3.2. Suspension System

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292 Automobile Engineering

18
Suspension System

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Ø Comprehend the need for suspension system in a vehicle.
Ø Identify leaf springs, coil springs and torsion bars.
Ø Describe the different types of shock absorbers.
Ø Identify the parts of a MacPherson strut suspension system and describe their operations.
Ø Describe the operation of the rigid rear suspension system.
Ø List the steps in diagnosing a suspension system problem.

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel/axle assembly from the body. All the
power from the engine ultimately reaches the wheel through the power transmission system. With
this power the vehicle moves on the road. The irregularities of the road are felt in the form of
shocks on the wheel and at this point the suspension system acts more as a filter to screen out
the shocks which would otherwise damage the body structure and cause discomfort to occupants
of the vehicle. The primary function of the suspension system is to isolate the vehicle structure
from shocks and vibrations due to irregularities of the road surface.

18.2 BRIEF HISTORY


As is well known, automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled horse carriages. The horse
was replaced by an engine keeping other features of the carriage almost the same. The horse
carriage did have its own suspension system with double leaf springs and dead axles. However it
was designed, even at that time, for slow speeds. A car was by far a much more complex system
with high speeds and height considerations. Moreover with the car becoming a status symbol the
whole concept of luxury was redefined. The car should ideally move fast like a plane but be smooth
like a ship on a calm sea. The designers began to pamper the needs of customers.
Improvements soon started showing in the automobile suspension system soon after the car
became a reality in the beginning of the twentieth century. As the engine was moved forward from
under the driver/passenger seat and as the vehicles started becoming bigger in size and less in
Suspension System 293

height, suspension systems started improving. It was in 1903 when Mors from Germany fitted a
car with shock absorbers. In 1920 Leyland used torsion bars in its suspension system. In 1922
unitary construction and independent front suspension were poineered on the Lancia Lambda. The
independent front suspension became more common in popular cars by 1932. Peugeot and Adler
led this trend. In 1934 Citroen of France launched its car 7CV. It had front wheel drive, unitary
construction and an all independent suspension. In 1948 Morris (Britain) introduced the new Morris
Minor with a torsion bar independent front suspension. Following this in 1949, Triumph Mayflower
introduced the combined coil spring/damper unit and strut-type telescope damper. In 1950 Ford
(Britain) adopted the McPherson strut independent front suspension on MK 1 consul. Citroen used
hydropneumatic suspension in 1955 in its DS 19 model, while BMC used independent rubber
suspension in its Mini in 1959 and improved it in its 110 model by using hydrostatic suspension
in 1962.
It is clear that the suspension system was revolutionised by the independent suspension system.
As cars started becoming more powerful and lighter, independent front suspension helped the car’s
handling to keep pace with their escalating power to weight ratios. Independent front suspension
changed the shape of the car as well as improving its ride and road holding. With the disappearance
of the front beam axle the engine could be moved further forward and mounted lower. On its either
side, the suspension assemblies were fitted almost at the same height. Today’s high speed, sleek
automobiles owe a lot to the development that took place like the tiny hammer blows of an artist
that chiesel out a piece of art.

18.3 NEED FOR A GOOD SUSPENSION SYSTEM


Although there cannot be a vehicle without a suspension system which is intermediate between the
wheel axle system and the body, a good suspension system will be one which will take up all the
shocks and vibrations generated due to the irregularities of the road and transmit as small a
component as possible to the passenger carriage. A good suspension system must have springiness
and damping. Springiness is elastic resistance to a load. On application of a sudden load the spring
will compress/expand as the case may be without transmitting the same to the body. As the spring
compression is complete it expands on rebound, and now damping becomes important since this
will absorb the work energy as heat energy and the continuous oscillations of the spring which
normally would have taken place are absorbed.
Thus the primary function of a good suspension system is to isolate the structure, as far as
practicable, from shock loading and vibrations due to the irregularities of the road surface. This is
achieved by flexible elements like springs and dampers. The secondary function is to achieve the
first function without impairing the stability, steering or general handling qualities of the vehicle.
This is achieved by controlling, by the use of mechanical linkages, the relative motions between the
unsprung masses-wheel and axle assemblies and the sprung masses.

18.4 STAGES IN SUSPENSION SYSTEM


The function of isolation of shocks and vibrations between road and carriage is achieved by
different elements at different stages. The first element which takes the impact is the tyre. With
pneumatic tyres, this is achieved by flexing and compression of pneumatic tyres at the contact point.
The second stage is between the axle/wheel system and the body. The elements incorporate
springs, dampers/shock absorbers, various linkages and tie bars. This part is called the suspension
system and will be dealt with in greater detail in this chapter.
294 Automobile Engineering

Finally, the last stage of the suspension system are the seats of the automobile which the
passengers occupy. They are made of springs and foam/rubber cushions. They absorb all short
amplitude high frequency vibrations which pass from the system to the passenger compartment.
It may further be mentioned that the wheel and the seats usually overcome these high frequency
low amplitude vibrations. The central suspension system has to cope with the greater irregularities
of the road which may impact all the wheels, both the wheels on one side, or one axle or only one
wheel at a time. The suspension system tries to overcome these irregularities while transmitting
minimum vibrations to the passenger compartment.

