D.C.

Circuits

Learning Objectives:

(a) recall and use appropriate circuit symbols as set out in SI Units, Signs, Symbols and
Abbreviations (ASE, 1981) and Signs, Symbols and Systematics (ASE, 2000).

(b) draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors, ammeters,
voltmeters, and/or any other type of component referred to in the syllabus.

(c) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in
series.

(d) solve problems using the formula for the combined resistance of two or more resistors in
parallel.

(e) solve problems involving series and parallel circuits for one source of e.m.f.

(f) show an understanding of the use of a potential divider circuit as a source of variable p.d.

(g) explain the use of thermistors and light-dependent resistors in potential dividers to provide a
potential difference which is dependent on temperature and illumination respectively.

(h) recall and solve problems by using the principle of the potentiometer as a means of comparing
potential differences.
Dunman High School Senior High Physics

Practical circuits
Standard circuit symbols are used to simplify circuit diagrams. The table below shows some common
circuit symbols:

Symbol Symbol

Cell / Battery Earth

Resistor Lamp

D.C. Power
A Ammeter
Supply

Variable
V Voltmeter
Resistor

Light
Unconnected
Dependent
Wires
Resistor

Connected
Thermistor
Wires

Switch Galvanometer

Diode Potential Divider

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Series and parallel arrangements

When two or more resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance (R eff ) of the resistors is
given by the equation

Reff = R1 + R2 +  + RN

We apply a different equation to determine the effective resistance of two or more resistors when
they are placed in a parallel connection:

1 1 1 1
= + ++
Reff R1 R2 RN

Exercise 1
Consider the following circuit.

1.0 Ω
A

3.0 Ω
2.0 Ω

B
4.0 Ω

(a) Find the effective resistance of the four resistors across the points A and B.
(b) The potential difference across the 2.0 Ω resistor is found to be 1.4 V. Determine the
electromotive force of the cell.

---------------

(a) R 13 = R 1 + R 3 = 1.0 + 3.0 = 4.0 Ω

1 1
R 123 = = = 1.3 Ω
1 1   1 1
 +   + 
 R2 R13  2 4

R eff = R 4 + R 123 = 4.0 + 1.3 = 5.3 Ω

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(b) V 2 = V 123 = 1.4 V

Reff 5.3
E = × V123 = × 1.4 = 5.6 V
R123 1.3

Exercise 2
Consider the following arrangement of resistors.

1.0 Ω 2.0 Ω

A C
3.0 Ω

4.0 Ω 5.0 Ω

(a) A 6.0 V cell is connected across points A and C. Find the total current flowing through the
circuit.
(b) The same cell is now connected across points A and D.
(i) Find the effective resistance of the five resistors across points A and D.
(ii) What is the current flowing through the 3 Ω resistor?

---------------

1
(a) R eff = = 1.3 Ω
 1 1 1 
 + + 
 (1.0 + 2.0 ) 3.0 (4.0 + 5.0 ) 
E 6.0
I = = = 4.7 A
Reff 1.3

(b) (i) R 12 = R 1 + R 2 = 1.0 + 2.0 = 3.0 Ω

1 1
R 123 = = = 1.5 Ω
1 1   1 1 
 +   + 
 R3 R12   3.0 3.0 

R 1235 = R 5 + R 123 = 5.0 + 1.5 = 6.5 Ω

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1 1
R eff = = = 2.5 Ω
1 1   1 1 
 +   + 
 R4 R1235   4.0 6.5 

(ii) V 4 = V 1235 = 6.0 V

R123 1.5
V3 = V 123 = × V1235 = × 6.0 = 1.4 V
R1235 6.5
V3 1.4
I3 = = = 0.46 A
R3 3.0

Exercise 3
We have three identical lamps in the circuit below.

X Y

All three lamps are lit at the beginning. Lamp X is then removed from the circuit. Determine if Lamps
Y and Z are dimmer, brighter or the same brightness as before.

