3.2. Suspension System
3.2. Suspension System
3.2. Suspension System
18
Suspension System
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Ø Comprehend the need for suspension system in a vehicle.
Ø Identify leaf springs, coil springs and torsion bars.
Ø Describe the different types of shock absorbers.
Ø Identify the parts of a MacPherson strut suspension system and describe their operations.
Ø Describe the operation of the rigid rear suspension system.
Ø List the steps in diagnosing a suspension system problem.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel/axle assembly from the body. All the
power from the engine ultimately reaches the wheel through the power transmission system. With
this power the vehicle moves on the road. The irregularities of the road are felt in the form of
shocks on the wheel and at this point the suspension system acts more as a filter to screen out
the shocks which would otherwise damage the body structure and cause discomfort to occupants
of the vehicle. The primary function of the suspension system is to isolate the vehicle structure
from shocks and vibrations due to irregularities of the road surface.
height, suspension systems started improving. It was in 1903 when Mors from Germany fitted a
car with shock absorbers. In 1920 Leyland used torsion bars in its suspension system. In 1922
unitary construction and independent front suspension were poineered on the Lancia Lambda. The
independent front suspension became more common in popular cars by 1932. Peugeot and Adler
led this trend. In 1934 Citroen of France launched its car 7CV. It had front wheel drive, unitary
construction and an all independent suspension. In 1948 Morris (Britain) introduced the new Morris
Minor with a torsion bar independent front suspension. Following this in 1949, Triumph Mayflower
introduced the combined coil spring/damper unit and strut-type telescope damper. In 1950 Ford
(Britain) adopted the McPherson strut independent front suspension on MK 1 consul. Citroen used
hydropneumatic suspension in 1955 in its DS 19 model, while BMC used independent rubber
suspension in its Mini in 1959 and improved it in its 110 model by using hydrostatic suspension
in 1962.
It is clear that the suspension system was revolutionised by the independent suspension system.
As cars started becoming more powerful and lighter, independent front suspension helped the car’s
handling to keep pace with their escalating power to weight ratios. Independent front suspension
changed the shape of the car as well as improving its ride and road holding. With the disappearance
of the front beam axle the engine could be moved further forward and mounted lower. On its either
side, the suspension assemblies were fitted almost at the same height. Today’s high speed, sleek
automobiles owe a lot to the development that took place like the tiny hammer blows of an artist
that chiesel out a piece of art.
Finally, the last stage of the suspension system are the seats of the automobile which the
passengers occupy. They are made of springs and foam/rubber cushions. They absorb all short
amplitude high frequency vibrations which pass from the system to the passenger compartment.
It may further be mentioned that the wheel and the seats usually overcome these high frequency
low amplitude vibrations. The central suspension system has to cope with the greater irregularities
of the road which may impact all the wheels, both the wheels on one side, or one axle or only one
wheel at a time. The suspension system tries to overcome these irregularities while transmitting
minimum vibrations to the passenger compartment.
Springs
Springs act as reservoirs of energy. They store the energy due to the sudden force which comes
when the vehicle encounters a bump or a ditch. This energy is released subsequently and with the
action of dampers, the energy is converted into heat and bounce is avoided.
The action of springs can be understood by considering what happens when a vehicle encounters
a bump or a ditch. When the vehicle hits a bump, the tyre is suddenly pushed up. If there is rigid
suspension (without spring), the full force will be transferred to the carriage unit and push it up
with almost no loss in force in the form of a jerk or bounce. However, when a spring is present,
this force will compress the spring without allowing the force from reaching the passenger unit.
The force on the spring causes the vehicle body to move up at a much smaller rate of acceleration.
As the wheel passes over a bump, the spring expands at a much lower acceleration, and the
vibrations are quickly killed by the damping action of the dampers. Depressions present in roads
produce an almost similar action.
The following types of springs are used in general:
1. Leaf springs or laminated springs
2. Coil springs
3. Torsion bars
Modern cars also use rubber, air and gas springs but they have yet to take the place of these
springs in a general automobile, particularly in this country. They are used more in commercial
vehicles.
The main factors governing the choice of the types of springs used are:
• overall cost of installation.
• relative capacity for storing energy.
• total weight of suspension system.
• fatigue life.
• location.
• guide linkages required.