18.5 ELEMENTS OF A SUSPENSION SYSTEM


A suspension system can be represented in a schematic form as
shown in Fig. 18.1 where Wsp and Wus are the sprung and Wsp
unsprung weights respectively. Rs is the spring system, Rt is the
tyre system and D is the damper, i.e. shock absorber. The
sprung mass is the mass of the passenger carriage while the
unsprung mass is the mass of the wheel axle system. While it Rs D
is clear that the spring effect is provided to a small extent by the
tyre and to a large extent by the spring used, the damping effect
is to a large extent provided by the hydraulic dampers (or shock Wus
absorbers). However in case of leaf springs, the friction between
the leaves in motion does generate some damping effect. Rt
Dampers in fact have two important functions. First, they
reduce the tendency of the carriage unit to continue to bounce
Fig. 18.1 Suspension System
up and down on its springs after the disturbance that caused the
initial motion has ceased. Secondly, they prevent excessive build up of amplitude of bounce as a
result of periodic excitation at a frequency identical to the natural frequency of vibration of the
spring mass system.
Apart from a simple bounce or vibration of the carriage unit as a whole, there are two more types
of vibrations known as rolling and pitching. In rolling, the carriage unit rolls about the longitudinal
axis of the vehicle while in pitching, the carriage unit rolls about a transverse axis. Thus in rolling,
one side of the car goes down and the rear goes up and vice versa. These actions place further
constraints on the design of the suspension system.
While rolling can be checked by using anti-roll bars, pitching is a more complex phenomenon
and is affected by what is known as vibration coupling effect, i.e. interaction between front and
rear suspension. It has been found that pitching persists for longer if the rear suspension has a
lower natural frequency than the front suspension. Consequently, the natural frequency of the rear
suspension is normally made higher than that of the front. It must however be underlined that
pitching will in general depend on the frequency of disturbances, or bumps over which the car rolls,
spacing of bumps, speed of the vehicle, its mass moment of inertia about the axis of pitch and its
wheel base.
Important elements of a suspension system are:
1. Springs
2. Dampers.
Suspension System 295

Springs
Springs act as reservoirs of energy. They store the energy due to the sudden force which comes
when the vehicle encounters a bump or a ditch. This energy is released subsequently and with the
action of dampers, the energy is converted into heat and bounce is avoided.
The action of springs can be understood by considering what happens when a vehicle encounters
a bump or a ditch. When the vehicle hits a bump, the tyre is suddenly pushed up. If there is rigid
suspension (without spring), the full force will be transferred to the carriage unit and push it up
with almost no loss in force in the form of a jerk or bounce. However, when a spring is present,
this force will compress the spring without allowing the force from reaching the passenger unit.
The force on the spring causes the vehicle body to move up at a much smaller rate of acceleration.
As the wheel passes over a bump, the spring expands at a much lower acceleration, and the
vibrations are quickly killed by the damping action of the dampers. Depressions present in roads
produce an almost similar action.
The following types of springs are used in general:
1. Leaf springs or laminated springs
2. Coil springs
3. Torsion bars
Modern cars also use rubber, air and gas springs but they have yet to take the place of these
springs in a general automobile, particularly in this country. They are used more in commercial
vehicles.
The main factors governing the choice of the types of springs used are:
• overall cost of installation.
• relative capacity for storing energy.
• total weight of suspension system.
• fatigue life.
• location.
• guide linkages required.
1. Leaf Springs Leaf springs are referred to as laminated springs since they use steel strips or
laminations one over the other with reducing length (Fig. 18.2). They are also called semi-elliptical
springs as they are bent in that form. However nowadays they are almost straight.

Eye for Attaching


Spring to Shackle
Metal Clips Hold
Spring Leaves Together

Eye for Fixing


Spring to Body Additional Leaves
for Stiffening Spring

Fig. 18.2 Leaf Spring


296 Automobile Engineering

Leaf springs, in terms of mechanics, are beams of uniform strength, since the stress developed
is maximum at the centre while it is minimum at the ends. Laminations provide damping effect due
to the friction between the laminations which move relative to each other when flexing takes place.
The two ends of the topmost spring form an eye which is fitted to the body of the car through
rubber bushes. One end is fitted directly to a pin while the other end is fitted through a shackle
link to accommodate the increase or decrease in length of the spring due to flexing.
Leaf springs in general have approximately only a quarter of the energy storage capacity for a
given stress level of either coil spring or torsion bar. Calculated on the basis of weight for a given
energy storage capacity, the ratio is 3.9:1 in favour of coil or torsion bar springs.
The springiness of the leaf spring can be varied by varying the number of leaf laminations.
Increase in number would stiffen it while reduction will make it more flexible. Similarly, on repeated
use due to constant flexing, the leaves become flatter and their springiness is reduced. In other
words, they become ‘soft’. In such a case further tension is given to the leaves. After a few such
operations, the springs become totally unsuitable for their purpose and have to be changed.
Another disadvantage of the leaf spring is that it is heavier than the coil or torsion bar spring.
Moreover, whereas two thirds of the weight of a semi-elliptic spring is carried by the axle that has
to be considered as unsprung-weight, only half that of a coil spring and virtually none of that of
a torsion bar is unsprung weight.
As mentioned earlier, there is relative motion between the strips of a laminated spring where the
friction opposes the motion. With rusting or dust and dirt, this motion may become excessive and
no longer act as a damper but still reduce springiness to a large extent. To reduce or control friction,
the spring leaves are often interleaved with plastic material having a low coefficient of friction; pads
or buttons of similar materials are interposed between the ends of adjacent leaves. Also springs
themselves are wrapped and sealed to prevent the entry of dust and dirt.
Leaf springs are unsuitable in independent suspension which has become almost universally used
in front wheels and is gradually being used in rear axles.
It is for these reasons that laminated springs still find some use in rear axles while in front axles,
it is almost completely replaced by coil springs or torsion bars.
2. Coil Springs The best energy storing shape for a given weight for a spring is circular, and a
coil spring stores the energy produced by its up and down movement in the most efficient way.
Coil springs have the advantage of fitting in a compact space. It is stressed during torsion like a
torsion bar although there is some bending (Fig. 18.3). The life of coil springs is increased by shot
peening their surfaces to induce compressive stresses in them and to reduce the effect of scratches
in initiating fatigue cracks. Immediately after shot peening, such
springs may be given an anticorrosion treatment again to increase
their fatigue life.
Where coil springs are used the end coils usually sit square, for
stability, upon surfaces through which the load is applied to the rest
of the spring. Coil springs sometimes have a tendency to bend under
the action of compressive load. However in many cases, coil springs
are mounted in such a way that the cylindrical dampers or shock
absorbers pass through them so that the possibility of bending is
reduced to a minimum.
Coil springs were initially preferred for independent suspension
only and hence were used in front axles However with improved Fig. 18.3 Coil Spring
Suspension System 297

