UNIT 2 AIR POLLUTION

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Air Pollution: Definition
2.3 Sources -of Common Air Pollutants
2.4 Types of Air Pollutants
2.4.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants
2.4.2 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
2.4.3 Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollutants
2.4.4 Urban and Rural Air Pollutants

2.5 Effects of Air Pollution

2.5.1 Industrial Smog
2.5.2 Photochemical Smog
2.5.3 Acid Precipitation

2.6 Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

2.7 Effects of Air Pollution on Materials
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
2.11 Answers to Check Your Progresss

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit of this block you have studied about the nature of atmosphere
and various types of environmental reactions that occur in the atmosphere.
Present day atmosphere has changed with the onset of the industrial revolution.
Previously everybody heard about atmosphere consistting of various gases
with major constituents like nitrogen(78.08%), oxygen(20.95%), argon(0.93%),
CO2(0.04%), water vapor(0-4%) and trace gases including ozone, helium,
hydrogen, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide. It is learnt that in addition to these
gases, microscopic liquid and solid particles like dust, pollen grains, carbon
particles, sea salt and microorganisms collectively known as aerosols are
carried up to the atmosphere from land and water surfaces. In this unit you
will study the role of these constituents in the atmosphere and learn about the
chemical processes that explain how and why the atmosphere is getting polluted.
The unit also deals with how the natural properties of air pollutants are influenced
by external factors and the environmental medium where these exist. In the
next section we will begin with defining air pollution.

27
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
 define air pollution;
 enlist the sources of common air pollutants;
 classify various types of air pollutants; and
 describe the effects of air pollution.

2.2 AIR POLLUTION: DEFINITION

By definition air pollution is the presence of contaminants or pollutants in the
air like noxious gases, particles of solid and particulates of liquid matter in
high concentrations that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce
other harmful environmental effects (US-Environmental Protection AgencyUS-
EPA). In other words, any substance in the atmosphere which can create
harm to the natural environment and human beings is known as air pollutant..
The level of air pollution can be determined by three factors given below.
1. The quantity of pollutant that is present in the air
2. The area in which the pollutants are dispersed
3. The removal process of pollutants from the air
Let us first of all study the common pollutants in air and their sources.

