud infrastructure is based on the concept of cloud
computing, in which a user application is served by a set of
homogeneous or heterogeneous sensor nodes.
These sensor nodes are selected from a common pool of sensor nodes, as
per the requirement of user applications. Using the sensor-cloud
infrastructure, a user receives data for an application from multiple
sensor nodes without owning them.
Unlike sensor-cloud, if a user wants to use traditional WSN for a
certain application, he/she has to go through different pre-deployment
and post-deployment hurdles. The below figures depicts the usage of
sensor nodes using traditional WSN and sensor cloud infrastructure.
With the help of a case study, we will discuss the advantages of sensor-
cloud over traditional WSN.
Case Study:
John is a farmer, and he has a significantly vast farmable area
with him. As manual supervision of the entire field is very difficult, he
has planned to deploy a WSN in his farming field. Before purchasing the
WSN, he has to decide which sensors should be used in his fields for
sensing the different agricultural parameters. Additionally, he has to
decide the type and number of other components such as an electronics
circuit board and communication module required along with the
sensors.
As there are numerous vendors, it is challenging for him to
choose the correct (in terms of quality and cost) vendor, as well as the
sensor owner from whom the WSN will be procured. He finally decides
the type of sensors along with the other components that are required for
monitoring his agricultural field.
 Now, John faces the difficulty of optimally planning the sensor node
deployment in his fields. After going through these hurdles, he decides on the
number of sensor nodes that are required for monitoring his field. Finally, John
procures the WSNs from a vendor. After procurement, he deploys the sensor
nodes and connects different components. As WSN consists of different
electronic components, he has to maintain the WSN after its deployment. After
three months, as his requirement of agricultural field monitoring is completed,
he removes the WSN from the agricultural field.
Six months later, John plans to use the WSN that was deployed in the
agricultural field for home surveillance. As the agriculture application is
different from the home surveillance application, the sensor required for the
system also changes. Thus, John has to go through all the steps again, including
maintenance, deployment, and hardware management, for the surveillance
system. Thus, we observe that the users face different responsibilities for using
a WSN for an application.
In such a situation, if sensor-cloud architecture is present, John can
easily use WSNs for his application on a rental basis. Moreover, through the use
of sensor-cloud, John can easily switch the application without any manual
intervention. On the other end, service providers of the sensor-cloud
infrastructure may serve multiple users with the same sensors and earn profit.
Figure : Traditional WSN versus sensor-cloud
Architecture of a sensor-cloud platform :
In a traditional cloud computing architecture, two actors, cloud service
provider (CSP) and end users (customer) play the key role.
Unlike cloud computing, in sensor-cloud architecture, the sensor
owners play an important role along with the service provider and end users.
However, a service provider in sensor-cloud architecture is known as
sensor-cloud service provider (SCSP). The detailed architecture of a sensor-
cloud is depicted in below figure.

Figure : Architecture of a sensor-cloud platform

Actors in sensor-cloud architecture :

Typically, in a sensor-cloud architecture, three actors are present.

We briefly describe the role of each actor.

(i) End User :

This actor is also known as a customer of the sensor-cloud

services. Typically, an end user registers him/herself with the
infrastructure through a Web portal.

Thereafter, he/she chooses the template of the services that are

available in the sensor-cloud architecture to which he/she is registered.

Finally, through the Web portal, the end user receives the
services, as shown in the above figure. Based on the type and usage
duration of service, the end user pays the charges to the SCSP.
(ii) Sensor Owner :

These sensors in a sensor cloud architecture are owned and

deployed by the sensor owners, as depicted in the above figure. A
particular sensor owner can own multiple homogeneous or
heterogeneous sensor nodes.

Based on the requirements of the users, these sensor nodes are

virtualized and assigned to serving multiple applications at the same
time.
On the other hand, a sensor owner receives rent depending upon
the duration and usage of his/her sensor node(s).
(iii) Sensor-Cloud Service Provider (SCSP) :
An SCSP is responsible for managing the entire sensor-cloud
infrastructure (including management of sensor owners and end users
handling, resource handling, database management, cloud handling etc.),
centrally.

The SCSP receives rent from end users with the help of a pre-
defined pricing model. The pricing scheme may include the
infrastructure cost, sensor owners’ rent, and the revenue of the SCSP.

Typically, different algorithms are used for managing the entire

infrastructure. The SCSP receives the rent from the end users and shares
a partial amount with the sensor owners.

The remaining amount is used for maintaining the infrastructure.