1. Leaf Springs Leaf springs are referred to as laminated springs since they use steel strips or
laminations one over the other with reducing length (Fig. 18.2). They are also called semi-elliptical
springs as they are bent in that form. However nowadays they are almost straight.
Leaf springs, in terms of mechanics, are beams of uniform strength, since the stress developed
is maximum at the centre while it is minimum at the ends. Laminations provide damping effect due
to the friction between the laminations which move relative to each other when flexing takes place.
The two ends of the topmost spring form an eye which is fitted to the body of the car through
rubber bushes. One end is fitted directly to a pin while the other end is fitted through a shackle
link to accommodate the increase or decrease in length of the spring due to flexing.
Leaf springs in general have approximately only a quarter of the energy storage capacity for a
given stress level of either coil spring or torsion bar. Calculated on the basis of weight for a given
energy storage capacity, the ratio is 3.9:1 in favour of coil or torsion bar springs.
The springiness of the leaf spring can be varied by varying the number of leaf laminations.
Increase in number would stiffen it while reduction will make it more flexible. Similarly, on repeated
use due to constant flexing, the leaves become flatter and their springiness is reduced. In other
words, they become ‘soft’. In such a case further tension is given to the leaves. After a few such
operations, the springs become totally unsuitable for their purpose and have to be changed.
Another disadvantage of the leaf spring is that it is heavier than the coil or torsion bar spring.
Moreover, whereas two thirds of the weight of a semi-elliptic spring is carried by the axle that has
to be considered as unsprung-weight, only half that of a coil spring and virtually none of that of
a torsion bar is unsprung weight.
As mentioned earlier, there is relative motion between the strips of a laminated spring where the
friction opposes the motion. With rusting or dust and dirt, this motion may become excessive and
no longer act as a damper but still reduce springiness to a large extent. To reduce or control friction,
the spring leaves are often interleaved with plastic material having a low coefficient of friction; pads
or buttons of similar materials are interposed between the ends of adjacent leaves. Also springs
themselves are wrapped and sealed to prevent the entry of dust and dirt.
Leaf springs are unsuitable in independent suspension which has become almost universally used
in front wheels and is gradually being used in rear axles.
It is for these reasons that laminated springs still find some use in rear axles while in front axles,
it is almost completely replaced by coil springs or torsion bars.
2. Coil Springs The best energy storing shape for a given weight for a spring is circular, and a
coil spring stores the energy produced by its up and down movement in the most efficient way.
Coil springs have the advantage of fitting in a compact space. It is stressed during torsion like a
torsion bar although there is some bending (Fig. 18.3). The life of coil springs is increased by shot
peening their surfaces to induce compressive stresses in them and to reduce the effect of scratches
in initiating fatigue cracks. Immediately after shot peening, such
springs may be given an anticorrosion treatment again to increase
their fatigue life.
Where coil springs are used the end coils usually sit square, for
stability, upon surfaces through which the load is applied to the rest
of the spring. Coil springs sometimes have a tendency to bend under
the action of compressive load. However in many cases, coil springs
are mounted in such a way that the cylindrical dampers or shock
absorbers pass through them so that the possibility of bending is
reduced to a minimum.
Coil springs were initially preferred for independent suspension
only and hence were used in front axles However with improved Fig. 18.3 Coil Spring
Suspension System 297
cost, complexity of compressed air ancillary system, risk of break down, greater maintenance than
other types of springs and freezing of moisture in air in cold weather. Air suspension systems are
in general too bulky and too complex for cars.
Dampers
Dampers are used in the suspension system to check any continuous vibration which may follow
the initial force on the spring. Damping action is provided by the absorption of energy in one form
or the other. In old days, friction was used as the damping agent. These dampers had packs of
friction material interleaved between blades, or arms which were attached alternately to spring and
unsprung masses. Semirotary vane type dampers were also used. However they were abandoned
because the ratio of sealing length around their vanes to volume displaced was so high that these
units were rapidly adversely affected by wear.
Modern cars mostly have hydraulic dampers which Rubber-Bonded
are of two types: Bush
1. Telescopic dampers Eye for Attachment
2. Rocking lever dampers. to body
wheel axle and the car body respectively through rubber bush eyes. The piston rod passes through
a sealing gland on the open side of the cylinder. The piston has a small hole through which the fluid
rushes to the other side as the piston is forced to move in any direction due to the motion of the
wheel.
