UNIT I THEORIES OF LEARNING

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Concept of Learning
1.2.1 Learning and performance
1.2.2 Learning and cognitive development
1.2.3 Learning and maturation
1.2.4 Experiential learning and constructivism
1.2.5 Basic conditions of learning
1.2.6 Approaches to learning (Deep and Surface)
1.3 Theories of Learning : Behaviourism
1.3.1 Behaviourist views
1.3.2 Educational implications
1.3.3 Skinner's theory of operant conditioning
1.4 Theories of Learning : cognitive ro roaches
1.4.1 Cognitive approach
1.4.2 Educational implications of Gagne's theory of learning
1.4.3 Bruner's discovery leaming
1.5 Synthesis of the Behaviourist y d the Cognitive Approach
1.5.1 Gagne's views on learning
1.5.2 Educational implications
1.6 The Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes
1.6.1 Cognitive domain
1.6.2 Affective domain
1.6.3 Psychomotordomain
1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After having worked through this unit, you should be able to:
define learning and its basic conditions,
explain various theories of learnink and their educational implications,
describe learning outcomes in three domains -cognitive, affective and
psychomotor,
write the required instructional objectives for a unit/lesson.

INTRODUCTION
In most open and distance learning systems print material is the chief
teaching medium. Teaching a learner through self-learning print materials
is different from any other kind of teaching. The process of designing,
developing and producing these materials is quite different from that used in
the production of text books, lecture notes, journal articles and training
manuals. However, it is important to remember that a distance teaching text
 Factors in the Design o f Print Materials

is not the same as a text book, because the material produced in print for
independent learning has to carry out all the functions a teacher who would
fulfil in a conventional situation such as guiding, motivating, explaining,
discussing, asking questions, assessing the learner's progress, giving
appropriate remedial measures, and providing advice. Those who are
writing distance teaching print materials have to consider the characteristics
of the print medium and how print is a convenient medium for the delivery
of educational material to remote students, who may not have access to new
technologies. Printed texts are comparatively cost-effective and easily
designed, developed and delivered. Print material is the most convenient
medium to work with, being self-contained, portable and easy to access. In
this unit, we will discuss the theories and principles on the basis of which
the distance teaching texts are developed.

It may happen sometimes that certain skills are adequately learned and
practiced by us without our being aware of the theoretical basis of those
. skills or the principles behind their successful functioning. But if we know
the theories as well, the practice of our skills maybe improved. You may
drive a car well without being a car mechanic yourself, but if you also know
the mechanism, it may improve your efficiency as a driver. In the field of
education, your knowledge of various theories of learning will be very
useful when you consciously attempt to practice and improve your
teachingllearning skills.

Curriculum, syllabi, text design,teaching methods and, modes of evaluation

are all based on certain theories of learning. These theories are generally
derived from past experience, or formulated to serve the needs of the present
I and the future. If we want to implement our educational plan or improve the
practice of teachingllearning or change the educational system itself, we
should acquire the necessary knowledge of various theories of learning
before we take any concrete steps in operational terms. Until recently, the
design of the majority of distance teaching text materials have been based
on various theories of learning from the cognitive, b k a ~ i o u r a and
l
information processing families. There is, however, a growing body of
literature on the practice of designing materials from a constructive
perspective, which have presented as principles that should guide design. In
this unit we discuss Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism as well
the possible synthesis of the first two of these. We indicate the general
educational implications of these theories and try to link them with distance
education. For a more specific discussion on the implications of these
theories for distance education, you may turn to Unit 3 of this block.

The purpose of this unit is to acquaint you with the concept of learning, the
various theories of leanling and the learning outcomes in three domains:
cognitive, affective and psychomotor along with their implications in
designing print materials.
 -
Theories of Learning - -
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1.2 THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING
Conceptually, 'learning' in the conventional sense is the process of
assimilation of knowledge resulting from the interaction between the teacher
and the taught. The idea of the traditional teacher-student relationship is,
however, impossible to achieve with the growing democratisation of
education and the increasing demand for learning or continuing education.
In distance education, the scope for personal contact and its role in the
teaching and learning process are limittd. The concept of learning thus
needs to be reinterpreted in terms of distance education. In distance
education, learning takes place not through the mediation of a teacher but
primarily through the mediation of text materials and electronic gadgets.
As you know, in distance education we deal witl: adult learners, who use
their experience to create construct knowledge, a process which is other-
wise known as experiential learning. In this section, along with considering
the other meanings of 'learning', we will discuss the concept of experiential
learning and constructivism. If we look at the process of learning and
teaching at a distance from the point of view of pedagogies, it is more or
less integrated combination of forms of learning which are developed in
classroom teaching (Otto Peters, 1998). These include:

Learning by reading printed material (textbooks, manuals, lexicons,

scientific literature, lecture notes). *
Learning by means of guided self-teaching (counselling at the
commencement of studies, counselling by tutors, consulting reading
lists).
Learning by means of independent scientific work (preparation fcr
written examination, the writing of assignments).
Learning by means of personal communications (use of the consultation
hours of university teaching staff, and of course counselling, peer
, interaction, practical case-work, projeQ work, seminars etc.).
Leaming with the help of multi-media.:
Leaming by participating in traditional academic teaching (lectures,
seminars, counselling sessions, laboratory work).