In the process, the SCSP earns a certain amount of revenue from the
payment of the end users.
Sensor-Cloud Architecture from Dierent Viewpoints :
We explore the sensor-cloud architecture from two view points:
(i) User organizational view and
(ii)Real architectural view.
Different views of sensor-cloud architecture are shown in
below figure.
(i) User Organizational View:
This view of sensor-cloud architecture is simple. In a sensor-
cloud, end users interact with a Web interface for selecting templates of
the services. Thereafter, the services are received by the end users
through the Web interface. In this architecture, an end user is unaware of
the complex processes that are running at the back end.
(ii) Real Architectural View:
The complex processing of sensor-cloud architecture is visualized
through this view. The processes include sensor allocation, data
extraction from the sensors, virtualization of sensor nodes, maintenance
of the infrastructure, data center management, data caching, and others.
For each process, there is a specific algorithm or scheme.
Figure: Sensor-cloud architecture
IoT Case Studies:
Agricultural IoT- Introduction and Case Studies:
Introduction:
Currently, IoT-enabled technologies are widely used for
increasing crop productivity, generating significant revenue, and efficient
farming.
The development of the IoT paradigm helps in precision farming.
Agricultural loT systems perform crop health monitoring, water
management, crop security, farming vehicle tracking, automatic seeding,
and automatic pesticide spraying over the agricultural fields.
In an IoTbased agricultural system, different sensors necessarily
have to be deployed over agricultural fields, and the sensed data from
these sensors need to be transmitted to a centralized entity such as a
server, cloud, or fog devices.
Further, these data have to be processed and analyzed to provide
various agricultural services. Finally, a user should be able to access
these services from handheld devices or computers. The below figure
depicts a basic architecture of an agricultural IoT.
Figure: Architecture of agricultural IoT
Components of an agricultural IoT :
The development of an agricultural IoT has helped farmers enhance
crop productivity and reduce the overhead of manual operations of the
agricultural equipment in the fields.
Different components such as analytics, drone, cloud computing,
sensors, hand-held devices, and wireless connectivity enable agricultural IoT as
depicted in below figure.

Figure 12.2 Components of agricultural IoT

The different components of an agricultural IoT are discussed as follows:
Cloud computing
Sensors
Cameras
Satellites
Analytics
Wireless connectivity
Handheld devices
Drones

• Cloud computing:
Sensors such as the camera, devices to measure soil moisture, soil
humidity, and soil pH-level are used for serving different agricultural
applications. These sensors produce a huge amount of agricultural data that
need to be analyzed.
Sometimes, based on the data analysis, action needs to be taken, such
as switching on the water pump for irrigation. Further, the data from the
deployed sensors are required to be stored on a long-term basis since it may be
useful for serving future applications. Thus, for agricultural data analysis and
storage, the cloud plays a crucial role.
• Sensors:
The sensors are the major backbone of any IoT application. Similarly,
for agricultural IoT applications, the sensors are an indispensable component. A
few of the common sensors used in agriculture are sensors for soil moisture,
humidity, water level, and temperature.

• Cameras:
Imaging is one of the main components of agriculture. Therefore,
multispectral, thermal, and RGB cameras are commonly used for scientific
agricultural IoT.
These cameras are used for estimating the nitrogen status, thermal
stress, water stress, and crop damage due to inundation/flood, as well as
infestation. Video cameras are used for crop security.

• Satellites:
In modern precision agriculture, satellites are extensively used to
extract information from field imagery. The satellite images are used in
agricultural applications to monitor different aspects of the crops such as crop
health monitoring and dry zone assessing over a large area.
• Analytics:
Analytics contribute to modern agriculture massively. Currently, with
the help of analytics, farmers can take different agricultural decisions, such as
estimating the required amount of fertilizer and water in an agricultural field
and estimating the type of crops that need to be cultivated during the upcoming
season.
Moreover, analytics is not only responsible for making decisions
locally; it is used to analyze data for the entire agricultural supply chain. Data
analytics can also be used for estimating the crop demand in the market.

• Wireless connectivity:
One of the main components of agricultural IoT is wireless
connectivity. Wireless connectivity enables the transmission of the agricultural
sensor data from the field to the cloud/server. It also enables farmers to access
various application services over handheld devices, which rely on wireless
connectivity for communicating with the cloud/server.
• Handheld devices:
Over the last few years, e-agriculture has become very popular. One of
the fundamental components of e-agriculture is a handheld device such as a
smartphone.
Farmers can access different agricultural information, such as soil and
crop conditions of their fields and market tendency, over their smartphones.
Additionally, farmers can also control different field equipment, such as
pumps, from their phones.