Relief valves and leak passages provide controlled flow of the oil each way through the piston.
The space above the piston is smaller than that below it and this space cannot accept all the oil
displaced by the piston as it travels towards the lower end of the cylinder. A valve controls the
escape of the surplus oil into a reservoir or ‘recuperating chamber’ which surrounds the cylinder.
As the damper extends, the piston does not displace enough oil from the top section of the
cylinder to fill the lower, which is topped up from the reservoir through the replenishment valve.
2. Rocking Lever Damper Rocking lever dampers (Fig. 18.6) work on the same principal as
telescopic dampers but have two pistons which move in a cylinder while the oil is displaced through
a valve. The motion of the dual pistons takes place due to the motion of the wheels which is passed
on to the pistons through the rocker levers.
Rocker
Link from Shaft
Spring to Rocking Lever
Operating Moves Pistons
Lever to and fro
Damper
Operating Lever
Dual Pistons
Leaf Spring
(a) Lever Damper (b) Section Through Lever Damper
The body, incorporating the hydraulic cylinder of the lever type damper is usually mounted on
the carriage unit, with its actuating lever connected to the axle. If the body were mounted on the
axle, the high frequency, high velocity motions to which it would be subjected might cause aeration
of the hydraulic fluid and hence adversely affect the damping capacity of the unit.
S.No Make of the Vehicle Front Suspension Rear Suspension Shock Absorbers
1. Ambassador Independent torsion bar Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
2. Padmini Premier Independent coil springs Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
3. Maruti 800 MacPherson independent Leaf spring Hydraulic (Telescopic double acting)
strut and coil springs
4. Maruti 1000 MacPherson independent Coil spring Hydraulic (Telescopic double acting)
strut type
5. Jeep Mahindra Semi-elliptic Leaf Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
CJ-3B
6. Maruti Gypsy Semi-elliptical Semi-elliptical multi leaf Hydraulic double acting)
7. Ashok Leyland Semi-elliptical Leaf Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
8. Tata Truck 407 & Semi-elliptical multileaf Semi-elliptical multileaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
1210 model
9. Daewoo Matiz MacPherson strut Isolated trailing links Hydraulic
with coil springs
10. Hyundai Santro MacPherson strut with Torsion beam axle, Hydraulic
stabiliser bar 3-link offset coil springs
11. Telco Indica (Petrol) Independent, wish bone Independent semi- Hydraulic
type with MacPherson trailing arm with coil
strut spray
12. Maruti Esteem Macpherson strut and Macpherson strut and Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
coil spring coil spring
13. Maruti Wagon R Macpherson strut with Coil spring, gas-filled Gas-filled
torsion type roll control shock absorbers with
device three-link rigid axle and
isolated trailing arms
14. Maruti Alto Macpherson strut with Coil spring with double Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
torsion type anti-roll bar action telescopic shock
absorbers
15. Maruti Baleno Macpherson strut and Macpherson strut & Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
coil spring with an L coil spring with parallel
shaped lower arm and link arrangement
anti roll bar
Independent Suspension
Independent suspension is a term used to describe any arrangement by which the wheels are
connected to the carriage unit in a manner such that the rise and fall of one wheel has no effect
on the others.
There are many advantages of the independent suspension system:
(i) Since in the independent suspension system, the wheels more or less travel with their planes
perpendicular to the road surface, the gyroscopic affects are reduced to a minimum.
(ii) Steering effects due to lateral movements of the tyre/road contact path, as the wheel rises
and falls are avoided.
Suspension System 301
1. Double Wish Bone Suspension System As the name suggests, the assembly in the double wish
bone suspension system primarily uses two wish bone shaped links (Fig. 18.7). A wish bone is a
vee shaped link which is so named because of its shape. The two ends of the vee are hinged onto
the body or the sub frame while the narrow ends carry between them (i.e. narrow ends of upper
and lower wish bone links) the swivel member which carries the stub axle on which the wheel is
mounted. Thus the two wish bones are placed one over the other while the swivel member is
vertically positioned. Between the two wish bone links are placed the spring and the shock absorber
(damper) system which take the shocks and reduce vibrations.