What follows below is an elaboration of the theme introduced earlier.

I.2.1 Learning and performance

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour, and it is the result
of reinforced practice.

Such a concept of learning assumes that certain conditions in the

environment bring about fundamental changes in our behaviour and that
these changes persist for a long time. Learning is not directly observable
but can be inferred from performance. We can infer that a person has learnt
something when shelhe does something which shelhe could not do before.
A person may know something, and yet may not have learned it. You may
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

'know' how a computer works, but may not be able to operate it. Thus, the
distinction between learning or the acquisition of knowledge (i.e. capability)
and performance (i.e, exhibiting this capability in some form of action) is an
important one. We use the term 'behavioural tendency' to maintain the
distinction between learning and performance. In this context when we
speak of relatively permanent change in behaviour, we refer to a change in
performance.

1.2.2 Learning and cognitive development

We may also define learning in terms of cognitive development.
Cognitivists say-that learning is the changing or reorganisation of cognitive
structures, which involves an acquisition of knowledge and the
transformation of new knowledge. Looked at this way, we can say that
learning is a change in one's knowledge, skills, attitudes and values brought
about through experience, and this change may or may not be expressed in
overt behaviour.

I.2.3 Learning and maturation

Not all changes in behaviour can be related to learning. Some behavioural
changes are due to biological development or maturation. In maturation, the
growth tendencies are independent of specific learning conditions, and
depend entirely on biological growth. For example, the swimming of
tadpoles and the flying of birds simply occur at the moment of anatomical
maturation. A child walks once its legs are strong enough to support its
weight.

1.2.4 Experiential learning and constructivism

Experiential learning has been a very influential idea in recent years. It is
argued by Kolb (1984) that mature adults have much to offer to the
educational process from their life experiences. Peter (l997j argues that to
some extent experiential learning is constructivism in an atiult context.
Kolb (1 984) describes experiential learning as the process whereby
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience while
Knowles (1984) and Brookfield (1 986) link it to self-directed learning.
There is certainly a very strong element of self-direction in learning as in a
classic study of the constructivist movement. Knowles (1984) postulates
certain assumptions about andragogy (the teaching of adults as opposed to
pedagogy, which is the teaching of children) and experiential learning.
Most of these assumptions also seem to apply to constructivism. Kolb
(1984) listed the essential characteristics of experiential learning which are
applicable to constructivist theory.

These characteristics are:

I. Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience.

2. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.
 Theories of Learning

3. Learning involves transactions between the person and the I

environment.
4. Learning is the process of creating knowledge.
5. The process of learning requires the' resolution of conflicts between
diametrically opposed modes of adaptation to the world.

As a result of the seminal contributions of Kolb (1984) and Knowles (1984)

there is a style of teaching adults that involves making use of their
experiential learning. This is different from pedagogy, in which the teacher
instructs the students but does not take experiential learning into account in
any way. Andragogy involves the construction of experiential learning into
the learning cycle as stated below (fig 1).

Concrete .
Experience

Students make their own

observations

Testing implications
of concepts in new
situations

1
Reflection

generalisations

Fig.1: Kolb's Experiential Learning Model

This cycle explains that the students are encouraged to reflect on their own
experiences and to come to conclusions khat modify their cognitive
structures. They are then ready for the next cycle of experiential learning.

Learning and constructivism

Constructivism refers to a process where the learner is actively constructing

both the knowledge acquired and the strategies used to acquire it. The
learner constructs a new version of reality from his or her own unique
experiences, and it is this construction s h e then uses to deal with any new
experiences in that field.

Constructivist learning is about the elaboration of concepts, as they operate

in a real context. Learners elaborate concepts through questioning, critical
analysis, application of the concept and by, reflection-on-action.
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

To learn constructively is to actively process new information, use

structured experiential activity and analyse life experiences, solve problems,
examine critically one's existing mental framework, explore belief systems
and assess one's learning.

The learner's existing mental framework and learning needs are agents in
the interpretation and construction of knowledge.

To prepare the materials constructively is to provide opportunities for

complex processing of information related to a learner's needs and
knowledge of the world, to design relevant and real world (authentic) tasks,
provide complex stimuli, challenge the learner's existing knowledge
structures and values, acknowledge vague structures in knowledge, help
learners revisit material in greater depths, confirm the learning identified by
learners, and help learners to arrive at correct solutions.

But one of the limitations of this approach is that it does not fully take into
account the way in which social processes, such as peer interaction,
collaboration and the use of language, which contribute to learning. The
main emphasis of cons.tructivisrn is on individual development through the
use of resources and on the accommodation of new experiences to existing
understanding.