design, coil springs have been used in live as well Opposing


Torsion
as dead axle and in independent as well as rigid
Direction
suspension systems. of Twist
3. Torsion Bars In case of torsion bars (Fig.
18.4), a spring steel bar is fixed rigidly at one end
to the body while the movement of axle or wheels
is transmitted to the torsion bar through a lever in
the form of torque. The resulting deformation of
the torsion bar is twisting and the stress produced Fixed End of
Torsion Bar
is shear stress. The inherent elastic properties of
the material cause the bar to come back to its
Twist Applied to End
normal state (i.e. untwist) so that under the action of Bar by Lever
of the wheel movement, the torsion bar twists and
Fig. 18.4 Torsion Bar
untwists.
Torsion bars are scragged-that is overloaded in torsion during manufacture—to stretch outer
layers beyond the elastic limit. As this leaves a residual stress in the outer layers, the maximum
stress under service occurs beneath the surface where it is less likely to initiate cracks. This helps
to increase the fatigue life. As in coil springs, shot peening and anticorrosion treatment is also given
to the torsion bars to improve fatigue life.
Torsion bars are not very popular as suspension springs because their end fixings are more costly
and provision has to be made for the adjustment of the ride height on the vehicle assembly line.
Torsion bars are however often used as antiroll devices. A steel bar is mounted in rubber bushes
across the vehicle, with its ends bent round to act as levers which in turn are connected to the
suspension.
When both wheels of the same axle move up and down as a pair, the antiroll bar merely rotates
in bearings without any effect on suspension. However, when only one wheel rises or falls causing
the vehicle to roll, for example, on a bend, the torsion bar twists reacting against the movement
of the wheel.
4. Other Springs Rubber springs are used more in commercial vehicles. Rubber is however used
as bushes to check the transmission of vibration, for example, in the ends of a key spring. Rubber
springs have been used only in a few cases in passenger cars since the precise control of ride
essential for comfort is difficult to achieve with such springs.
Rubber material is best suited for a combination of shear (side to side movement of successive
layers) and compression. They have a good fatigue strength in compression. However it is worst
in tension since there is a tendency for the cracks to open out. Their biggest advantage is that they
are free of maintenance.
5. Air and Gas Springs In air and gas springs, compressed air or gas is filled in the cylinder or
bellows against which the wheel movement is transmitted through a diaphragm. As soon as the
wheel has passed over a road irregularity the compressed air pressure returns the system to its
original position.
Air springs are fairly widely employed in many countries in vehicles whose loaded and unloaded
weights differ greatly, for example, trucks, large draw bar trailers, tractors, etc.
Air springs give a high quality ride particularly with independent suspension. However the
disadvantages overweigh this advantage. The main disadvantages of the air/gas springs are high
298 Automobile Engineering

cost, complexity of compressed air ancillary system, risk of break down, greater maintenance than
other types of springs and freezing of moisture in air in cold weather. Air suspension systems are
in general too bulky and too complex for cars.

Dampers
Dampers are used in the suspension system to check any continuous vibration which may follow
the initial force on the spring. Damping action is provided by the absorption of energy in one form
or the other. In old days, friction was used as the damping agent. These dampers had packs of
friction material interleaved between blades, or arms which were attached alternately to spring and
unsprung masses. Semirotary vane type dampers were also used. However they were abandoned
because the ratio of sealing length around their vanes to volume displaced was so high that these
units were rapidly adversely affected by wear.
Modern cars mostly have hydraulic dampers which Rubber-Bonded
are of two types: Bush
1. Telescopic dampers Eye for Attachment
2. Rocking lever dampers. to body

Both these dampers use hydraulic fluid as damping


agent. Damping is effected by the damper piston or
pistons forcing the hydraulic fluid at high velocities
through small holes. Thus energy is absorbed by the Piston Rod
fluid, converted into heat and then dissipated partly
by conduction into the surrounding structure of the
vehicle, but ultimately all heat passes into the air
stream flowing past these components.
The amount of energy thus absorbed and dissi- Working Cylinder
pated for any given rate of energy input is a function
of the volume, viscosity of the fluid and the number,
sizes and geometry of the holes through which it is
Control Valve
forced.
A major advantage of hydraulic damping is that the
Piston has Small
resistance to deflection of the damper is a function of Passage for Exchange
the square of its velocity. Therefore, slow movements of Fluid
of the wheels can occur with relative freedom but the
resistance increases rapidly with the velocity of mo- Recuperating
Chamber
tion.
1. Telescopic Dampers Telescopic dampers are
quite often called incorrectly as shock absorbers. As
mentioned in the previous section, they use the flow Rubber-Bonded
Bush
of hydraulic fluid past their pistons as the damping
medium. Eye for Attachment
As shown in Fig. 18.5, telescopic dampers use a to Axle of Suspension
Linkage
cylinder and a piston assembly which is sealed and
the cylinder is completely filled with hydraulic fluid.
Fig. 18.5 Telescopic Damper
The cylinder and the piston in turn are fitted to the
Suspension System 299