---------------

Let the resistance of all three lamps be R.

Initially:
1
R XZ = = 0.5 R
1 1
 + 
R R
R eff = R XZ + R Y = 1.5 R
R   0.5 R  E
VX = V Z =  XZ  × E =   × E =
 Reff   1.5 R  3
2E
VY =
3

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2
V2 E  1 1  E2 
PX = PZ = Z =  × =  
RZ 3 R 9 R 
2
V2  2E  1 4  E2 
PY = Y =  × =  
RY  3  R 9 R 

Finally:
V Y ’ = V Z ’ = 0.5 E
2
E  1 1  E2 
PY’ = PZ’ =   × =  
2 R 4 R 

Lamp Y has become dimmer while Lamp Z has become brighter.

Exercise 4
3 identical lamps are connected in series to a 4.5 V cell as shown below.

4.5 V

X Y Z

The lamps do not light up and a voltmeter is used to find the fault in this circuit. It is found that the
potential difference is zero across lamps Y and Z while the potential difference across lamp X is 4.5 V.
Which of these three lamps is not working?

---------------

Let us assume that lamp X is not working. A faulty lamp essentially leaves us with an open circuit:

4.5 V

Y Z

Because no current is flowing through the circuit, the potential difference across either lamp Y or Z
has to be zero. Connecting a voltmeter across either lamp gives us a reading of 0 V.

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If we now connect the voltmeter across lamp X, we get a circuit that looks like the following:

4.5 V

Y Z
V

The voltmeter completes the circuit and is connected to lamps Y and Z in series. Since an ideal
voltmeter can be considered a resistor of infinite resistance, the potential difference across the
voltmeter will be 4.5 V.

These observations match the ones given in the question, and we conclude that lamp X has to be the
lamp that is faulty.

Potential Divider
As the name suggests, a potential divider is used to ‘divide up’ a potential difference. Consider the
following circuit

3.0 V

A 2.0 Ω C

The potential difference across points A and C is 3 V. Adding one resistor to this circuit, we get the
following

3.0 V

A B C
2.0 Ω 1.0 Ω

With this new circuit, we can now ‘divide up’ the potential difference across points A and C. The
potential difference across points A and B (V AB ) is 2.0 V, while potential difference across points B
and C (V BC ) is 1.0 V.

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In general we can make use of proportionality to determine the potential difference across the two
resistors. Consider the circuit below

A B C
R1 R2

Let V AB represent the potential difference across points A and B.

Let I represent the current flowing through the circuit.

⇒ V AB = I × R 1
⇒ V BC = I × R 2

Dividing the two equations, we get

VAB R1
=
VBC R2

Resistors R 1 and R 2 are connected in series, so we have

⇒ R eff = R 1 + R 2
E E
⇒ I = =
Reff R1 + R2

 E   R1 
⇒ V AB = I × R 1 =   × R1 =   × E
 R1 + R2   R1 + R2 

 E   R2 
⇒ V BC = I × R 2 =   × R2 =   × E
 R1 + R2   R1 + R2 

We get the following two equations

 R1   R2 
VAB =   × E VBC =   × E
 R1 + R2   R1 + R2 

The two resistors divide the e.m.f. of the cell into two parts according to a certain proportion. This is
what we call the potential divider principle.

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Let us consider a different circuit

12 V

X Y Z
6.0 Ω 4.0 Ω

We can now apply the potential divider principle to determine V XY and V YZ

 6.0 
VXY =  × 12 = 7.2 V
 6.0 + 4.0 
 4.0 
VYZ =  × 12 = 4.8 V
 6.0 + 4.0 

If we now ‘earth’ point Y in this circuit, it will have a potential of 0 V, i.e. V Y = 0 V.

12 V

X Z
6.0 Ω 4.0 Ω

Potential vs. Potential Difference

Notice that we are referring to the potential of point Y, not its potential difference. Any point in a
closed circuit with a source of e.m.f. will have a potential. Since it is assumed that all wires have
negligible resistance, all points along connected wires have the same potential.