2.3 AIR POLLUTION: DEFINITION

On the basis of adverse effects of air pollutants like impaired health, destroying
the environmental resources and damaging property, as per the clean air act
of 1970,the sources of air pollutants can be classified as follows:
1. Mobile Sources: Mobile sources of air pollution start with the exhaust
from the vehicles that contains notable pollutants like lead particulates,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen,
and small amounts of sulfur oxides. These pollutants generate secondary
pollutants when react in the atmosphere and adversely impact on the
environment like photochemical smog and acid rain.
2. Stationary Sources: Stationary sources are two types: point sources
and rea sources
Point sources: These include some of the most important stationary
sources like furnaces and the combustion of carbonaceous fuels, boilers,
ovens and dryers, process systems which produce volatile chemicals,
gases, etc.
Area sources: Solvents from solvent-based paints, leaking pipe joints,
maintenance work involving the dismantling of pumps or breaking of
pipeline spills, unloading /loading procedures and contaminated ground
come under this type of sources.
3. Fugitive Emissions: Fugitive emissions are those which escape from a
28 process rather than being discharged. They enter the atmosphere untreated
 by which they show adverse effects. These emissions can be reduced by Air Pollution
implementing standard operating procedures but natural emissions are
impossible to control. For example: industrial sources, dry cleaning,
agricultural practices, natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires.
The particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and lead (Pb) are some of the air pollutants
about which you would study in the following paragraphs. The sinks (place
of absorption or dispersal) of some of these pollutants are also given here.
1. Particulate matter: The particulate pollutants mean very minute solid or
liquid particles. They may be different in size and shape, also in physical
and chemical properties. These can be either natural or man made. The
major sources are stack emissions, construction work, unsealed roads
etc., Since they are very small in size they provide surface for many
reactions for the formation of secondary pollutants and also diffuse light
by which reduce visibility. The particulate pollutants are classified as:
a. Dust: These are solid particles with >100¼m in diameter dispersed into
the air.
b. Fume: These are solid particles from factories and industries usually
between 0.03- 0.3 ¼m in diameter. Example: metallic oxides
c. Mist: These are liquid particles with 0.5-3.0 ¼m in diameter formed by
condensation reactions.
For example: SO3 + H2O H2SO4
d. Smoke: These are solid particles between 0.5-1.0 ¼m in diameter
produced by incomplete combustion of carbon containing material.
e. Spray: These are liquid particles which are formed by the process of
atomization.
If the size of the particulate matter is >3 m, these are negatively charged
where as particles with < 0.01 m size are positively charged. These electrical
charges will have considerable effect on the rate of coagulation and deposition.
Once the particulate matter releases into the atmosphere it undergoes many
physical and chemical changes like increase in size, absorb or desorb gases,
change in electrical charge, colloid or cohere with other particles, change in
specific gravity, converting into sulpahate and nitrate aerosols .Due to this the
pH, chemical reactivity, and toxicity changes dramatically that affects the life
time of these particles in the atmosphere.
For example: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). PAHs are generated
by coal furnace (>1 m), cigarette smoke (0.1 m) and chemical reactions
involving ethene and ethane > 5000C.
2. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colurless, odourless and tasteless gas found in abundance,
around 530 million tonnes (about 0.00001%), with an average residence time
of 36 to 100 days. The natural existence of atmospheric CO is due to
volcanic eruptions, photolysis of methane and terpenes, forest fires, chlorophyll
decomposition, and microbial action in oceans. 29
Air, Water and Soil Pollution It enters the atmosphere by anthropogenic sources like transportation, disposal
of solid waste, burning of agricultural waste, steel production, etc. It is also
emitted directly into the atmosphere by inefficient combustion of fossil fuels.
2C + O2 2CO
Sink:The CO in the atmosphere by anthropogenic and natural sources will be
naturally removed from the air by conversion to CO2 in a sequence of chemical
reactions either by aerial oxidation or soil microorganisms.
2CO + O2 2CO2
3. Carbon dioxide
In the natural atmosphere carbon dioxide is generated by the combustion of
organic matter, weathering or biological decomposition.
CO2 acts as thermal absorber by which it can absorb energy from infrared
(IR) radiationThe energy from the incoming IR photon causes the CO2 molecule
to vibrate and the extra energy has been removed by the emitted photon in
a continuous process. This potential of CO2 to absorb and re-emit infrared
energy makes this gas an effective heat-trapping greenhouse gas. The gases
like nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) are not able to absorb infrared photons
because of lack of vibration. The details of greenhouse gases and the importance
of greenhouse effect have already been discussed in the previous unit. Sink:
Because of its nature of solubility in water, the major sink for CO2 is ocean
where 50% of all anthropogenic emissions are getting absorbed. The forests
also serve as a sink.
4. Sulfur Compounds
Number of sulfur compounds are released into the atmosphere from both
natural and anthropogenic sources. The major sources are from volcanic
eruptions and man made emissions like incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
The common sulfur compounds exist in the atmosphere is SO2, SO3, H2S and
H2SO4. Combustion of fossil fuels and roasting of metal sulfide ores are the
anthropogenic sources. Out of these sulfur trioxide (SO3) is directly emitted
in ore smelting and fossil fuel combustion and also by the oxidation of SO2
and readily soluble in water to produce H2SO4 which is known as acid rain.
The reactions of formation are as follows.
S + O2 SO2
2 SO2 + O2 2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
It is estimated that100-130 million tonnes of SO2 per year enter the atmosphere
through anthropogenic activities and 50-70 million tonnes are released from
natural sources like volcanoes, sea spray and microbial activities.
Sink:
The removal process of SO2 from the atmosphere is by both dry and wet
deposition. SO2 dissolves in water to form a dilute solution of sulfurous acid
30 (H2SO3). This sulfurous acid remains in clouds, rain droplets or at the surface.
A portion of the SO2 is converted into H2SO4 by its gas-phase oxidation with Air Pollution
subsequent aerosol formation by nucleation or condensation. Sulfuric acid
reacts with ammonia (NH3) to form ammonium hydrogen sulfate (NH4HSO4),
ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4] or mixed salts with ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) salts.
The atmospheric SO2 is converted to sulfate aerosol in other process and is
removed from the atmosphere by dry and wet deposition processes.
5. Nitrogen Compounds
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen with 78.09% abundance.
The major gaseous forms of nitrogen in the atmosphere are molecular nitrogen
(N2), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxide (NO) and
ammonia (NH3). The details of these gases and their role in pollution are
explained here.
Nitrous Oxide
It is a natural constituent of the air in the atmosphere with concentration of
0.30 ppm. It acts as a strong oxidizing agent. It is also called laughing gas
because of its euphoric effects. It is produced in the soil by anaerobic bacteria.
It generates NO in the stratosphere by photolytic dissociation.
Nitric Oxide
Nitric oxide is generated naturally by anaerobic processes in soil and water,
by combustion processes and by photochemical destruction of nitrogen
compounds in the stratosphere. The major man made sources are automobile
exhaust, combustion of fossil fuel-fired electric generating stations, industrial
boilers, incinerators and home heaters.
Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is light yellowish orange at low concentrations and brown at
high concentrations. It is produced by the direct oxidation of NO in the
atmosphere as per the following reaction.
2NO + O2 2NO2
It can also be generated by photochemical reactions of O3, peroxy radical
(RO2), hydroxyl radical(OH)•, hydroperoxide radical (HO2) and H2O2.
Therefore, higher NO2 levels occur on sunny days. Some of the important
reactions are shown below.
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
RO2 + NO NO2 + RO
HO2 + NO NO2 + OH
Sink:
The significant sink for NO is its conversion by direct oxidation and
photochemical processes to NO2. A major sink for NO2 is its conversion to
nitric acid as is shown below.
OH• + NO2 + M HNO3 + M 31
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Where M is a species which absorbs energy (generally O2 or N2).
NO2 +O3 NO3• + O2
NO2+ NO3• N 2O 5
N 2O 5 + H 2O 2HNO3
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with ozone to produce nitrate free radical (NO3).The
nitrate free radical further reacts with nitrogen dioxide to give dinitrogen
pentaoxide (N2O5). This react with water swiftly to produce HNO3. HNO3
reacts with ammonia (NH3) or other alkaline species to form salts like
NH4NO3.The nitrate aerosol is removed from the atmosphere either by dry
or wet deposition processes known as acid deposition or acid rain like in
the sulphate aerosol.
Lead: Lead is a significant heavy metal air pollutant. The exhaust of the
vehicles which use leaded petrol is the primary source of this pollutant. It is
used as a fuel in the form of tetraethyl lead (Pb (C2H5)4) to aid even
combustion. The reaction is as follows:
Pb (C 2 H 5 ) 4 +O 2 +Petrol (Halogenated organic compound
CO2+H2O+PbCl2+PbBrCl+PbBr2
Other major sources of lead in the air are waste incinerators, processing of
ore and metals, aircraft operating on leaded aviation fuel, utilities, lead-acid
battery manufacturers, lead smelters, lead-based paints, ceramics, pipes,
plumbing materials, solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition and cosmetics.
Now you can assess your understanding about the sources of air pollutants
by trying to answer the following questions. After this you will study the types
of air pollutants in the next section.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Fill in Sources of the following air pollutants
a. Ozone
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b. Nitrogen Dioxide
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c. Carbon Dioxide
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2.4 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