wheel axle and the car body respectively through rubber bush eyes. The piston rod passes through
a sealing gland on the open side of the cylinder. The piston has a small hole through which the fluid
rushes to the other side as the piston is forced to move in any direction due to the motion of the
wheel.
Relief valves and leak passages provide controlled flow of the oil each way through the piston.
The space above the piston is smaller than that below it and this space cannot accept all the oil
displaced by the piston as it travels towards the lower end of the cylinder. A valve controls the
escape of the surplus oil into a reservoir or ‘recuperating chamber’ which surrounds the cylinder.
As the damper extends, the piston does not displace enough oil from the top section of the
cylinder to fill the lower, which is topped up from the reservoir through the replenishment valve.
2. Rocking Lever Damper Rocking lever dampers (Fig. 18.6) work on the same principal as
telescopic dampers but have two pistons which move in a cylinder while the oil is displaced through
a valve. The motion of the dual pistons takes place due to the motion of the wheels which is passed
on to the pistons through the rocker levers.
Rocker
Link from Shaft
Spring to Rocking Lever
Operating Moves Pistons
Lever to and fro

Damper
Operating Lever

Dual Pistons
Leaf Spring
(a) Lever Damper (b) Section Through Lever Damper

Fig 18.6 Rocking Lever Damper

The body, incorporating the hydraulic cylinder of the lever type damper is usually mounted on
the carriage unit, with its actuating lever connected to the axle. If the body were mounted on the
axle, the high frequency, high velocity motions to which it would be subjected might cause aeration
of the hydraulic fluid and hence adversely affect the damping capacity of the unit.

18.6 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS


The suspension system is assembled with the elements mentioned in the preceeding sections. The
suspension of a car initially was rigid. Both the front and rear axles were connected to the carriage
unit through springs. Later on, dampers were added to give better ride. Still later, suspension
became independent. In what is called the one piece suspension system, the two wheels mounted
on the same axle (live or dead) move together, in a way. That is, if a wheel comes over a bump
it gets lifted and the whole axle is tilted and with it the car itself. This was a major drawback and
hence the need gave way to the independent suspension system. In this system, a wheel moves up
and down to some extent without affecting the second wheel on the same axle.
The suspension systems used in some Indian vehicles are provided in Table 18.1.
300 Automobile Engineering

Table 18.1 Suspension System of Some Indian Vehicles

S.No Make of the Vehicle Front Suspension Rear Suspension Shock Absorbers
1. Ambassador Independent torsion bar Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
2. Padmini Premier Independent coil springs Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
3. Maruti 800 MacPherson independent Leaf spring Hydraulic (Telescopic double acting)
strut and coil springs
4. Maruti 1000 MacPherson independent Coil spring Hydraulic (Telescopic double acting)
strut type
5. Jeep Mahindra Semi-elliptic Leaf Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
CJ-3B
6. Maruti Gypsy Semi-elliptical Semi-elliptical multi leaf Hydraulic double acting)
7. Ashok Leyland Semi-elliptical Leaf Semi-elliptical leaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
8. Tata Truck 407 & Semi-elliptical multileaf Semi-elliptical multileaf Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
1210 model
9. Daewoo Matiz MacPherson strut Isolated trailing links Hydraulic
with coil springs
10. Hyundai Santro MacPherson strut with Torsion beam axle, Hydraulic
stabiliser bar 3-link offset coil springs
11. Telco Indica (Petrol) Independent, wish bone Independent semi- Hydraulic
type with MacPherson trailing arm with coil
strut spray
12. Maruti Esteem Macpherson strut and Macpherson strut and Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
coil spring coil spring
13. Maruti Wagon R Macpherson strut with Coil spring, gas-filled Gas-filled
torsion type roll control shock absorbers with
device three-link rigid axle and
isolated trailing arms
14. Maruti Alto Macpherson strut with Coil spring with double Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
torsion type anti-roll bar action telescopic shock
absorbers
15. Maruti Baleno Macpherson strut and Macpherson strut & Hydraulic (telescopic double acting)
coil spring with an L coil spring with parallel
shaped lower arm and link arrangement
anti roll bar

Independent Suspension
Independent suspension is a term used to describe any arrangement by which the wheels are
connected to the carriage unit in a manner such that the rise and fall of one wheel has no effect
on the others.
There are many advantages of the independent suspension system:
(i) Since in the independent suspension system, the wheels more or less travel with their planes
perpendicular to the road surface, the gyroscopic affects are reduced to a minimum.
(ii) Steering effects due to lateral movements of the tyre/road contact path, as the wheel rises
and falls are avoided.
Suspension System 301

(iii) Variations in caster angle are reduced.


(iv) Unsprung mass is less, hence the ride quality is improved.
(v) Engine can be moved further. Since it has not to clear beam axle. Hence there is more
passenger space.
(vi) Independent suspension uses coil springs which can be placed closer to the wheel. This is
a definite advantage vis-a-vis leaf springs for a wheel to be steered.
In a car, the front axle is usually a dead axle although some cars do have front wheel drive.
Independent suspension systems therefore have been almost universally adopted for the front
wheels. The independent suspension system for the front wheel has to cope with the fact that they
are to be steered.
Rear axle is usually a live axle with power being transmitted to the rear wheels. Hence indepen-
dent suspension has not become very popular for the rear wheels. Further, the rear wheels have
to carry lot of weight and while the weight on the front wheel remains more or less constant, in
case of rear wheels it makes a lot of difference when the car is running empty or when it is fully
occupied. The suspension system has to cater to both these conditions.