Upper
Swivel Upper Wish Bone
Joint Connected by a
Ball-Joint to the
Swivel Member
Coil Spring Absorbs
Road Shocks
Steering
Swivel
Member Bump Stops
Stub Axle
Carries Wheel
Lower Swivel
Joint
Telescopic
Damper Prevents
Bouncing of
Spring
Drag Strut
Lower Wish Bone Resists Braking
Linked to Swivel Forces
Member by a
Ball Joint
Fig. 18.7 Double Wish Bone Suspension
The two wish bones may either be equal or unequal. Depending upon their relative lengths and
also whether they are placed parallel to each other or at an angle, the response of the wheel to the
up and down movement is predicted. The geometry of the wish bone layout—the lengths, positions
and angles of the links-governs the path of the wheels when the car rides over bumps. This path
in turn affects steering, road holding and tyre wear.
(a) Parallel and Equal Wish Bones Early double wish bone suspension systems had both the links
equal and parallel to each other. This had two advantages:
(i) The wheels which are perpendicular to the road remained so while moving up and down.
(ii) There is no change in camber angle.
These advantages are to some extent disadvantages since while the wheel did not tilt and moved
up and down in the same vertical plane, the track length (distance between wheels across the car)
did change. This caused wheel movement perpendicular to the plane of rotation, i.e. the wheels
moved towards each other or away from each other.
Suspension System 303
(i) On corners, the wheels lean outwards with the body which reduces cornering ability. In
other words, it resulted in undesirable steering effects.
(ii) Variation in track length resulted in adverse tyre wear.
(b) Unequal Double Wish Bone System In modern systems, to avoid the undesirable steering effects
and wearing of tyres, the two wish bones were not only made unequal but also they were made
non-parallel. Usually, the upper wish bone is made shorter so that the wheels do not remain upright
but have a slight lean inwards. In this case, the camber angle did change while the wheel moved
up and down. However the track length remained more or less constant.
Two distinct advantages are noticeable:
(a) The track length remains constant although a slight change in camber takes place. This is
better for tyre life.
(b) It gives better cornering characteristics. Thus when the body rolls outwards, the outside
wheel which carries greater load and therefore exerts higher cornering power of the two,
remains more or less at right angles to the road surface.
(c) Spring Damper Arrangement In both the double wish bone suspension systems, when coil
spring with telescopic damper is used they are usually installed coaxially. Incidentally, it is more
common for the upper ends of the spring the and shock absorber to be on the vehicle structure
instead of on the upper transverse arm. On some vehicles, the springs and dampers are mounted
separately, so that access could be gained more easily for servicing the damper. An alternative is
to arrange for the removal of the shock absorber through a hole in the spring seating pan.
With front wheel drive cars, the coil spring and shock absorbers are in most instances interposed
between the upper transverse link and the vehicle structure, to leave space for the drive shaft to
the wheel.
2. MacPherson Strut Assembly (Single Wish System) Earle S. MacPherson, an engineer with
Ford USA, developed a single wish bone with a telescopic strut type system (Fig. 18.8) in the
forties. In this system, there is a telescopic strut, a single arm and a diagonal stay. The whole
system is known as the MacPherson system.
The strut is fixed to the body structure at the upper end through a flexible mounting and the
lower part of the strut is connected at the bottom by a joint to the lower arm. The lower part of
the strut also carries the stub axle, which in turn carries the wheel. The steering motion is supplied
to the lower part of the strut and it turns the whole strut. A coil spring and a hydraulic damper
surround the upper part of the strut which takes care of the road irregularity shocks and vibrations.
The MacPherson strut has some distinct advantages:
(i)It is mechanically simple.
(ii)Its light moving parts help the wheels to follow the road irregularities.
(iii)The wheel camber does not vary much.
(iv) It has distinct advantages in case of transverse engines, since in that case there is either no
space or very little space for upper links to fit.
(v) Its maintenance is very easy.
However this system does have a couple of disadvantages:
(i) Radial loading comes on the piston due to the lateral forces during cornering and brake
torque.