The role of the tutor/counsellor in a constructivist learning environment is to

facilitate learning through the provision of programming tasks, and to
support individual development by creating a micro-world. There is no
t
specific place for language, dialogue and communication in developing
cognition.

The drill and practice approach of behaviourism makes the role of the
teacher redundant, while the constructivist approach reinstates learning by
discovery, where the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator, someone who
works in a supervisory capacity. You can see this difference from the figure
given below.

Theory Behaviourist Constructivist

Activities Drill and Practice Independent learning,

Tutorials experiential learning,
programming

Learning Processes Individual Generalisable skills

instructional and based on individual
feedback, drill and discovery
practice

Fig.2: Difference between Behaviourist and Constructivist approach

 Theories of earning

Implications for the design process of course materials

The curriculum of distance education should provide experiential learning

situations for the adult learners and the organisation of the content should
encourage the learners to realise the consequences of their experiences. The
process of designing distance teaching materials should be consistent with
constructivist theory. The course materials should be developed for use in a
constructivist learning environment. The course materials should evolve
through a process of construction of knowledge, reflection and social
interactions. The five conditions for creating constructivist learning
environments can be applied to the process of designing self-learning
materials. The five conditions are:

1. Embrace the complexity of the,design process.

2. Provide for social negotiationst as an integral part of designing.
3. Examine information relevant to the design of the instruction at
multiple times from multiple pqrspectives.
4. Nurtureflexibility in the design process.
5. Emphasise learner-centered design.

1.2.5 Basic conditions of learning

External conditions responsible for Iqarning are very important in various
types of learning. A brief description of the basic conditions of learning is
given below :

i) Contiguity : One of the basic conditions of learning is contiguity - the

almost simultaneous occurrence of the stimuli and of the responses to them.
In teaching, we are always interested:in makmg the students make
connections between a particular stimulus and responses to it.

ii) Practice: Practice is the repetition of a response in the presence of the

stimulus. We usually need to practice,or repeat S-R (Stimulus-Response)
associations to retain them for relatively longer periods of time. For new
stimuli and new responses, more practice is required. In all types of
learning under S-R situations (e.g. classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, skills learning) practice is of crucial importance. But it is of
minor importance in learning concepts or principles and in problem solving,
if the other conditions of learning, such as reinforcement, are provided
appropriately.

iii) Reinforcement : Reinforcement is a major condition required for

learning to take place. Because of the complexity of the concept of
'reinforcement' and because of its importance, we shall here explain it in
detail. We can use reinforcement in different ways to produce different
effects, i.e. the effect of different types of learning in the students. In the
process of reinforcement, an organisdlearner is presented with a particular
stimulus (i.e. reinforcer) before and after it elicits desired responses. In a
given situation, the organism will tend to repeat the responses for which
i
I
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

reinforcement is given and to discontinue responses for which it is not. We

can distinguish a reinforcer from other stimuli because it has a particular
effect on behaviour.

Feedback is providing the knowledge that the responses are correct or that
they require amendment, also functions as reinforcement in strengthening
the responses to be learned. The term 'feedback' refers to any information
that permits learners to judge the quality of their performance. There are
various ways in which feedback may be provided. They are immediate or
delayed or end-of-session feedback. The importance of supplying feedback
has led to several technological innovations, including programmed
instruction and computer assisted instruction. Learning efficiency often
increases when the student receives feedback about the quality of hislher
w ~ r k .The teacher, whether in the classroom or in a distance learning
situation, needs to make systematic plans to provide feedback before
moving on to new learning materials. Available evidence indicates that
active response with direct feedback is superior to passive response with
indirect feedback.

A very weak reinforcement may be sufficient for controlling one's

behaviour effectively if it is wisely used. We cannot say that a particular
activity or event is in fact a reinforcement until we have evidence that it has
strcngthened the behaviour of the individual concerned.

iv) Generalisation and discrimination: Both generalisation and

discrimination are perhaps better defined as phenomena rather than as
conditions of learning. We call them learning conditions because they are
so closely associated with the basic conditions of contiguity, practice and
reinforcement which are essential to all learning. A complex learning
behaviour can be described in terms of stimulus, generalisation and
discrimination.

In many situations, we observe that a child, when confronted with a new

stimulus, makes a response previously learnt to respond to a similar type of
stimulus. We call this behaviour 'generalisation' (or stimulus
generalisation). When a child is taught to call a particular colour 'red', it
also learns to call other similar hues 'red'.

Under conditions where discrimination takes place effectively, the

individual makes different responses to two or more stimuli. A child, for
example, can learn to select the colour red and not pink. The extent to
which it learns to pick up ignore pink, is the extent to which it has
learned to discriminate.

1.2.6 Approaches to learning (Deep and Surface)

In sub-section 1.2.1 we have explained the term 'learning' as a relatively
permanent change in human behaviour and it is the result of reinforced
practice through the process by which stimulus and response bonds are
 Theories of Learning

established. There is a quantitative increase in knowiedge, acquiring,

memorising and reproducing the facts, making sense of the abstract
concepts, interpreting and understanding the reality in a different way due to
learning.