There are different types of air pollutants depending on how and where these
are generated . These are listed below and explained in the following
32 subsections.
l Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutant Air Pollution

l Primary and Secondary Pollutants

l Outdoor and Indoor Pollutants
l Stationary and Mobile Source Pollutants
2.4.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants
The pollutants which are released by the natural sources such as eruption of
volcanoes, sea sprays, lightning and microbial processes are called natural
pollutants. Where as pollutants released by human activities such as industrial
and vehicular emissions are known as anthropogenic pollutants.
The sources for natural pollutants are listed below:
1. Biogenicsources-: soil micro organism, hydrosphere organism, vegetation
and animals.
2. Geophysical sources- soil dust and sea salt
3. Geochemical sources- volcanism, burning of biomass and lightening
The anthropogenic sources are:
1. Biogenic sources- Agriculture
2. Chemical sources- chemical processes, high temperature processes and
combustion
3. Physical processes -dust resuspension and volatilization
2.4.2 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
The pollutants which are released directly into the atmosphere from a particular
source of pollution which means they are the direct products of evaporation
and combustion. Example: CO, CO2, CH4, NO, N2O, NH3, H2S, SO2,
chlorides, fluorides, bromides and participate matter/aerosols.
The carbon particulate matter is released into the atmosphere by burning of
fuels and wastes. In addition to this incomplete combustion of fuel molecules
releases in to the atmosphere as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC).The
nitrogen gas in the air gets oxidize during combustion at high temperatures and
releases various nitrogen oxides (NOx).The pollutants like sulfur oxides are
release into the atmosphere by burning of coal. Coal contains 0.2-5.5% sulfur
and heavy metal impurities like mercury.
Source: Industry or vehicles
Effects: Photochemical smog Secondary Air Pollutants
The primary pollutants which can under go further reactions by light energy,
heat or the presence of other chemicals and get converted into undesirable
toxic compounds are called secondary pollutants.
Example: Ozone is a secondary pollutant which is formed by the photolysis
reaction of oxides of nitrogen followed by subsequent reactions with VOCs
NO2, SO2, HNO3 and H2SO4. formed from SO2. 33
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Effects:: Acid rain
Some pollutants may act both as primary and secondary pollutants that mean
they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants also.
Some primary and secondary pollutants, their sources and the effects are
listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Some Primary and secondary pollutants, their sources and
effects
Primary Pollutants
Name Symbol Source Effect

Suspended particulate PM Smoke, metal particles, Respiratory ailments,

matter soot from cooking and impair lung growth in
heating. Dust through infants and heart
wind. attacks

Volatile organic VOC Incomplete combustion Carcinogenic

compounds of fossil fuels
emissions from
industries, evaporation
of gasoline and solvents

Carbon monoxide CO Incomplete combustion It binds to

of fuels hemoglobin and
block the oxygen
delivery tissues

Nitrogen Oxides NOx Burning of Nitrogen Causes acid rain and

containing fuels, Lung irritation
biomass at high
temperatures, lightening
and microbial process.

Sulfur Oxides SOx Burning of Sulfur Causes acid rain and

containing fuels (coal), impairs breathing
volcanoes, sea spray
and microbial process.

Lead Pb Burning of lead Causes brain damage

containing fuels and and death
solid waste

Radon Rn Natural breakdown Lung cancer

of radium and Uranium
containing rocks

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) Leakages from Causes ozone

refrigerants and the dep letion and
causes
use of aerosols. skin cancer
Secondary Pollutants

Ozone O3 Photochemical reactions Oxidizes rubber,

34 of VOCs & NOx highly reactive in
 Air Pollution
lungs and shows
adverse effects on
animals and plants

Peroxyacetylnitrates PAN Photochemical Adverse effects on

reactions plants, lungs and
of VOCs & NOx eyes

Persistent organic POPs Pesticides, solvents Causes

pollutants and pharmaceuticals cardiovascular
disease and cancer

2.4.3 Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollutants

Dear learner, have you ever thought that one source of pollution could be our
own house which is a first indoor environment for a child? This is called indoor
air pollution. Let us look into some of the factors which cause indoor air pollution
that affects our health. . The causes and the health effects of indoor air pollutants
are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: The causes and the health effects of indoor air pollutants
S.No Cause of indoor air pollutant Health effect of the pollutant