304 Automobile Engineering
Flexible Mounting
of Strut to Body
Collars Between
Which Spring is
Mounted Coil Spring
Absorbs
Road Shocks
Strut Containing
Damper
Strut Axle
Carries Wheel
Transverse Link
Positions Wheel and
Resist Braking Forces
(ii) The body structure has to be really strong above the wheel arches, where the struts are
attached, to absorb the full suspension loads.
The rear axle suspension poses problems to designers since the weight on the front axle remains
more or less constant, and the front axle or front suspension as it should be correctly called, is
under the engine and its movements are not coming on the passengers as directly as the rear axle.
Rear suspension has to be designed not only for an empty car when the car is moving with
driver, but also when the car carries occupants and also when the car boot at the rear is loaded.
This variation of load on the rear axle is further complicated when it is realised that the weight of
the car is shifted to a larger extent, at the time of acceleration, to the rear axle.
The springs and dampers, on the rear suspension, should therefore be soft enough to give a
comfortable drive in an empty car but also hard enough to carry extra weight when running with
full capacity.
The suspension system for the rear axle must be capable of dealing with:
(i) The weight of the carriage unit including contents.
(ii) Torque reaction—for both drive line and brakes.
(iii) Driving thrust.
(iv) Brake drag.
(v) Lateral forces.
The rear axle suspension system therefore has to be designed to overcome the above forces.
Both rigid suspension and independent rear wheel suspension have been designed in many ways and
some are specifically known by the names of the car models in which they were used. However
in the present chapter, a representative of each of both rigid suspension and independent suspension
is described.
Hotchkiss Drive
The Hotchkiss drive is a rigid suspension which employs two leaf springs located as far as possible
on the axle (Fig. 18.9). These springs apart from absorbing shocks, also position the axle and the
axle moves up and down with it. Two telescopic hydraulic dampers, i.e. shock absorbers are
attached one each to the two sides of the real axle near the leaf springs.
The axle is usually fixed exactly at the mid point of the spring. However in some cases, it is
fixed a bit ahead of the mid point to give a downward tilt as the axle rises when riding over bumps.
This reduces the amount by which the propeller shaft lifts on a bump and in turn minimises the
height of the propeller shaft tunnel and the amount it intrudes into the car body.
The leaf springs are fitted to the body with a rubber bush in the front while the rear end of the
spring is fitted to the body through a shackle with rubber brushes. This helps in accommodating
the increase or decrease in length of the spring as it flexes up and down.
One of the disadvantages of leaf spring is that it tends to distort when the axle tries to turn during
acceleration or braking.
Some modifications to the simple Hotchkiss drive have been made to overcome some of the
shortcomings. For example, fore and aft distortion of the springs can be limited by linking the axle
to the main car structure. Radius rods trailing from mountings on the structure help to position the
axle. Another design uses a transverse rod known as Panhard rod which pivots on the body
structure at one end and on the axle at the other. This assists in holding the axle in position
(Fig. 18.10).
306 Automobile Engineering
Shackle Connection
to Body Structure
Allows Free Bending
of Spring
Leaf Spring
Clamped in
Rear Axle
the Middle
Housing for
Rubber Bush
Telescopic
Damper
Coil Spring
Trailing Arm
Pivots at Right
Angles to Car
The second step is to check certain parameters associated with the suspension system like
noisiness of shock absorber, camber and caster angles etc.
2. Troubleshooting Troubleshooting associates any trouble reported earlier or detected during
inspection and checking with the cause of the trouble so that remedial steps can be taken.
3. Servicing Generally, servicing is the final step. Even when the car is not giving any trouble,
regular servicing of the unit which involves the first step, i.e. inspection and checking and then
lubrication, greasing etc. has to be done. This step is most important in trouble-shooting since with
this step remedial steps are taken.
replacement. However none of the joints should be too tight which may be due to the failure of
bearing or the absence of lubricant etc.
Usually, both coil springs and leaf springs, sag on use and lose height. In such cases a patchy
job which can put the vehicle back in service is done by putting some replacement components like
rubber or metal spacers. These are manufactured specifically for this purpose by some companies.
However this repair method will lead to poor handling and spring breakage. Tension adjustment of
the leaf springs is also one such method. In some cases, use of booster springs around shock
absorbers, inflatable air chambers built into shock absorber etc. are suggested. These are expensive
alternatives but give satisfactory ride.