In this sub-section we will focus on different approaches to learning and we

would explain whether there is an internal relationship between the
approaches that students adopt to their learning and the outcome of that
learning. A course developer should be aware of the approaches to learning
while designing and developing self-learning materials. It helps her/hirn to
identi@ whether materials require memorisation or understanding or
intended to develop skills and then to work with the materials appropriately.
These approaches to learning are described as deep and surfuce.

A learner who adopts a deep approach

* is interested in the academic task and derives enjoyment from carryirig it

I
out;
searches for the meaning inherent in the task (for example, if a prose
passage is read, the intention of the author is sought);
personalises the task, making it meaningful to hislher experience and to
the real world;
integrates aspects or parts of the task into a whole (for example, relates
evidence to a conclusion), sees relationships between this whoic 2nd
previous knowledge; and
tries to understand the theories of the task; forms hypotheses. In other
words if learners want to grow ila understanding they will adopt a deep
level strategy.

And a learner who adopts a surface approach

observes the task as a demand to be met, or as a necessary imposition if

some other goal is to be reached (a qualification for instance);
sees the different aspects or parts of the task as unre1ate.d to other tasks; ,
considers the time required to complete the task without searching for
the meaning inherent in the task;
relies on memorisation, tries to reproduce the surface aspects of the task.
In other words, if a learner wants to display symptoms of having learned
something, s/he will adopt a surface level approach.
1

The specific forms of approaches in the specific learning tasks an4, content
domain are researched by distance eddcation practitioners. A large number
of studies have been carried out in which approaches to learning and the
outcomes of learning have been described. Marton and Booth (1996)
observed that the students adopted approaches to the tasks they undertook
according to their experience of those specific occasions. The outcomes of
those tasks were associated with theaapproaches adopted there, specific to
that situation. Some studies have indicated that individual students do
indeed adopt different approaches to particular tasks. Other rescarchers,
 Faclors in the Dcsign of Print Materials

however, have found it reasonable to make the assumption that individuals

have a predominant approach when tackling the tasks of leaming, and they
have tried to determine the extent to which they adopt such an approach to
their studies in general. Rumsden and Enhvistle (1983) developed
cluestionnalres and interview questions to study how students approach
lcarning. Sample items for such measurement are shown below in the box:

"I geiierally put a lot of effort into trying to understand things which
initially seem difficult1'.
i, "I often find myself questioning things I read in books".
"1 usually set out to understand thoroughly the meaning of what I am
asked to read".

1 Surface Approach
I
"I find I have to concentrate on memorizing a good dcal of what I have
to learn".
0 "The best way for me to understand what technical terms mean is to
remember the text book definitions".
"Often I find 1 have read things without having a chance to really
understand them".

A systematic relationship was found between the attributes and approaches

adopted, for example, the perception of heavy work loads, poor
presen~ation,lack of choice of content and method, and examinations that
demanded reproduction. On the other hand, the perception of good teaching
and good presentation and freedoin to choose what and how to study, are all
related to deep approaches to leaning.

The features of learning that are typically associated with deep and surface
approaches were used by Biggr (1994) in developing questic\nl?airesto
identify how students approach their study i.e., learning process
questionnaire and study process questionnaire. These were used mainly in
Australia and Southeast Asia.

Xrlt~hel-(I906) has stated that deep learners begin with an intention to

undei+standand inaintain a vigorous interaction with content, whereas the
surface learner's main intention 1s to complete the task requirements, which
are regarded as cxternal in~positions.The ~mplicationis that deep learning
is sornithow bbetier rl~ansurface learning because 'understanding' is
achieved.

Lj~uIIuud McNcrmrr~-u(2000) had conducted a study on a population of 137

enrolled sludents, who has been studying through distance education at
tertiary level for at least one year. These learners stated deep learning as
u~lderstand~ng and considered this as the better way of learning, since they
would be able to retain the knowledge for longer, thus forming a more
 Theories of Eerrrrir~g

substantial base on which to build further learning. This building-up of

knowledge was considered to be a very important learnirlg strategy.

The results of this study emphasise the importance of understanding the

approaches to learning while designing materials, because the distance
learners have a general desire to adopt 'deep learning' approach, but their
circumstances often lead to resort to surface learning approach. These
circumstances are usually external, such as work commitments, famiIy
responsibilities, limitations of study space and isoiation from the institution.

In this section we have discussed in detail the concept of learning. From the
analysis of the pedagogical structure of distance education, and principles of
andragogy, we can infer that learning is a 'central basic function of human
life' and the distance learners are very pragmatic about their studies and
tend to use the more flexible 'strategic' approach to learning. Learning in
adulthood becomes constructivist in approach when high flexibility of the
learning and teaching strategies are aimed at bringing about quick changes
in content and media. The nature of these strategies is of paramount
importance in the design of learning materials and the development of a
suitable distance teaching paradigm, particularly if new teclinology is to be
used for delivery.
-
Check Your Progress 1
i
,
6 ) rirci
What is the basic difference between behaviourism and cognitivi~n~?
I in ten lines.