• Drones:
Currently, the use of drones has become very attractive in different
applications such as surveillance, healthcare, product delivery, photography,
and agriculture. Drone imaging is an alternative to satellite imaging in
agriculture.
In continuation to providing better resolution land mapping visuals,
drones are used in agriculture for crop monitoring, pesticide spraying, and
irrigation.
 An agricultural food chain (agri-chain) represents the different stages that are
involved in agricultural activity right from the agricultural fields to the consumers.
Figure 12.3 depicts a typical agricultural food chain with the different operations that
are involved in it. Additionally, the figure depicts the applications of different IoT
components required for performing these agricultural operations.
In the agri-chain, we consider farming as the first stage. In farming, various
operations, such as seeding, irrigation, fertilizer spreading, and pesticide spraying, are
involved. For performing these operations, different IoT components are used.
As an example, for monitoring the soil health, soil moisture and temperature
sensors are used; drones are used for spraying pesticides; and through wireless
connectivity, a report on on-field soil conditions is sent directly to a users’ handheld
device or cloud.
After farming, the next stage in the agri-chain is transport.
Transport indicates the transfer of crops from the field to the local storage, and
after that, to long-term storage locations.
In transport, smart vehicles can automatically load and unload crops. The
global positioning system (GPS) plays an important role by tracking these smart
devices, and radio frequency identification (RFID) is used to collect information
regarding the presence of a particular container of a crop at a warehouse.
Figure: Use of IoT components in the agricultural chain
 Storage is one of the important operations in the agri-chain. It is responsible for
storing crops on a long term basis. Typically, cold storage is used for preserving the crops
for a long time and providing them with the necessary climatic and storage conditions and
protection.
In the storage, cameras are used to keep a check and protect the harvested crops.
The camera feeds are transferred through wireless connectivity to a remote server or a cloud
infrastructure. Moreover, the amount and type of crops stored in a storage location are
tracked and recorded with the help of sensors and cloud computing.
For pushing the crops into the market, processing plays a crucial role in an agri-
chain. Processing includes proper drying and packaging of crops. For drying and packaging,
different sensors are used.
Packaging is the immediate operation prior to pushing the crop into the market.
Thus, it is essential to track every package and store all the details related to the crops in the
cloud.
Logistics enables the transfer of the packed crops to the market with the help of
smart vehicles. These smart vehicles are equipped with different sensors that help in loading
and unloading the packed crop autonomously.
Additionally, GPS is used in these smart vehicles for locating the position of the
packed crops at any instant and tracking their whereabouts. All the logistical information
gets logged in the cloud with the help of wireless connectivity.
Finally, the packed items reach the market using logistical channels. From the
market, these items are accessible to consumers. The details of the sale and purchase of the
items are stored in the form of records in the cloud.
12.1.2 Advantages of IoT in agriculture
Modern technological advancements and the rapid developments in IoT components have
gradually increased agricultural productivity. Agricultural IoT enables the autonomous execution
of different agricultural operations. The specific advantages of the agricultural IoT are as follows:
(i) Automatic seeding:
IoT-based agricultural systems are capable of autonomous seeding and planting over
the agricultural fields. These systems significantly reduce manual effort, error probability,
and delays in seeding and planting.
(ii) Efficient fertilizer and pesticide distribution:
Agricultural IoT has been used to develop solutions that are capable of applying and
controlling the amount of fertilizers and pesticides efficiently. These solutions are based on the
analysis of crop health.
(iii) Water management:
The excess distribution of water in the agricultural fields may affect the growth of crops. On the
other hand, the availability of global water resources is finite. The constraint of limited and often
scarce usable water resources is an influential driving factor for the judicious and efficient
distribution of agricultural water resources. Using the various solutions available for agricultural
IoT, water can be distributed efficiently, all the while, increasing field productivity and yields.
The IoT-enabled agricultural systems are capable of monitoring the water level and moisture in
the soil, and accordingly, distribute the water to the agricultural fields.
(iv) Real-time and remote monitoring:
Unlike traditional agriculture, in IoT-based farming, a stakeholder can remotely monitor different
agricultural parameters, such as crop and soil conditions, plant health, and weather conditions.
Moreover, using a smart handheld device (e.g., cellphone), a farmer can actuate on-field farming
machinery such as a water pump, valves, and other pieces of machinery.
(v) Easy yield estimation:
Agricultural IoT solutions can be used to record and aggregate data, which may be spatially or
temporally diverse, over long periods. These records can be used to come up with various
estimates related to farming and farm management. The most prominent among these estimates is
crop yield, which is done based on established crop models and historical trends.
(vi) Production overview:
The detailed analysis of crop production, market rates, and market demand are essential factors
for a farmer to estimate optimized crop yields and decide upon the essential steps for future
cropping practices. Unlike traditional practices, IoT-based agriculture acts as a force multiplier
for farmers by enabling them to have a stronger hold on their farming as well as crop
management practices, and that too mostly autonomously. Agricultural IoT provides a detailed
product overview on the farmers’ handheld devices.
12.2 Case Studies
In this section, we discuss a few case studies that will provide an overview of real
implementation of IoT infrastructure for agriculture.
12.2.1 In-situ assessment of leaf area index using IoT-based agricultural system
In this case study, we focus on an IoT-based agricultural system developed by Bauer et al. [1].
The authors focus on the in-situ assessment of the leaf area index (LAI), which is considered as
an essential parameter for the growth of most crops. LAI is a dimensionless quantity which
indicates the total leaf area per unit ground area. For determining the canopy (the portion of the
plant, which is above the ground) light, LAI plays an essential role.