The torsion bar equipped front suspension has an adjustment on one end of the torsion bar that
enables the vehicle height to be set without replacement or addition of height adjustment items.
The condition of the shock absorber is usually checked for leaks, physical damage and secure
mounting on a visual inspection. This is followed by pushing the end of the vehicle up and down.
Upon release the vehicle oscillation should stop in one or two cycles. If excessive shock absorber
leakage occurs or the bouncing is not dampened, the shock absorber must be replaced. Some shock
absorber manufacturers recommend replacement of the shock absorber after every 25000 miles
regardless of how they appear. Front and rear shock absorbers differ in calibration and oil capacity.
Chassis suspension condition should be checked whenever the vehicle body sags at one end, at
a corner or a side. It should also be checked whenever the vehicle does not handle correctly or
the tyres show signs of abnormal wear. The suspension check is usually followed by alignment
check to see that the front suspension geometry is correct.
The following checks in various elements of the suspension system are to be carried out during
servicing:
Front Suspension System (Independent Suspension) For a front suspension system, the following
checks may be carried out:
(i) Check that the sub-frame has not been distorted to such an extent as to impair the proper
operation of front suspension and steering, since the anchor pillars for front suspension are
a part of the sub-frame.
(ii) Check that the paired coil springs installed are of the same class. Replace springs if found
cracked or weakened.
(iii) Check the condition of rubber rings and replace if found damaged.
(iv) Check front wheels for any misalignment whenever noticing excessive tyre wear or irregular
steering operation. For doing this:
• check the camber.
• check the caster.
• check the front wheel toe in.
These should be checked for specified values both for faulty loaded car and unloaded car
conditions.
Before checking the camber, caster and toe-in, the wheels and tyres should be fully checked for:
• Tyre pressure.
• Tyre installation (for out of roundness).
• Wheel bearing play.
• Clearance between pin and bushes of steering knuckle.
310 Automobile Engineering
Rear Suspension Systems For a rear suspension system, carry out the following checks:
• Leaves cracked or broken.
• No paint should be present between leaves.
• Mating faces of spring leaves should be smooth and clean.
• Check the camber of leaves. If necessary restore the required camber.
• Condition of resilient bushes force fitted on leave eyes. Defective bushes produce noise.
• Check the resilient bush pins, they should not be loose, nor incorrectly positioned in their
rubber blocks.
2. Check the shock absorber for:
• Noisiness
• Variations in dampening effect.
Contd.
(d) Dry upper or lower control arm Lubricate and replace
spider assembly.
6. Loss of cushioning (a) Cracked or weak coil springs. Replace spring.
effect.
Contd.
(b) Chassis damaged or broken. Check alignment and repair.
(c) Weak or defective damper spring unit(s). Check and replace.
5. Hard or rough ride (a) Incorrect tyre pressure. Check tyre pressure.
(b) Vehicle overloaded or unevenly loaded Distribute weight evenly.
(c) Out of round tyre. Replace tyre.
(d) Loose or defective damper unit(s). Tighten or replace.
(e) Broken spring Replace spring.
(f) Sized suspension parts. Lubricate or replace.
6. Car sways (a) Loose or defective damper units. Tighten or replace.
(b) Broken spring or weak spring. Replace spring.
(c) Loose or broken antiroll bar. Replace antiroll bar if damaged. Tighten
antiroll bar attachments if loose, replace
damaged or worn bushes.
(d) Roof rack overloaded. Unload, use roof rack for bulky but not
heavy items.
Review Questions
1. List some suspension system requirements.
2. What are the causes of spring oscillations?
3. State the purpose of shock absorbers used in suspension systems.
4. Describe the working of the telescopic damper with the help of a suitable diagram.
5. Describe the various types of front suspension systems.
6. Compare single unit/rigid suspension with independent suspension system.
7. State the advantages of independent suspension system.
8. Describe the functioning of a rear suspension system and its parts.
9. What causes rear suspension wind up?
10. What are the causes of weight transfer between axles?
11. Compare helical/coil springs torsion bars and leaf springs used in suspension.
12. How do shock absorbers affects spring sag?
13. How should spring sag be corrected?
14. Describe the MacPherson strut assembly of independent suspension system. Compare it
with the double wish bone suspension system.
15. What are general problems that rise in a hydraulic damper? Describe their effect on riding.