'Note : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

THEORIES OF LEARNING: BEHAVIOURISM

Views on learning are based on different philosophical and psychological
ideas about human nature and how it learns. Educators work on the basis of
various theories of learning. The pronlincnt learning theories we intend to
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

discuss in sections 1.3 and 1.4 are: behaviomism, cognitivism and the
possible synthesis of the two in section 1.5.

1.3.1 Behaviourist views

Behaviourism is among the most dominant of modem theories of learning.
The behaviourist view is quite comprehensive and includes a variety of
thoughts, but all these thoughts suggest a common approach to learning in
terms of the development of connections between stimuli received and
responses displayed by organisms/learners.

After conducting laboratory experiments with animals, behaviourists

concluded that learning is a process by which stimulus and response bonds
are established when a successful response immediately and frequently
follows a stimulus. They assumed that people are similar to machines, and
considered irrelevant any reference to the role of the mind. Most of the
basic behavioural research has been conducted on animals. The applications
of these research studies, however relate to a wide range of human
behaviours. In this context, we can summarize the major principles of the
theories to key behaviourists such as Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner. These
theories have most influence upon the development of a theory of design.
According to behavioural theories, learning is viewed as the ability to
perform new behaviours which are established as goals. There is an effort
to create conditions which will enable the learners to demonstrate these
behaviours.

The early behaviourist, Edward L. Thorndike has put forward three main
laws of learning: The law of effect, the law of readiness and the law of
exercise. The law of effect stresses the importance of the effect of a
stimulus-response (S-R). Satisfying results reinforce the response while
inadequate results weaken it. Reward and punishment are, therefore,
important ingredients of learning. The law of readiness indicates the
learner's willingness to make (S-R) connection while the law of exercise is
related to the strengthening of the connection through practice.

The mechanistic outlook of learning has been developed by a later

generation of behaviourists. They suggest that learning something is a
process similarlo habit formation through conditioning which links desired
responses to stimuli. A prominent theorist among them is B.F. Skinner who
propagated the concept of operant conditioning. His idea will be discussed
in sub-section 1.3.3 of this unit.

1.3.2 Educational implications

The behaviourist approach to learning has greatly influenced modern
educational practices. Eehaviourists have conceived of teaching as a
manipulation of the environment in order to produce desired behavioural
changes in learners and thus make education more effective. They suggest
 Theories of Learning

the adoption of the following three principles towards making a teaching-

learning transaction yield desirable results.

knowledge of results and use of positive reinforcement,

minimum delay in reinforcement, and
elaboration of complex behaviour by dividing learning into a series of
small steps.

One of the major contributions of behaviourists to education is their

emphasis on defining objectives in behavioural terms. They have stressed
the need for stating objectives in the form of overt behaviour which can be
observed and measured. The role of teachers becomes very crucial in
deciding what changes of behaviour the learners should display when they
learn. and in teaching in such a way that learners can attain those
behavioural changes.

Behaviourist principles have also influenced contemporary approaches to

evaluation. For instance, Bloom has suggested a model of 'taxonomy of
educational objectives' based on the hierarchy of learning objectives: This
will be discussed in section 1.6 of this unit.

Another example of the educational uses to which a behaviourist approach

can be put, is individualising instruction such as a personalised system of
instruction based on reinforcement theory that has been widely used in
education.

1.3.3 Skinner's theory of operant conditioning

Skinner (1958) propagated a theory related to stimulus-response relationship
and reinforcement. In his view, learning is a change in behaviour. As the
learner learns, hislher responses in terms of changed behaviour increase.
Learning is, therefore, formally defined by him as a change in the likelihood
or probability of a response.

Operant conditioning is a learning force which effects the desired response

more frequently by providing a reinforcing stimulus immediately following
the response. The most important principle of this type of learning is that
behaviour changes according to its immediate 'consequences'. Pleasurable
consequences strengthen behaviour while unpleasant consequences weaken
it. For example, in Skinner's famous experiment, a pigeon pecks the red
ball and gets food. Because of food (reinforcement), the pigeon is likely to
peck the same ball again and again.

In operant conditioning, learning activities are divided into rnany small

stepsltasks and reinforced one by one. The operant-the responsehehaviour
or act - is strengthened so as to incease the probability of its recurrence in
the future. Three external conditions - reinforcement, contiguity and
practice - must be provided to promote or to effect operant conditioning.
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

Reinforcement

The most important aspect of Skinner's theory of learning relates to the role
of reinforcement. An organisdlearner is presented with a particular '
stiinulus - a reinforcer - after it makes a response. In a given situation, the
organisdlearner will tend to repeat responses for which it is reinforced.

Skirmer made a distinction between positive and negative reinforcements.