1. Inadequate ventilation in poorly Irritations of eyes, nose and

ventilated dwellings pollutants will throat, dry mucous membranes
accumulate to higher concentrations and skin erythema (reddening or
than that of outside. This is known as flushing of the skin), rashes,
‘Sick building syndrome’. mental fatigue, headache,
sleepiness, cough, hoarseness,
wheezing, nausea, dizziness,
unspecific hypersensitivity
reactions

2. High temperature and humidity Fatigue, irritability, headache and

a decrease in performance and
alertness
3. Combustion of oil, gas, kerosene, coal, Bronchoconstriction, lung
wood, and tobacco products. cancer.
4.  Building materials: Formaldehyde  Irritation in eyes, nose and
released from pressed wood throat, coughing, skin
products like hard wood, plywood, rashes, headache, dizziness
wall paneling, fibre board and and vomiting.
urea-formaldehyde foam
insulation.  Radon is a carcinogen.
 Radon released from rocks and  prolonged exposure causes
other building materials under the asbestosis, mesothelioma
constructions of homes, schools and lung cancer.
and offices enters inside with dust.
 Asbestos found in materials used
in the automotive industry and
construction of buildings, ceiling,
and floor tiles. 35
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
5. Second hand tobacco smoke/ Respiratory tract infections and
Environmental tobacco smoke lung cancer
(ETS): releases from burning end
of cigarette and smoke exhaled by
the smokers.

6. Biological pollutants - Mites -Allergens Hypersensitivity, pneumonitis,

– Molds developed in damp or wet allergic rhinitis and some
areas such as cooling coils, humidifiers, types of asthma
condensate pans or unvented
bathrooms can be moldy draperies,
bedding, carpet and other areas where
dust collects that may accumulate
biological contaminants.
7. Volatile organic compounds(VOCs) Eye, nose and throat irritation,
emitted from paints, and other headache, loss of
solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol coordination, nausea,·
sprays cleansers and disinfectants, damage to liver, kidney
moth repellents and air fresheners, and central nervous system
stored fuels and automotive products· cancer in animals, some are
dry - cleaned clothing, pesticides, suspected to cause cancer in
building materials, furnishings, office humans
equipment such as copiers and
printers, graphics and craft materials
including glues and adhesives,
permanent markers and photographic
solutions.
Outdoor Air Pollutants
The causes and health effects of outdoor air pollution are given in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: The causes and health effects of outdoor air pollution
S.No Cause of outdoor air pollutant Health effect
1. Combustion of fossil fuels from Respiratory morbidity
domestic heating, power (pneumonia, asthma) Increased
generation and motor vehicles mortality (from all causes)
releases primary particles Decreased lung growth and
containing sulpahate, metals and function.O3 causes lung irritation
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and inflammation, impaired
and secondary particles containing pulmonary function, eye, nose
nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and throat irritation
and ozone.
2. Industrial processes release Decrements in lung function,
nitrogen oxides, CO, sulphur reduces oxygen-carrying capacity,
oxides other than dust, fly ash, chronic bronchitis, broncho-
smoke, fog, soot and fumes constriction
3. Agricultural processes-biological N-ARD, ARD, infections and cancer,
36 agents like fungi, mycotoxins, Acute respiratory problems.
 glucans, actinomycetes, viruses, Air Pollution
microbial enzymes, plant,
mammalian and invertebrate
proteins. Burning of agriculture
waste releases greenhouse gases
like N2O and methane, SPM.
4. Waste incineration releases PM Autism, Attention Deficit
containing heavy metals, dioxins, Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
furans, mercury etc. lung cancer, dementia damages
immune system

5. Natural processes like volcanic Headache, dizziness, increased

eruptions releases CO2, SO2, H2S, heart rate, irritation of the upper
HF, HCl and HBr respiratory tract and , pulmonary
edema and death during long
exposure

Check Your Progress 2

Note : a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answer given at the end of the
unit.
2. What is “sick building syndrome”?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. What is the difference between primary and secondary air pollutants?
.............................................................................................................
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4. What are the sources of VOCs?
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5. Give two sources each of the indoor and outdoor air pollutants.
.............................................................................................................
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2.4.4 Urban and Rural Air Pollution
Urban air pollution is mainly caused by both ‘mobile’ sources (vehicular) and
‘stationary’ sources (i.e. biomass). Other sources include exhaust fumes from
vehicles, emissions from factories and power generation plants.
Three types of air pollution that affect rural areas are solid fuels like coal and
biomass for cooking and heating, outdoor pollution from urban sources and
secondary pollutants from the transport of emissions far from their primary. 37
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
Do You Know?
Lichens are natural biological indicators of air pollution because of their
source of nourishment is air. Gray-green crusty lichens indicate highly
polluted air, Orange crusty lichens indicate moderate air pollution and leafy
lichens indicate clean air.

We will now learn about the effects of air pollution.