Front Wheel Suspension System


Right from the advent of the car, designers have strived hard to enhance the comfort along with
other improvements. The one piece beam axle arrangement of the earliest cars was a legacy from
the horse cart era. However it had the biggest disadvantage of tilting the car even on small bumps
or despressions of the road resulting in most uncomfortable rides. It was during the second world
war that the beam axle arrangement gave way totally to independent suspension for the front wheels.
The independent suspension, as the name clearly suggests had independent suspension system
for each of the front wheels. Each wheel has its own linkage, springs and dampers. The up and
down motion of one wheel up and down with the forces of the road is totally independent of the
other. However to prevent roll of the car, the antiroll bar which is hinged across the chassis, bent
and joined to the lower wish bone on each side to resist body roll when cornering, does join the
two independent suspensions.
The front suspension in a car has to bear a lot of forces particularly due to acceleration, braking
and cornering. The assembly used for the front suspension has to provide a movement in the up
and down direction along with steering. It has therefore to adhere to the following conditions:
(i) The suspension must not allow the various forces coming from the road irregularities and
cornering to deflect the car from its course of movement decided by the driver.
(ii) It should not permit the wheels to wobble, move any significant distance backwards or
forwards or sideways.
(iii) It should not allow the system to alter the tilt of the wheels to any serious degree.
The above conditions are necessary for the control and handling of the vehicle.

Types of Independent Front Suspension Systems


Although over the years many arrangements have been developed and successfully fitted on the
front wheels, two representative types of independent suspension systems of the front wheel are
next discussed:
1. Double wish bone suspension system
2. Single wish bone, i.e. MacPherson strut assembly.
302 Automobile Engineering

1. Double Wish Bone Suspension System As the name suggests, the assembly in the double wish
bone suspension system primarily uses two wish bone shaped links (Fig. 18.7). A wish bone is a
vee shaped link which is so named because of its shape. The two ends of the vee are hinged onto
the body or the sub frame while the narrow ends carry between them (i.e. narrow ends of upper
and lower wish bone links) the swivel member which carries the stub axle on which the wheel is
mounted. Thus the two wish bones are placed one over the other while the swivel member is
vertically positioned. Between the two wish bone links are placed the spring and the shock absorber
(damper) system which take the shocks and reduce vibrations.
Upper
Swivel Upper Wish Bone
Joint Connected by a
Ball-Joint to the
Swivel Member
Coil Spring Absorbs
Road Shocks

Steering
Swivel
Member Bump Stops

Stub Axle
Carries Wheel
Lower Swivel
Joint
Telescopic
Damper Prevents
Bouncing of
Spring

Drag Strut
Lower Wish Bone Resists Braking
Linked to Swivel Forces
Member by a
Ball Joint
Fig. 18.7 Double Wish Bone Suspension

The two wish bones may either be equal or unequal. Depending upon their relative lengths and
also whether they are placed parallel to each other or at an angle, the response of the wheel to the
up and down movement is predicted. The geometry of the wish bone layout—the lengths, positions
and angles of the links-governs the path of the wheels when the car rides over bumps. This path
in turn affects steering, road holding and tyre wear.
(a) Parallel and Equal Wish Bones Early double wish bone suspension systems had both the links
equal and parallel to each other. This had two advantages:
(i) The wheels which are perpendicular to the road remained so while moving up and down.
(ii) There is no change in camber angle.
These advantages are to some extent disadvantages since while the wheel did not tilt and moved
up and down in the same vertical plane, the track length (distance between wheels across the car)
did change. This caused wheel movement perpendicular to the plane of rotation, i.e. the wheels
moved towards each other or away from each other.
Suspension System 303

(i) On corners, the wheels lean outwards with the body which reduces cornering ability. In
other words, it resulted in undesirable steering effects.
(ii) Variation in track length resulted in adverse tyre wear.

(b) Unequal Double Wish Bone System In modern systems, to avoid the undesirable steering effects
and wearing of tyres, the two wish bones were not only made unequal but also they were made
non-parallel. Usually, the upper wish bone is made shorter so that the wheels do not remain upright
but have a slight lean inwards. In this case, the camber angle did change while the wheel moved
up and down. However the track length remained more or less constant.
Two distinct advantages are noticeable:
(a) The track length remains constant although a slight change in camber takes place. This is
better for tyre life.
(b) It gives better cornering characteristics. Thus when the body rolls outwards, the outside
wheel which carries greater load and therefore exerts higher cornering power of the two,
remains more or less at right angles to the road surface.
(c) Spring Damper Arrangement In both the double wish bone suspension systems, when coil
spring with telescopic damper is used they are usually installed coaxially. Incidentally, it is more
common for the upper ends of the spring the and shock absorber to be on the vehicle structure
instead of on the upper transverse arm. On some vehicles, the springs and dampers are mounted
separately, so that access could be gained more easily for servicing the damper. An alternative is
to arrange for the removal of the shock absorber through a hole in the spring seating pan.
With front wheel drive cars, the coil spring and shock absorbers are in most instances interposed
between the upper transverse link and the vehicle structure, to leave space for the drive shaft to
the wheel.
2. MacPherson Strut Assembly (Single Wish System) Earle S. MacPherson, an engineer with
Ford USA, developed a single wish bone with a telescopic strut type system (Fig. 18.8) in the
forties. In this system, there is a telescopic strut, a single arm and a diagonal stay. The whole
system is known as the MacPherson system.
The strut is fixed to the body structure at the upper end through a flexible mounting and the
lower part of the strut is connected at the bottom by a joint to the lower arm. The lower part of
the strut also carries the stub axle, which in turn carries the wheel. The steering motion is supplied
to the lower part of the strut and it turns the whole strut. A coil spring and a hydraulic damper
surround the upper part of the strut which takes care of the road irregularity shocks and vibrations.
The MacPherson strut has some distinct advantages:
(i)It is mechanically simple.
(ii)Its light moving parts help the wheels to follow the road irregularities.
(iii)The wheel camber does not vary much.
(iv) It has distinct advantages in case of transverse engines, since in that case there is either no
space or very little space for upper links to fit.
(v) Its maintenance is very easy.
However this system does have a couple of disadvantages:
(i) Radial loading comes on the piston due to the lateral forces during cornering and brake
torque.
304 Automobile Engineering