Positive reinforcement is a stimulus which increases the probability of
desired responses. Usually, it is a positive reward. Praise, smiles, or a
prize, are examples of positive reinforcement. In negative reinforcement,
the desired behaviour is more likely to occur if such stimuluslreinforcement
is removed. For example, we can close windows and doors to avoid
hearing loud noises or we can avoid wrong answers by giving right answers.
Here noise and wrong answers are negative reinforcers. Thus a negative
reinforcer is a negative reward - the avoidance of which gives us relief from
an unpleasant state of affairs. Skinner did not equate negative reinforcement
witn punishment.

Educational implications

The basic implication of operant conditioning for instructional activities is

their dependence on observable behaviour. For Skinner, reinforcement
facilitates learning. Further, he thinks that the most effective control on
human learning requires instrumental aids. Broadly, Skinner's theory has
made the following contributions to the practice of education:

a) Teaching Machines: Teaching machines, in the sense of systematic

approaches to teaching with the help of machines, deserve attention as they
have strongly influenced distance education both in theory and in practice.
In this method, machines present the individual learners with a series of
questions to be answered, problems to be solved, or exercises to be done. In
addition, they provide automatic feedback to the learners. Teaching through
machines and electronic gadgets encourages learners to take an 'active' part
in the instructional process. The use of mechanical teaching devices has the
following advantages:

i) Right answers are immediately reinforced. Machines encourage and

sometimes even compel the learner to come up with the right
answers.
ii) Mere manipulation of the machines will probably provide enough
reinforcement to keep an average student at study for a suitable
period each day.
iii) Any learner who is forced to leave the activity of learning for a
certain period can return at any time and continue from where helshe
left off.
iv) Each student can proceed with hislher learning on an individual basis
at hisher own pace.
 Theories of Learning

v) The teacher is forced to arrange and design the content carehlly in a

hierarchical order.
vi) There is constant interaction between the teaching material and the
learner, thus sustaining the learning process.
vii) After evaluating the progress of the learner, the teacher can supply
necessary supplementary reinforcement. Thus, machines make it
compulsory that any given material be thoroughly understood before
the student moves on to the next set of materials.

b) Programmed Instruction: Programmed instruction is a self-learning

system in which the subject matter is broken up into small bits and
presented in logical sequences. Each step builds deliberately upon the
preceding one. A learner progresses through the sequence of steps at hisher
own pace. Each step presents some new information about the theme that is
being taught through the programme. At the end of each step there is a
question to be answered by the learner. After the question is answered, the
learner is expected to check hidher answer with the correct answer supplied
in the programme. This correct answer functions as a reinforcing stimulus.
Thus, the process of reinforcement is an inbuilt feature of programmed
materials.

Let us sum up Skinner's theory of operant conditioning in the following

table :
Table 1 : Summary of Skinner's theory of operant conditioning

SI.No Basic Element Explanation

1. Assumption Behavioural change is a function
of external environmental
I conditions and events
I
1 4.3.
Learning

Learning outcomes
Change in behaviour represented
by a visible response
New responses/behaviour
II
Components of learning Stimulus (discrimination)-
Response-Stimulus
(reinforcement)
Applications to educational - Analysis of readiness and
practice motivation
1 - Individual learning materials
I -
-
Teaching machines
Analysis of aversive
classroom practices and
interactive classroom
situations
- Scheduling reinforcement
- Transfer of response-
stimulus relationship to the
solution of new problems.
r -
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Check Your Progress 2

I.
State how behaviourist principles operate in teaching machines.

Note : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

THEORIES OF LEARNING: COGNITIVE

APPROACH
The cognitive approach deals mainly with the psychological iispects of
human behaviour. We have discussed this approach in detail along with its
application to educational practices in the following sub-sections.

I.$.I
Cognitive approach
'Cognitive approach' has taken an important place in the psychology of
learning over the last few decades, and has posed a challenge to
behaviourism. It has put back on the agenda the nature of the complex
mental process of a learner. While conducting experimental investigation,
cognitivism takes into consideration activities such as perception, concept
formation, language use, thinking, understanding, problem solving, attention
and memory.

Thus, the cognitive approach is concerned with the individual's inner

psychological functioning, and it strongly contends the behaviourist's
emphasis on overt behaviour.

Cognitive theorists have made investigations to show that people learn by

perceiving, comprehending and conceptualising problems. The
comprehension of concepts and rules is transferable to the solution of new
problems or from one situation to another. The cognitivists in arguing that
people grasp things as a whole, are, therefore opposing the behaviourist
approach to teaching which employs dells to memorise the information.

Cognitivists believe that learning is a question both of insight formation and

of successful problem solving, and not a mechanical sequence of stimuli and
 Theories of Learning

responses. And so, teaching, according to them, should encourage

understanding based on problem solving and insight formation.