A potential difference can only be established between two distinct points in a circuit. Any circuit
component that has a current running through it will have one end that is at a higher potential and
the other end at a lower potential. This way, we get a potential difference across the component.

---------------

With this in mind, we can now find the potential of points X and Z in the above circuit.

Current flows from point Z to point Y, so the potential of point Z must be higher than that of point Y.
⇒ VYZ = 4.8 V
⇒ VZ = 0 + 4.8 = 4.8 V

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Current flows from point Y to point X, so the potential of point X must be lower than that of point Y.
⇒ VXY = 7.2 V
⇒ VX = 0 − 7.2 = −7.2 V

Exercise 5
Two resistors of resistance 300 kΩ and 500 kΩ form a potential divider with outer junctions
maintained at potentials of 3.0 V and −15.0 V.

X
3.0 V −15.0 V
300 kΩ 500 kΩ

Determine the potential of point X.

---------------

Potential difference across both resistors = 3.0 − (−15.0) = 18.0 V

300
Potential difference across the 300 kΩ resistor = × 18.0 = 6.75 V
(300 + 500)
Potential at X = 3.0 − 6.75 = −3.75 V

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Exercise 6
Consider the following diagram showing part of a circuit.

A B C D E F

1.0 A
5.0 Ω 2.0 V 9.0 V 2.0 Ω 4.0 V

Plot the potential−distance graph from point A to point F.

---------------

Potential / V

Distance from point A

−5

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What if we now have a variable resistor in our circuit?

Exercise 7
Consider the following circuit, where R has the range 1.0 − 9.0 Ω.

5.0 V

A C
R 1.0 Ω

Determine the range that the potential of points A and C can take.

---------------

⇒ When R = 9.0 Ω, V AB = 4.5 V while V BC = 0.5 V.

⇒ Since point B is grounded, it has a potential of 0 V.
⇒ VA = 0 − 4.5 = −4.5 V.
⇒ VC = 0 + 0.5 = 0.5 V.

Going through the same analysis, we find that V A = −2.5 V and V C = 2.5 V when R = 1 Ω.

∴ V A has a range of −4.5 V to −2.5 V, while V C has a range of 0.5 V to 2.5 V.

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Thermistor & Light-Dependent Resistor

A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance decreases as its temperature increases. A
light-dependent resistor (LDR) is also a semiconductor device, but it is sensitive to light intensity
instead of temperature. The LDR’s resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light increases, i.e.
more light shines on the LDR.

Exercise 8
Consider the circuit below.

A B 15 Ω C
R

The resistance R of the light-dependent resistor falls within the range 5 − 85 Ω. If point C is earthed,
the highest potential of point B is found to be −2.25 V. Find E, the e.m.f. of the cell.

---------------

⇒ V B is at its highest when V BC is at its lowest.

⇒ V BC is at its lowest when R = 85 Ω.
15
V BC = × E = 0.15 E
(15 + 85)
VB = 0 − V BC = −0.15 E = −2.25 V
−2.25
E = = 15 V
− 0.15

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Exercise 9
The thermistor in the circuit below has resistance in the range 5.0 − 20.0 Ω.

9.0 V

B
A C
R 4.0 Ω

D F
1.0 Ω E
2.0 Ω

Determine the potential difference across points B and E when

(a) the thermistor is placed in hot water.
(b) the thermistor is placed in cold water.

---------------

Let the potential of points A and D be 0 V.

1.0
VDE = × 9.0 = 3.0 V
1.0 + 2.0
VE = 0 + 3.0 = 3.0 V

(a) R = 5.0 Ω
R 5.0
VAB = ×E = × 9.0 = 5.0 V
R + R4 5.0 + 4.0

VB = 0 + 5.0 = 5.0 V

VBE = 5.0 − 3.0 = 2.0 V

(b) R = 20.0 Ω
20.0
VAB = × 9.0 = 7.5 V
20.0 + 4.0
VB = 0 + 7.5 = 7.5 V

VBE = 7.5 − 3.0 = 4.5 V

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Balanced potentials
Instead of using two or more resistors to ‘divide up’ the potential difference across two points, we
can use a conductor to do the dividing. Consider the following circuit:

X Y Z
M N

A metal rod XZ of uniform cross-sectional area A and resistivity ρ is connected between points M
and N.