Flexible Mounting
of Strut to Body

Collars Between
Which Spring is
Mounted Coil Spring
Absorbs
Road Shocks

Strut Containing
Damper

Strut Axle
Carries Wheel

Transverse Link
Positions Wheel and
Resist Braking Forces

Fig. 18.8 MacPherson Strut Assembly

(ii) The body structure has to be really strong above the wheel arches, where the struts are
attached, to absorb the full suspension loads.

Rear Wheel Suspension System


Unlike the front axle which is in most of the cars, a dead axle, except in case of front wheel drive
cars, the rear axle is a live axle. Even in case of four wheel drive vehicles like jeeps, the rear axle
mostly transmits the power. The front axle is designed to transmit power in situations when the
four wheel drive is used. In case of heavy passenger vehicles or load carrying vehicles, the power
is transmitted through the rear axle.
A live axle is one that either rotates or houses shafts that rotate, while a dead axle is one that
does neither, but simply carries at its ends the stub axles on which the wheels rotate.
Live axle performs two functions:
(i) It acts as a beam that carries through the medium of springs and the other suspension
system, the weight of the passenger compartment and its contents, and transmits these
loads under dynamic conditions through the road wheels—rotating on its ends—to the
ground. The dynamic loading is principally a result of the motions of the wheel and axle
assembly over the ground and the reactions due to its mass, the flexibilities of the tyres and
road springs and the mass of the carriage unit and its contents.
(ii) To house and support the final drive, differential and shafts to the road wheels and to react
the torques in both the input and output shafts.
Suspension System 305

The rear axle suspension poses problems to designers since the weight on the front axle remains
more or less constant, and the front axle or front suspension as it should be correctly called, is
under the engine and its movements are not coming on the passengers as directly as the rear axle.
Rear suspension has to be designed not only for an empty car when the car is moving with
driver, but also when the car carries occupants and also when the car boot at the rear is loaded.
This variation of load on the rear axle is further complicated when it is realised that the weight of
the car is shifted to a larger extent, at the time of acceleration, to the rear axle.
The springs and dampers, on the rear suspension, should therefore be soft enough to give a
comfortable drive in an empty car but also hard enough to carry extra weight when running with
full capacity.
The suspension system for the rear axle must be capable of dealing with:
(i) The weight of the carriage unit including contents.
(ii) Torque reaction—for both drive line and brakes.
(iii) Driving thrust.
(iv) Brake drag.
(v) Lateral forces.
The rear axle suspension system therefore has to be designed to overcome the above forces.
Both rigid suspension and independent rear wheel suspension have been designed in many ways and
some are specifically known by the names of the car models in which they were used. However
in the present chapter, a representative of each of both rigid suspension and independent suspension
is described.

Hotchkiss Drive
The Hotchkiss drive is a rigid suspension which employs two leaf springs located as far as possible
on the axle (Fig. 18.9). These springs apart from absorbing shocks, also position the axle and the
axle moves up and down with it. Two telescopic hydraulic dampers, i.e. shock absorbers are
attached one each to the two sides of the real axle near the leaf springs.
The axle is usually fixed exactly at the mid point of the spring. However in some cases, it is
fixed a bit ahead of the mid point to give a downward tilt as the axle rises when riding over bumps.
This reduces the amount by which the propeller shaft lifts on a bump and in turn minimises the
height of the propeller shaft tunnel and the amount it intrudes into the car body.
The leaf springs are fitted to the body with a rubber bush in the front while the rear end of the
spring is fitted to the body through a shackle with rubber brushes. This helps in accommodating
the increase or decrease in length of the spring as it flexes up and down.
One of the disadvantages of leaf spring is that it tends to distort when the axle tries to turn during
acceleration or braking.
Some modifications to the simple Hotchkiss drive have been made to overcome some of the
shortcomings. For example, fore and aft distortion of the springs can be limited by linking the axle
to the main car structure. Radius rods trailing from mountings on the structure help to position the
axle. Another design uses a transverse rod known as Panhard rod which pivots on the body
structure at one end and on the axle at the other. This assists in holding the axle in position
(Fig. 18.10).
306 Automobile Engineering