Information processing

The contemporary cognitivists equate human mental activities with the

process that goes on in a 'computer' in operation. They conceptualise
human beings as information processing systems. The following discussion
explains the process of information system and the three different types of
memories, each of which serves a different function in the total process.
The three different types of memories are : (i) the sensory memory, jii)
short-tern1 memory and (iii) the long-term memory. The sensory memory
receives information into the system either visually or in an auditory form.
This type of memory refers to the active mental process by which
knowledge is coded or represented. The short-term memory refers to the
process by which knowledge is organised, stored and accessed. The long-
term memory refers to the mental process by which the information is
integrated with previously stored infonfiation in short-term memory. When
an average person speaks of something being learned, the implication is that
the knowledge has been put into long-term memory, One of the most
important aspects of long-term memory is that it can be consciously .
controlled. Information processing is a psychological activity consisting of
information being received by the sensesand information items being
selected and passed on to short-memory where encoding processes transfer
them to the long-term memory. Long-term memory provides a store from
where information can be retrieved in order to make a response. 'Sh~s
process maybe represented diagrammatically as follows :

Stimulus Sensory
memory

Fig. 3: An lnformation Processing Model

There are a number of elements which are central to a cognitive theory of

learning. To begin with, the individual is seen as having an ac~ive
relationship with the environment. S/he has intentions and goals, and thinks
of alternative strategies to achieve these goals. Thinking is essentially a
purposive activity. Learning is, therefore, an intelligent and active process.
Within this process, issues of perception are very important because
perceptual activity is the first relationship between a person and hidher
environment or situation. The individual interacts with the situation and this
interaction leads to relativity in perception as he/she organises the stjmulus
into meaningfbl patterns. Thus an individual acquires knowledge tnrough
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

hislher interaction with the environment and stores this knowledge for use in
new situations.

Learning as a cognitive process

For cognitivists, learning is a cognitive process. In the process of learning,

certain changes take place in the cognitive structure of the learner, and these
changes help himher develop an understanding of the concept that is being
learnt or taught. Thus, learning goals are not achieved simply by
performing activities but by grasping the meaning of things in a way that
can be transferred to the solution of new problems.

Feedback

One of the important elements of cognitive approach is the notion of

'feedback': The learning situation is seen as one in which an individual
confronts a problem, develops a hypothesis based on the knowledge already
present in hisher memory and then tries it out. The consequences of hislher
action then provide h i d h e r with the required feedback so that the correct
solutions are confirmed and the incorrect ones rejected.

1.4.2 Educational implications

What is the contribution of this school of thought to educational practices?
Cognitive psychologists have investigated complex mental behaviours in a
scientific way. And their views are becoming increasingly important in
their application to education and instruction. The major emphasis of this
approach is on how to design educational activities in order to promote
cognitive learning. We describe below the major educational implications
of this approach.

i) The most important aspect of the cognitive approach to education

relates to promoting retention of knowledge acquired through learning.
The ability to retain knowledge depends on how well it is understood.
'Understanding' can help us conceptually locate the information we
store in our memory and create new cognitive structures to efficiently
use our long-term memory in new situations as well.

il) Teaching materials should be planned on the basis of the theory of

discovery. Instructional methods should, therefore, emphasize the
learners' competence for spontaneous discovery, which implies that
active learning methods should be adopted to motivate the learner to
rediscover the facts or to find solutions to the problems.

iii) This approach emphasises appropriate decisions regarding the

instructional objectives, the analysis of prerequisite behaviour, and the \
teaching methods.
 Theories of Learning

iv) Such an approach also stresses problem-oriented learning. By raising

problems and then solving them, it tells us how to teach in a reflective
way.

v) Lastly, it emphasises the study of learner characteristics which can be

used by the teacher to e x p a d the quality and of the student's
insights.

Check Your Progress 3

a) Identify three important educational implications of the cognitive

approach to learning.
b) Point out at least two similarities between cognitivism and
behaviourism regarding the conditions of learning.

Note : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

1.4.3 Bruner's discovery learning

Jerome S. Bruner (1966) is a proponent of cognitive learning and a
developmental psychologist who is primarily interested in the development
of mental abilities. His approach to psychology is eclectic (i.e. he selects
the best or the most usefbl features from the various conflicting theoiies
available). He looks at human behgs as information processors, thinkers
and creators, and treats the learner as a reactive organism who actively
selects, structures, retains and transforms learning/information to achieve
certain goals.
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

Bruner suggests that people have primary needs, other than animal drives.
One of these might be called 'curiosity' which keeps an organism active
even in the absence of organic states of tension. So our cognitive activity is
not always dominated only by the need for such things as food or sex.
Accordingly, Bruner thinks of learning as a goal directed activity which
satisfies this drive, and answers the curiosity of the learner.

Learning as a cognitive process

Bruner describes the learner as a problem solver, i.e. one who interacts with
hisher environment to test hypotheses and to develop generalisations. The
goal of education, according to Bruner, should be cognitive development,
and the content of learning should foster the development of problem
solving skills through the processes of inquiry and discovery.

In Bruner's view, the cognitiveprocess encloses three almost simultaneous

processes:

Acquisition of new knowledge/infonnation

Trafisfonnation of acquired knowledge
Checking the adequacy of the new knowledge.