2.5 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Primary and secondary pollutants are threat to human health particularly
respiratory related ailments. Severe exposure to some of these pollutants will
be chronic and life threatening. Some pollutants are carcinogenic too. Dear
learner, we are all in one way or the other exposed to a number of particulate
and gaseous pollutants with inhaled air. The adverse effects of these pollutants
may vary from proximity to the source, nature of wind and weather and
concentration. These effects may be additive, synergistic or antagonistic.
Additive effects are those which occur when the exposure to various pollutants
produces an effect equal to the sum of the effects of the pollutants acting alone.
Synergistic effects are those where the sum of the effects of two or more
pollutants is greater than the combined effect. Antagonistic effects are those
where one pollutant minimizes the effect of another pollutant. These effects are
more often synergistic in nature.
Smog is a kind of air pollution which reduces visibility and is composed of
tropospheric ozone (O3); primary particulate matter such as pollen and dust;
and secondary particulate matter such as sulphur oxides, volatile organic
compounds, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia gas. It is of two types: Industrial
smog and Photochemical smog depending on the nature of pollutants. Industrial
smog generally exists in the urban areas. Smog is
Even though the colour of both appears to be brown haze but the differ in their
formation and chemical composition
2.5.1 Industrial Smog
It is also called as grey or black smog and develops under cold and humid
climatic conditions especially in urban areas where industrial sources like heating
of reactors, roasting process in the nonferrous heavy metals etc., and power
plants run on fossil fuels like coal. These industries emit approximately about
2.5 tons of sulfur per hour. This sulphur immediately reacts with water vapour
and the secondary pollutant sulphurdioxide is formed. At high humidity SO2 is
rapidly oxidized to form sulphuric acid and sulphate particles. Sometimes catalytic
oxidation of dust particles containing heavy metals and soot in the presence of
water droplets in the atmosphere makes the droplets acidic. These create a
thick blanket of haze known as acid smog or industrial smog. It is formed
close to the ground. The general reactions of industrial smog are given below.
1) C + O2 CO2 (carbon dioxide)
38 2) S + O2  SO2 (sulfur dioxide)
3) SO2 + O2  SO3 + O (sulfur trioxide) Air Pollution

4) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

5) H2SO4 + NH3  (NH4 )2SO4 (solid ammonium sulfate)

Let us learn about another type of smog called the photochemical smog.

2.5.2 The Photochemical Smog

The photochemical smog is formed in a series of chemical reactions of secondary
pollutants in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. Photochemical smog
appears mostly in urban areas, which has exhaust from vehicles.

The photochemical smog is formed when the primary pollutants like NOx and
hydrocarbons are captured in the lower atmosphere on exposure to UV radiation
from the sun. The pollutants in the photochemical smog are ozone (O3), hydrogen
peroxide (H 2O 2), organic peroxides (ROOR’), organic hydroperoxides
(ROOH), peroxyacyl nitrates (RCO3NO2) PAN . The latter are formed by the
irradiation of mixtures of alkanals, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. As seen in the
previous unit the concentration of O3 in lower atmosphere is higher than formed
by photolysis of NO2 alone because chemical conversion of NO to NO2 is not
catalyzed by O3.

The rate of formation of O3 is influenced by the concentration of peroxy radical

(RO2.). Peroxy radicals are produced when hydroxy radicals (OH•) and HOx
react with hydrocarbons. The hydroxy radicals are produced by photolysis of
O3, carbonyl compounds and nitrous acid. Thus the concentration of O3 in
polluted atmosphere is based on intensity of sunlight, nature of hydrocarbons;
NO2/NO ratios and other pollutants like alkanals and CO.

The general reactions of Photochemical Smog are given below:

1) NO + VOC  NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)

2) NO2 + UV  NO + O (nitric oxide & molecular O)

3) O + O2 O3 (ozone)

4) NO2+ VOC  PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate)

Net result:

NO + VOC + O2+ UV O3 + PAN + other particulates

We would how learn another effect of air pollution caused by the presence of
sulphur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere called the acid precipitation.