Shackle Connection
to Body Structure
Allows Free Bending
of Spring

Final Drive Telescopic


Housing Damper

Leaf Spring
Clamped in
Rear Axle
the Middle
Housing for
Rubber Bush

Fig. 18.9 Hotchkiss Drive

With Radius Rods

With Panhard Rod

Fig. 18.10 Leaf Springs


Suspension System 307

Independent Rear Suspension


Many arrangements have been tried for independent rear suspension. However since the rear axle
is in general a live axle, arrangements have to be made to have independent movements of the two
wheels which in turn require the movements of two halves of the axle. The usual arrangement in
such a case is to have a double universal coupling
on each half of the rear axle, i.e. one at the point
of power take off from the differential, while the
other at the stub axle of the wheel. This allows the
angular movement of the half rear axle while free-
ing the wheel from angular tilt with it.
Universal Joint
1. Swinging Half Axle The oldest arrangement in
independent rear wheel suspension was the swing-
ing half axle type. This system has two tubes piv-
oted to a central drive casing carried by the car
structure. A universal joint is centred on each
pivot. Suspension is usually by a leaf spring lying
across the car bolted to the frame or axle casing
in the middle and shackled at its ends to the axle
tube. A later version carried a coil spring, and a
double universal joint to reduce camber changes Universal Joint
when cornering (Fig. 18.11). Fig. 18.11
2. MacPherson Strut Similar to what was described in front suspension, the MacPherson strut
is used in rear suspension with half axles as described in the previous section.
3. Trailing Arm Design In the trailing arm design, two trailing arms are used one on each side
of the rear axle (Fig. 18.12). The trailing arm is a partial “Y” structure as shown and usually of
forged construction. This trailing arm is hinged ahead of the rear axle to the body structure and
the hinge pin is at right angles to the car axis. In such a case, the wheels move up and down
without any change in camber. The coil springs are housed in between the trailing arm and the body
while the hydraulic dampers are fixed to the body and the trailing arm. The trailing end of the trailing
arm is hinged on the rear axle.

18.7 SUSPENSION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE


AND TROUBLESHOOTING
Like in any other system, suspension system maintenance and troubleshooting is done in three
steps:
1. Inspection and checking
2. Troubleshooting
3. Servicing
1. Inspection and Checking It involves visual inspection of all the joints and elements of a
suspension system. Usually this is not done carefully with a notion that it is an unimportant exercise
while it is patently erroneous to think so. Lots of information about the system operation and
troubles arising therein are apparent in visual inspection.
308 Automobile Engineering

Telescopic
Damper

Coil Spring

Universal Differential Casing


Joint Bolted to Structure

Trailing Arm
Pivots at Right
Angles to Car

Fig. 18.12 Trailing Arm

The second step is to check certain parameters associated with the suspension system like
noisiness of shock absorber, camber and caster angles etc.
2. Troubleshooting Troubleshooting associates any trouble reported earlier or detected during
inspection and checking with the cause of the trouble so that remedial steps can be taken.
3. Servicing Generally, servicing is the final step. Even when the car is not giving any trouble,
regular servicing of the unit which involves the first step, i.e. inspection and checking and then
lubrication, greasing etc. has to be done. This step is most important in trouble-shooting since with
this step remedial steps are taken.

18.8 INSPECTION AND SERVICE OF SUSPENSION


SYSTEM (GENERAL)
For any vehicle to give satisfactory ride and good handling characteristics the vehicle suspension
must be at the correct height and all the pivot points must be secure but not loose. After a thorough
visual inspection for unusual wear or rubbing, the suspension being inspected is supported against
a spring with the help of a jack, or support wedge positioned between the frame and the upper
control arm on suspensions having the spring above the upper control arm, so that the suspension
joints are free to be moved. In this way any looseness can be detected.
Some joints like the ball joint and wheel bearings do show inherent looseness but this needs to
be compared with the vehicle specifications. Any loose pivot or ball joint or bearing needs immediate
Suspension System 309

replacement. However none of the joints should be too tight which may be due to the failure of
bearing or the absence of lubricant etc.
Usually, both coil springs and leaf springs, sag on use and lose height. In such cases a patchy
job which can put the vehicle back in service is done by putting some replacement components like
rubber or metal spacers. These are manufactured specifically for this purpose by some companies.
However this repair method will lead to poor handling and spring breakage. Tension adjustment of
the leaf springs is also one such method. In some cases, use of booster springs around shock
absorbers, inflatable air chambers built into shock absorber etc. are suggested. These are expensive
alternatives but give satisfactory ride.
The torsion bar equipped front suspension has an adjustment on one end of the torsion bar that
enables the vehicle height to be set without replacement or addition of height adjustment items.
The condition of the shock absorber is usually checked for leaks, physical damage and secure
mounting on a visual inspection. This is followed by pushing the end of the vehicle up and down.
Upon release the vehicle oscillation should stop in one or two cycles. If excessive shock absorber
leakage occurs or the bouncing is not dampened, the shock absorber must be replaced. Some shock
absorber manufacturers recommend replacement of the shock absorber after every 25000 miles
regardless of how they appear. Front and rear shock absorbers differ in calibration and oil capacity.
Chassis suspension condition should be checked whenever the vehicle body sags at one end, at
a corner or a side. It should also be checked whenever the vehicle does not handle correctly or
the tyres show signs of abnormal wear. The suspension check is usually followed by alignment
check to see that the front suspension geometry is correct.
The following checks in various elements of the suspension system are to be carried out during
servicing:
Front Suspension System (Independent Suspension) For a front suspension system, the following
checks may be carried out:
(i) Check that the sub-frame has not been distorted to such an extent as to impair the proper
operation of front suspension and steering, since the anchor pillars for front suspension are
a part of the sub-frame.
(ii) Check that the paired coil springs installed are of the same class. Replace springs if found
cracked or weakened.
(iii) Check the condition of rubber rings and replace if found damaged.
(iv) Check front wheels for any misalignment whenever noticing excessive tyre wear or irregular
steering operation. For doing this:
• check the camber.
• check the caster.
• check the front wheel toe in.
These should be checked for specified values both for faulty loaded car and unloaded car
conditions.
Before checking the camber, caster and toe-in, the wheels and tyres should be fully checked for:
• Tyre pressure.
• Tyre installation (for out of roundness).
• Wheel bearing play.
• Clearance between pin and bushes of steering knuckle.
310 Automobile Engineering

• Backlash of worm to sector set.