Let LXY and R XY be the length and resistance of the rod between points X and Y respectively.
Let LYZ and RYZ be the length and resistance of the rod between points Y and Z respectively.

We apply the potential divider principle to find V XY :

 ρ LXY 
 
 R XY   A   LXY 
VXY =   × E = × E =   × E
 R XY + RYZ   ρ LXY   ρ LYZ   LXY + LYZ 
 + 
 A   A 

So we get

 LXY 
VXY =   × E
 LXY + LYZ 

Notice how proportionality still applies in this situation

VXY R XY LXY
= =
VYZ RYZ LYZ

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Exercise 10
A cell of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 10.0 Ω is connected to a wire PR of length 1.00 m and
resistance 5.0 Ω. What is the potential difference across PQ, where point Q is 30 cm from point P?

P Q R

---------------

5.0
VPR = × 12 = 4.0 V
5.0 + 10.0
LPQ 30
VPQ = × VPR = × 4.0 = 1.2 V
LPR 100

What if we now have two sources of e.m.f. in the same circuit? Consider the following circuit where
the lengths L XY and L XZ are 14 cm and 20 cm respectively

3.0 V

X Y Z
A C
Jockey

2.1 V
P
Q

A jockey is a movable contact that allows a current to flow between the rod XZ and the wire
connecting the jockey. The cell in the ‘upper circuit’ is referred to as the driver cell.

⇒ Points A, P and X are connected so they have the same potential. Let this potential be 0 V.
⇒ We can apply the potential divider principle to determine V XY . V XY = 2.1 V.
⇒ This means that V Y = 0 + 2.1 = 2.1 V.
⇒ The point Q has the potential of 2.1 V as well.

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When the potentials at points Q and Y are the same, we say that the potentials are balanced. The
length L XY is what we call the balance length.

No current will flow through the wire and jockey connecting points Q and Y. We know this because
an electrical current can only flow from a point at higher potential to a point at lower potential. This
means that no current flows in the ‘lower circuit’.

The needle in the galvanometer stays undeflected when no current is flowing through it. This is
indicated by a vertical arrow in the circuit symbol representing the galvanometer. Note that current
is still flowing in the upper circuit.

This circuit is what we call the potentiometer circuit.

Exercise 11
The iron rod AC in the circuit below has a length of 120 cm and uniform cross-sectional area of
4.6 × 10−7 m2. The resistivity of iron is 9.71 × 10−8 Ω m and balance length L AB is 55 cm.

200 mΩ
3.0 V

A B C

(a) What is the current flowing through the rod?

(b) Determine the e.m.f. of the cell M.

---------------

ρ LAC 9.71 × 10 −8 × 1.20

(a) R AC = = = 0.25 Ω
A 4.6 × 10 −7
R eff = r + R AC = 200 × 10−3 + 0.25 = 0.45 Ω
E 3.0
I = = = 6.6 A
Reff 0.45

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(b) V AC = I × R AC = 6.6 × 0.25 = 1.7 V

LAB 55
E = × VAC = × 1.7 = 0.77 V
LAC 120

Exercise 12
Consider the following circuit, where the uniform rod XZ is 120 cm long.

5.0 V

X Y Z

0.20 Ω
C

The galvanometer stays undeflected when the jockey is tapping on point Y, which is a distance of
46 cm from point Z. Determine the e.m.f. of cell C.

---------------

The potential difference across the cell’s internal resistance is zero as no current is flowing through
it.

(120 − 46)
E = × 5.0 = 3.1 V
120

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