2.5.3 Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation means any type of deposition like rain, fog, mist or snow
which is more acidic than normal. The pH of rain water in the absence of pollution
is approximately 5.6 because of solubility of CO2 in the air to produce carbonic
acid. Acid deposition is the combination of precipitation and dry acidic particle
fallout with a pH less than 5.5 which occurs usually in the industrial regions. 39
Air, Water and Soil Pollution The acid precipitation principally contains a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) in a ratio of two to one. As we have read in the previous
sections of this unit and also in the previous unit that burning of fuels generates
sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the troposphere either by anthropogenic or natural
Acid is any chemical that sources. These oxides are oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to sulfuric acid and
releases hydrogen ions when nitric acids which immediately dissolve in rain water or adsorb to particulate
dissolved in water. The more matter and brought down to earth as acid deposition. If the deposition is wet
acidic substance means the
higher the concentration of then we can call it as acid rain. Some times acidic particles brought down to
hydrogen ions in the solution. earth by the phenomena of dry deposition (acid aerosols) called the acid fog.
It is expressed as pH. The pH
starts from 0(highly acidic) Acid materials reaching the earth by any of the above processes have
through 7(neutral) to significant harmful affects on flora, soil and surface waters and change the pH.
14(highly basic).This scale
represents the negative Air pollution affects the human health in various ways. Let us learn in the next
logarithm (power of 10)of the subsection.
hydrogen ion concentration,
expressed in grams per liter
(g/L). 2.6 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN
HEALTH
In general human beings are affected by air pollution. The first effected system
Ex:To say that a solution has of our body is the respiratory system due to the synergistic effects of ozone and
a pH 1 means the hydrogen NOx causing chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The air pollutants
ion concentration in the may also alter major body functions such as exchange of oxygen in the lungs
solution is 10-1g/L(0.1g/L)
and oxygen transport in the blood. Irritant pollutants may lead to irritation and
long term damage to eyes, nose, throat and other wet surfaces of the body and
the soluble particles get transferred to the blood. One of the most important
particles in the atmosphere is H2SO4, which irritates the mucous membranes
and leads to bronchial constrictions.
Most of the gaseous pollutants like SO2, O3 and NO2 are pulmonary irritants,
and cause congestion, edema and even hemorrhage. Gases like NO, H2S and
CO are asphyxiants. These gases bind the hemoglobin molecules and prevent
oxygen transfer within the body. Organic gas pollutants such as acrolein (l-
propenal) causes eye irritation.
Living spaces in urban areas are polluted and people suffer from chronic effects.
Some of the effects are given in Table 2.4
Table 2.4 : Some pollutants and -their effects on human health
Pollutant Effect on human health
SO 2 Bronchitis
O3 Inflammation which leads to lung fibrosis and failure of
lungs
CO Reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood and
contribute to the heart disease
NO x Impairs lung function and affect the immune system
Particulate Matter Broad spectrum of health ailments, respiratory infections
to heart disease.
Let us look into the effects specific to various pollutants.
40
Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution

Inhaling of high concentrations of carbon monoxide shows adverse effects on

human beings. It binds irreversibly to hemoglobin in the blood forming
carboxyhaemoglobin thereby reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
When comparing to oxygen, CO has a greater affinity (200 times greater) for
haemoglobin.
The concentration of CO at around 10ppm has primary health effect as reduction
in awareness and at around 100ppm, headaches and drowsiness are observed.
Unconsciousness and death occurs at 250ppm level. The continuous exposure
to low levels of CO may cause nervous disorders and finally causes heart disease.
At concentrations in excess (1000ppm) death results from anoxia because of
insufficient supply of O2 to body tissues and brain. The effects of CO on human
health at different concentrations are given in Table 2.5
Table 2.5 : The effects of CO on human health at different concentrations
Concentration of CO in ppm Effect on health
10 Lowered awareness and driving
performance
50 – 100 Headaches and drowsiness, changes in
driving performance and increased
reaction time to visual stimulation
>250 Death
Sulfur Compounds
The most important sulfur compound in the atmosphere is sulfur dioxide. The
adverse effects of sulfur dioxide are often associated with particulate pollutants
since both have common source of generation like combustion of fossil fuels.
Hence high concentration of SO2 is associated with high concentration of
particulate matter forming sulfate aerosols. These aerosols show significant threat
to human health than do sulfur dioxide emissions alone. These aerosols are retained
in the lungs and cause maximum physiological damage. At elevated
concentrations these result in higher mortality from bronchitis and lung cancer.
Sulfur dioxide alone causes respiratory tract irritation and breathing difficulty.
The effects of SO2 to human health are given in Table 2.6. Table 2.6: Effect of
SO2 to human health at different concentrations
SO2 (concentration in ppm) Health effect
500 Reduction in human sensation
800 Threshold of taste
1400 Threshold of odour
4400 Bronchial constriction
20000 Immediate throat irritation
30000 Immediate eye irritation
50000 Immediate coughing