Architecture
The authors integrated the hardware and software components of their implementation in order to
develop the IoT-based agricultural system for LAI assessment. One of the important components
in this system is the wireless sensor network (WSN), which is used as the LAI assessment unit.
The authors used two types of sensors:
(i) ground-level sensor (G) and
(ii) reference sensor (R).
 These sensors are used to measure photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The
distance between the two types of sensors must be optimal so that these are not located very far
from one another. In this system, the above-ground sensor (R) acts as a cluster head while the
other sensor nodes (Gs) are located below the canopy. These Gs and R connect and form a star
topology. A solar panel is used to charge the cluster head. The system is based on IoT
architecture. Therefore, a cluster head is attached to a central base station, which acts as a
gateway. Further, this gateway connects to an IoT infrastructure. The architecture of the system is
depicted in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4 System architecture

Hardware
For sensing and transmitting the data from the deployment fields to a centralized unit, such as a
server and a cloud, different hardware components are used in the system. The commercial off-
the-shelf (COTS) TelosB platform is used in the system. The TelosB motes are equipped with
three types of sensors: temperature, humidity, and light sensors. With the help of an optical filter
and diffuser accessory on the light sensors, the PAR is calculated to estimate the LAI. The system
is based on the cluster concept. A Raspberry-Pi is used as a cluster head, which connects with
four ground sensor motes. The Raspberry-Pi is a tiny single board, which works as a computer
and is used to perform different operations in IoT. Humidity and wet plants intermittently cause
attenuation to the system, which is minimized with the help of forward error coding (FEC)
technique. The real deployment of the LAI assessment system involves various environmental
and wild-life challenges. Therefore, for reliable data delivery, the authors take the redundant
approach of using both wired and wireless connectivity. In the first deployment generation, USB
power supply is used to power-up the sensors motes. Additionally, the USB is used for
configuring the sensor board and accessing the failure as per requirement. In this setup, a
mechanical timer is used to switch off the sensor nodes during the night. In the second
deployment generation, the cluster is formed with wireless connectivity. The ground sensor motes
consist of external antennas, which help to communicate with the cluster head. A Raspberry-Pi
with long-term evolution (LTE) is used as a gateway in this system.
Communication
The LAI system consists of multiple components, such as WSN, IoT gateway, and IoT based
network. All of these components are connected through wired or wireless links. The public land
mobile network (PLMN) is used to establish connectivity between external IoT networks and the
gateway. The data are analyzed and visualized with the help of a farm management information
system (FMIS), which resides in the IoT-based infrastructure. Further, a prevalent data transport
protocol: MQTT, is used in the system. We have already explored the details of MQTT in
Chapter 8. MQTT is a very light-weight, publish/subscribe messaging protocol, which is widely
used for different IoT applications. The wireless LAN is used for connecting the cluster head with
a gateway. The TelosB motes are based on the IEEE 802.15.4 wireless protocol.
Software
Software is an essential part of the system by which different operations of the system are
executed. In order to operate the TelosB motes, TinyOS, an open-source, low-power operating
system, is used. This OS is widely used for different WSN applications. Typically, in this system,
the data acquired from the sensor node is stored with a timestamp and sequence number (SN).
For wired deployments (the first generation deployment), the sampling rate used is 30
samples/hour. However, in the wireless deployment (the second generation), the sampling rate is
significantly reduced to 6 samples/hour. The TinyOS is capable of activating low-power listening
modes of a mote, which is used for switching a mote into low-power mode during its idle state. In
the ground sensor, TelosB motes broadcast the data frame, and the cluster head (Raspberry-Pi)
receives it. This received data is transmitted to the gateway. Besides acquiring ground sensor
data, the Raspberry-Pi works as a cluster head. In this system, the cluster head can re-boot any
affected ground sensor node automatically.
IoT Architecture
The MQTT broker runs in the Internet server of the system. This broker is responsible for
receiving the data from the WSN. In the system, the graphical user interface (GUI) is built using
an Apache server. The visualization of the data is performed at the server itself. Further, when a
sensor fails, the server informs the users. The server can provide different system-related