• Steering rod ball end joints for any under play.

Rear Suspension Systems For a rear suspension system, carry out the following checks:
• Leaves cracked or broken.
• No paint should be present between leaves.
• Mating faces of spring leaves should be smooth and clean.
• Check the camber of leaves. If necessary restore the required camber.
• Condition of resilient bushes force fitted on leave eyes. Defective bushes produce noise.
• Check the resilient bush pins, they should not be loose, nor incorrectly positioned in their
rubber blocks.
2. Check the shock absorber for:
• Noisiness
• Variations in dampening effect.

18.9 TROUBLESHOOTING OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS


Depending upon the troubles or faults, which manifest themselves in different ways, remedial action
is to be taken after ascertaining the cause. Tables 18.2, 18.3 and 18.4 give some general troubles,
their causes and remedies.

Tables 18.2 Troubleshooting of Front Suspension

Trouble Cause Remedy


1. Excessive steering (a) Incorrect front geometry Carry out wheel alignment according to
stiffness or specifications.
reversibility.
2. Car pulling to one side (a) Incorrect toe in Correct wheel alignment
(b) Broken or sagging front or rear spring. Replace spring, carry out wheel align-
ment.
3. Side to side wander (a) Excessive steering play or excessive Adjust play or replace the ball joint.
joint play.
4. Tyre squeals on turns (a) Incorrect toe in Correct it, align turn wheel.
(b) Excessive steering play Adjust according to specifications
(c) Faulty wheel alignment Carry out wheel alignment according to
specifications.
5. Noisiness (a) Worn out rubber pads or bushes Replace pads or bushes
of stabiliser bar
(b) Worn out shock absorber bushes Replace the bushes or replace shock
or noisy shock absorber. absorber.
(c) Worn out bushes of either top Replace as required.
or bottom or both control swinging
arms.
Contd.
Suspension System 311

Contd.
(d) Dry upper or lower control arm Lubricate and replace
spider assembly.
6. Loss of cushioning (a) Cracked or weak coil springs. Replace spring.
effect.

Tables 18.3 Troubleshooting of Rear Suspension

Trouble Cause Remedy


1. Noise (a) Worn out or damaged spring front or Replace bushes.
rear end bushes.
(b) Worn out stabiliser bar rubber bushes. Replace bushes.
(c) Worn out spring pads Replace pads.
(d) Sagging leaf springs Replace spring.
2. Loss of cushioning (a) Broken cracked or sagged leaves of Replace leaf assembly.
effect and comfort leaf springs.
3. Noisy shock absorber. (a) Worn out shock absorber rubber bushes. Replace the bushes.
(b) Weak or leaking shock absorber. Replace the shock absorber.

Tables 18.4 Troubleshooting of Suspension System

Trouble Cause Remedy


1. Car low at front. (a) Incorrect tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure.
(b) Broken spring(s) Replace broken springs.
(c) Weak spring(s) Replace the front springs if the front
wheel opening riding height is below
specifications.
(d) Weak or defective damper spring unit(s). Check and replace.
2. Car low at rear. (a) Incorrect tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure.
(b) Vehicle overloaded at rear Distribute load evenly.
(c) Broken spring(s) Replace broken spring(s).
(d) Weak springs Replace the rear spring if the rear
wheel opening riding height is below
specifications.
(e) Weak or defective damper spring unit(s). Check and replace.
3. Car low at one wheel (a) Incorrect tyre pressure Inflate to correct pressure.
(b) Car unevenly loaded. Distribute weight evenly.
(c) Broken springs Replace springs.
(d) Weak springs Replace springs.
(e) Worn or damaged suspension components Replace all suspension arms and bushes
that are worn or damaged.
4. Car tilts to one side. (a) Incorrect hydraulic suspension pressure. Check pressure and increase as re
quired.
Contd.
312 Automobile Engineering

Contd.
(b) Chassis damaged or broken. Check alignment and repair.
(c) Weak or defective damper spring unit(s). Check and replace.
5. Hard or rough ride (a) Incorrect tyre pressure. Check tyre pressure.
(b) Vehicle overloaded or unevenly loaded Distribute weight evenly.
(c) Out of round tyre. Replace tyre.
(d) Loose or defective damper unit(s). Tighten or replace.
(e) Broken spring Replace spring.
(f) Sized suspension parts. Lubricate or replace.
6. Car sways (a) Loose or defective damper units. Tighten or replace.
(b) Broken spring or weak spring. Replace spring.
(c) Loose or broken antiroll bar. Replace antiroll bar if damaged. Tighten
antiroll bar attachments if loose, replace
damaged or worn bushes.
(d) Roof rack overloaded. Unload, use roof rack for bulky but not
heavy items.

Review Questions
1. List some suspension system requirements.
2. What are the causes of spring oscillations?
3. State the purpose of shock absorbers used in suspension systems.
4. Describe the working of the telescopic damper with the help of a suitable diagram.
5. Describe the various types of front suspension systems.
6. Compare single unit/rigid suspension with independent suspension system.
7. State the advantages of independent suspension system.
8. Describe the functioning of a rear suspension system and its parts.
9. What causes rear suspension wind up?
10. What are the causes of weight transfer between axles?
11. Compare helical/coil springs torsion bars and leaf springs used in suspension.
12. How do shock absorbers affects spring sag?
13. How should spring sag be corrected?
14. Describe the MacPherson strut assembly of independent suspension system. Compare it
with the double wish bone suspension system.
15. What are general problems that rise in a hydraulic damper? Describe their effect on riding.

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