41
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitric oxide is a relatively non toxic and non-irritating gas when compared with
NO2 but it is rapidly oxidized to NO2, which is toxic in nature. Because of its
less solubility in water NO2 generally diffuses deep into the lung and causes
tissue damage. At high concentrations it shows the effects like pulmonary edema.
The major health problem created by nitrogen oxides is that they are the origins
for the mixture of pollutants which form photochemical smog.
Hydrocarbons
All hydrocarbons are relatively nontoxic in nature at the ambient concentrations
but they encounter reactions in the atmosphere with O2, O3, NOx, SOx and
other components to form photochemical smog which is very harmful to human
health. At high concentrations HCHO (methanal), acrolein, and peroxyacyl
nitrate (PAN) cause reduction in visibility, unpleasant odours and cause skin
and eye irritation. Hydrocarbons like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
benzo ( ) pyrene (BaP), are carcinogenic in nature.
Ozone
As per the ambient air quality standards ozone is one of the most toxic pollutant.
In polluted ambient environmental conditions ozone causes significant
physiological and pathological changes in both animals and human beings. The
ambient air quality standard for O3 is 0.12ppm (235mg/m3). Some of the adverse
effects of ozone on exposure are given below.
 At 0.1- 0.4ppm range of for 1-2 hours significant lung function changes in
smokers, adults over 55yrs, asthmatics, or individuals with chronic
obstructive lung disease are more responsive to O3 exposures.
 Above 0.12ppm range symptoms including throat dryness, chest tightness,
coughing, pain whilst deep breathing, shortness of breath, lassitude, malaise,
headache, nausea and also cause decrease in athletic performance.
 O3 exposures inhibit the immune system activity.
 At 0.08-0.10ppm concentrations for three hours causes increase in the
susceptibility of mice to bacterial infectionProlonged and acute exposure
causes death.
Particulate Matter
One of the major air pollutants is particulate matter. Because of its size it exhibits
toxic effects like irritation. The concentration of adsorbed substances includes
SOx, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heavy metals such as lead,
cadmium, zinc and mercury. Particles less than 2.5µm are called “respirable”;
they can enter pulmonary tissue and be deposited there. Particles smaller than
10µm are described as “inhalable particles” and be deposited in the respiratory
system. The deposition of these particles shows adverse effects on health. It
depends on their level of concentration, pH, solubility and synergistic effects
with pollutants such as SO2. The main health effects are acute bacterial and viral
bronchitis, bronchial asthma and pulmonary emphysema.
At Total Suspended Particulate Level (ug/m3) of 200 TSP, minor reversible
changes are observed in the lung function of children. At 250-500 TSP acute
bronchitis and at 1000 TSP results in increased mortality are observed.
42
 Air Pollution
Lead
Exposure to lead particulates results in lead poisoning and the most affected
organs are the blood, the brain, the kidney, the nervous system and the
reproductive system. Symptoms of acute lead poisoning are shock, anaemia,
nervousness, and irreversible kidney and brain damage. In growing children,
lead poisoning affects intelligence, length of concentration and activity. Lead
poison has the ability to cross the placenta, hence in a pregnant woman results
in high lead levels in the foetus that may lead to mental retardation.
Asbestos
Asbestos is the name given to a number of mineral silicates which are compressed
together to form fibrous materials. It cannot be classified under distinct mineral
species but applied to various fibrous materials with varied composition and On the basis of chemical
physical properties for commercial purpose. The fibres in asbestos are highly and mineralogical studies
toxic in nature with very long dormancy periods. Once the asbestos fiber is asbestos is grouped
inhaled by an individual it has the potential to cause cancer for the rest of the under silicate mineral.
Asbestos is a mixture of
individual’s life.
six varieties of silicate
The asbestos particulates show a considerable public health problem due to minerals having common
properties of eponymous
their wide use in the construction and insulating material. Inhalation of the fibres
asbestiform nature. They
causes the lung disease known as asbestosis which is characterized by chronic are chrysotile, crocidolite,
inflammation and scarring disease affecting the tissue of the lungs. Patients with amosite, anthophyllite,
asbestosis may experience acute shortness of breath and are at an increased tremolie and actinolite.
risk for certain cancers, including lung cancer and, less commonly, mesothelioma
(cancer of the lining of the body cavity).
Chromium
Chromium emissions in the air are mainly from industries like iron and chrome,
and associated industries like refining, chemical and refractory processing, cement
production plants, automobiles, leather tanneries, chrome based dyes and
stainless steel production. Moisture is required to
cause the corrosion of
The harmful effects of chromium are related to respiratory ailments like shortness iron and steel in the
of breath, coughing, and wheezing. Chronic exposure results in septum damage, presence of sulfur oxides.
disrupted pulmonary function- pneumonia and lung cancer. Metal samples in dry air
containing oxides of
Let us now learn how the air pollution affects building and materials. sulfur do not corrode.
Deterioration by a
chemical reaction will
2.7 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON increase with
BUILDINGS AND MATERIALS temperature. Surface
which is below the dew
In fact, most of the materials are affected by the direct exposure of air pollutants. point temperature will
cause surface
Some of them are different types of stones, metals, papers and textiles which
condensation and
may be deteriorated by either of the processes of abrasion, chemical exposure, enhanced reaction with
deposition and corrosion. The moisture, temperature and freezing and thawing soluble pollutant gases. If
are the conditions which influence the rate of deterioration. temperatures drops
below the freezing point
1. Abrasion: Solid particles of sufficient size travelling at high speed can of water, freezing and
cause destructive abrasion. defrosting cause cracks
and spalling on stone,
2. Deposition and Removal: Solid pollutants deposited on the surface may exposing new surfaces to
cause discoloration and the removal of the deposit causes deterioration to reactive pollutants.
the structure. 43
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3. Direct and Indirect Chemical Attack: Some of the air pollutants like
sulfur oxides, mainly sulfur trioxide (SO3) react with marble or limestone
(CaCO3) irreversibly and converted to gypsum that cause deterioration.
Materials made by leather absorb sulfur dioxide (SO2) which gets converted
to sulphuric acid that damage the leather goods.
4. Corrosion: Gases like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are
corrosive in nature and in the presence of moisture they undergo
electrochemical reaction and corrode the metal objects.
We will now learn how the buildings and materials may get affected in terms of
discoloration, loss of material, soiling and structural failure.
Stone: In general most of the historic monuments are constructed by different
types of stones. For example: Marble, Granite and Mosaic. These get affected
in the following manner in the case of marble.
Marble: Marble is a metamorphic rock of carbonate mineral. The constructions
made by marble or alternate calcareous stones are vulnerable to air pollutants
like total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
We have already learnt about acid rain and how SO2 gets converted into
H2SO4.This sulphuric acid goes deep into the marble stone thereby solubilises
the calcium carbonate and drags to the surface by the process of natural heating
and reaction with moisture, where it is deposited as gypsum. During wet and
dry environment cycles recurring deposition of gypsum and the porous crust
formed has no link to the stone. It can easily detatch the stone and scale it off.
The dust particles in TSPM contain soot which quickly gets deposit on porous
crust which appears as a black surface.
Decolouration of Taj Mahal- a 17th Century Islamic Architecture: A Case
Study
India’s most famous pride and tourist attraction Taj Mahal is not an exception
to be a non-living victim of the pollution. The industries like Mathura oil refinery,
rubber processing, automobile located around Agra have been responsible for
producing pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These air pollutants
react with water vapor present in the atmosphere forms sulphuric and nitric
acid. These acids reach the ground with rain in the form of acid rain. Acid rains
decolorize the white marble and also corrode the marble which is known as
“Marble cancer”.
Check Your Progress 3
5. Match the words in column A with those of column B appropriately in
the following:
1. Industrial smog a. Asbestos
2. SO 2 b. Lung fibrosis
3. Acid rain c. H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4
4. Photochemical Smog d. Carcinogenic
5. O3 e. H2SO4, HNO3
6. PAH f. Bronchitis
44 7. Asbestos g. O3
 Air Pollution
2.8 KEY WORDS
Acid Precipitation : Includes acid rain, acid fog, acid snow, and any
other form of precipitation that is more acidic than
normal (i.e. less than pH 5.6). Excess acidity is
derived from certain air pollutants; namely,
sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.