information to the smartphone of the registered user.
12.2.2 Smart irrigation management system
In precision agriculture, the regular monitoring of different agricultural parameters, such as water
level, soil moisture, fertilizers, and soil temperature are essential. Moreover, for monitoring these
agricultural parameters, a farmer needs to go to his/her field and collect the data. Excess water
supply in the agricultural field can damage the crops. On the other hand, insufficient water supply
in the agricultural field also affects the healthy growth of crops. Thus, efficient and optimized
water supply in the agricultural field is essential. This case study highlights a prototype of an
irrigation management system [2], developed at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
funded by the Government of India. The primary objective of this system is to provide a Web-
based platform to the farmer for managing the water supply of an irrigated agricultural field. The
system is capable of providing a farmer-friendly interface by which the field condition can be
monitored. With the help of this system, a farmer can take the necessary decision for the
agricultural field based on the analysis of the data. However, the farmer need not worry about the
complex background architecture of the system. It is an affordable solution for the farmers to
access the agricultural field data easily and remotely.
Architecture
The architecture of this system consists of three layers: Sensing and actuating layer, remote
processing and service layer, and application layer. These layers perform dedicated tasks
depending on the requirements of the system. Figure 12.5 depicts the architecture of the system.
The detailed functionalities of different layers of this system are as follows:
Figure 12.5 Architecture: Smart irrigation management system
(i) Sensing and Actuating layer:
This layer deals with different physical devices, such as sensor nodes, actuators, and
communication modules. In the system, a specially designated sensor node works as a cluster
head to collect data from other sensor nodes, which are deployed on the field for sensing the
value of soil moisture and water level. A cluster head is equipped with two communication
module: ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4) and General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). The
communication between the deployed sensor nodes and the cluster head takes place with the
help of ZigBee. Further, the cluster heads use GPRS to transmit data to the remote server. An
electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), integrated with the
cluster head, stores a predefined threshold value of water levels and soil moisture. When the
sensed value of the deployed sensor node drops below this predefined threshold value, a
solenoid (pump) activates to start the irrigation process. In the system, the standard EC-05
soil moisture sensor is used along with the water level sensor, which is specifically designed
and developed for this project. A water level sensor is shown in Figure 12.6(a).

(ii) Processing and Service layer:

This layer acts as an intermediate layer between the sensing and actuating layer and the
application layer. The sensed and process data is stored in the server for future use. Moreover,
these data are accessible at any time from any remote location by authorized users. Depending on
the sensed values from the deployed sensor nodes, the pump actuates to irrigate the field. A
processing board as depicted in Figure 12.6(b) is developed for the project.
Figure 12.6 Water level sensor and processing board
(iii) Application layer:
The farmer can access the status of the pump, whether it is in switch on/off, and the
value of different soil parameters from his/her cell phone. This information is accessible with the
help of the integrated GSM facility of the farmers’ cell phone. Additionally, an LED array
indicator and LCD system is installed in the farmers’ house. Using the LCD and LED, a farmer
can easily track the condition of his respective fields. Apart from this mechanism, a farmer can
manually access field information with the help of a Web-based application. Moreover, the
farmer can control the pump using his/her cell phone from a remote location.
Deployment :
The system has been deployed and experimented in two agricultural fields: (i) an
agricultural field at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT Kharagpur), India, and (ii)
Benapur, a village near IIT Kharagpur, India. Both the agricultural fields were divided into 10
equal sub-fields of 3*3m2. In order to examine the performance, the system was deployed at over
4 sub-fields. Each of these sub-fields consists of a solenoid valve, a water level sensor, and a soil
moisture sensor, along with a processing board. On the other hand, the remaining six sub-fields
were irrigated through a manual conventional irrigation process. The comparison analysis
between these six and four fields summarily reports that the designed system’s performance is
superior to the conventional manual process of irrigation.
Knowledge is Power….

Learning is Super Power…..