Asbestos Fibres : Crystals of asbestos, a natural mineral, that have

the form of minute strands; asbestos is a serious
health hazard in indoor spaces.

Greenhouse Effect : An increase in the atmospheric temperature

caused by increasing amounts of carbon dioxide
and certain other gases that absorb and trap heat,
which normally radiates away from Earth.

Hydroxy Radical : The hydroxyl group (OH), missing the electron.

The hydroxyl radical is a natural cleansing agent
of the atmosphere. It is highly reactive, readily
oxidizes many pollutants upon contact, and thus
contributes to their removal from the air.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) : A group of nitrogen-oxygen compounds formed

when some of the nitrogen gas in air combines
with oxygen during high-temperature combustion.
Nitrogen oxides are a major category of air
pollutants and, along with hydrocarbons, are a
primary factor in the production of ozone and
other photochemical oxidants that are the most
harmful components of photochemical smog.
Nitrogen oxides also contribute to acid
precipitation.

Photochemical Smog : The brownish haze that frequently forms on

otherwise clear, sunny days over large cities with
significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Photochemical smog results largely from sunlight-
driven chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons, both of which come primarily
from auto exhausts.

Primary Pollutants : Pollutants released directly into the atmosphere

mainly as a result of burning fuels and wastes, as
opposed to secondary pollutants.

Secondary Air Pollutants : Air pollutants resulting from reactions of primary

air pollutants resident in the atmosphere.
Secondary air pollutants include ozone, other
reactive organic compounds, and sulphuric and
nitric acids.
45
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
2.9 LET US SUM UP
There are a number of forms of air pollutants which exists in the form of gases,
fumes, clouds, smoke, mist, fog, smog, haze, dust, aerosols, etc. They are
classified as natural/anthropogenic, primary/secondary, particulates/gases,
ambient air/indoor air/ global, stationary/mobile etc. Air pollutant concentrations
are measured in the form of their threshold values which are different for different
pollutants. Above these values the pollutants shows adverse effects on human
beings. The common problem is the respiratory tract infection, bronchitis and
other diseases can occur due to inhalation of toxic pollutants. Pollutants such as
arsenic, lead, fluoride, insecticides and pesticides affect human beings adversely.
Air pollutants also deteriorate the objects made of ferrous, aluminum, copper,
silver, building materials, leather, paper and textile.

2.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry byA.K.De
2. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
3. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.

2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to check your progress should include the following points.
1 a. Lead: Exhaust of the vehicles which use leaded petrol, waste
incinerators, processing of ore and metals and aircraft operating
on leaded aviation fuel, utilities, lead-acid battery manufacturers, lead
smelters, lead-based paint, ceramics, pipes, plumbing materials,
solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition, and cosmetics.
b. Nitrogen dioxide: It is produced by photochemical reactions of O3,
peroxy radical (RO2), OH•, HO2, and H2O2
c. Carbon dioxide: It is generated by the combustion of organic matter
weathering, or biological decomposition.
2. In poorly ventilated dwellings pollutants will accumulate to higher
concentrations than that of outside causes irritations of eyes, nose, and
throat, dry mucous membranes and skin erythema known as ‘Sick building
syndrome’.
3. Primary pollutants are the pollutants which are released directly in to the
atmosphere from a particular source of pollution which means they are the
direct products of evaporation and combustion. Where as the primary
pollutants which can under go further reactions by light energy, heat or the
presence of other chemicals converted in to undesirable toxic compounds
are known as secondary pollutants.
4. VOC’s emitted from paints, and other solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol
sprays, cleansers and disinfectants, moth repellents and air fresheners,
46 stored fuels and automotive products, dry - cleaned clothing, pesticides,
 building materials, furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, Air Pollution
graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent
markers and photographic solutions.
5. 1. c
2. f,
3. e
4. g
5. b
6. d
7. a

47