The modes of cognitive development are described by Bruner in terms of

three hierarchical levels/modes.

The first mode is called 'enactive '. It is the representation of knowledge

through actions. For example, a child who enactively knows how to ride a
bicycle may not be able to describe the procedure. The second mode is
'iconic '. It is based upon internal imagery. Knowledge is represented by a
set of images/graphics/drawings that stand for a concept but do not fully
define it. For example, drawing can represent the 'triangle'
diagrammatically, without explaining the concept of 'triangdarity'. The
third and the most advanced mode is that of 'symbolic representation'. It is
the use of words and other symbols to describe a concept or an experience.
Symbolic representation is based upoil an abstract, arbitrary and more
,lexible system of thought. At this stage, language becomes more important
IS a niedium of both of the reception and the expression of ideas. For
::xample, at this stage the child can explain the concept of 'triangularity' or
the concept behind the operation of a bicycle.

Autonomous learning

Bruner advocates autonomy in learning. He suggests that when the learner

is allowed to approach learning as an act of discovery, s h e will increasingly
engage himherself in learning, with the autonomy of self-reward. In other
words, the learner provides for hisher own stimulation and in this way
arouses his or her own curiosity.

The studies of Bruner and his associates indicate that learners can be taught
to generate their own instructional method and strategy for learning. A
I -.
26
 Theories of Learning

learner learns to study independently and acquires skills to establish hislher

own standard in the same way that any scientist/author/researcher does. In
this way, the feedback needed from the teacher is at a minimum. Bruner
argues that the teacher's role here must be to create an environment in
which learners can learn on their own without the help of any pre-packaged
information. He suggests that learners should also learn through their active
involvement with content. His work was thus influential in the open school
movement and other humanistic approaches to learning. The most
important goal of education, Bruner feels, is to teach learners how to value
learning for its own sake, enabling them to acquire on their own the
knowledge they need.

According to Bruner, learning should be flexible and exploratory.

Institutions should arouse learners' curiosity, minimise the risk of failure
and make the activities relevant to them.

Bruner's theory of instruction

Bruner defines learning as a process in which a learner achieves

instructional objectives with little or no help from the teacher. He
emphasises 'the training of students in the use of mind' with confidence,
energy and honesty. Thus, a theory of instruction should take into account:

a) the ways of structuring knowledge,

b) the presentation sequence,
c) the motivating experience, and '
d) the nature of pacing of rewards and punishment.

In his theory of instruction, Bruner puts forth his original ideas concerning
the most effective way of achieving knowledge and skills. For him, a theory
of instruction should cover the following major aspects:

i) The emphasis should be placed upon the learners' skills in handling

things, and in perceiving and grasping the subject. The learner's
approach to learning should be such that slhe should be able to use
the acquired knowledge in solving problems.
ii) The subject matter should be presented enactively, iconically and
symbolically so that learners can acquire optimal comprehensioil and
a generalised set of basic ideas or principles.
iii) Bruner recognises the role of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards in
promoting learning, but he thinks that intrinsic rewards are more
important. He sees intrinsic redards in the form of the satisfaction
gained from solving problems quickly, the interest and involvement
in learning, the pleasure received from the intellectual mastery of it,
etc.
iv) Discovery learning increases motivation and strengthens the
learner's tendency to carry out hisher learning activities with the
autonomy that goes along with self-reward. Discovery learning
teaches the learner the techniques of problem solving and results in a
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

better retention of what is learned because the learner acquires the

knowledge through hislher own efforts.
v) Intellectual honesty, i.e. willingness to check and correct one's ideas
and notions. or one's adopted solutions to problems, should be
cultivated.

In section 1.3 and 1.4, we have discussed in detail the behaviourist and
cognitivist approaches to learning and their educational implications.

Let us compare behaviourism and cognitivism through a schematic

representation of both approaches to learning.

Table 2 : Behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning : A Comparison

/ Elements Behaviourist Approach Cognitive Approach

Basic Learning is a function of Learning involves a
Premise environmental conditions, stimuli perceptual
and responses, stimulus substitution, reorganisation.
i.e. an existing response becomes Learning is related to
associated with new stimuli. insights. Emphasises
Concentrates on observed response information
and ignores mental processes. processing and
human memory

Learning Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement Stimulus-Cognitivt

Formula Processes

Process of Relationship between stimulus and Learning as insight

Learning response.

En try Entry behaviour determines the Previous knowledge

Hehaviour starting point from which complex is used as a base from
behaviour can be conditioned. which a learner can
develop hisher own
new cognitive
structure.

Motivation Organic drives such as hunger, fear, Goal, curiosity and

anger, love, etc. expectation

Major Analysis of readiness and Linking new learning

Contribution motivation. Transfer of stimulus to cognitive structure.
control scheduling. Reinforcement Providing aids in
analysis of aversive classroom comprehension.
practice. lndividualised learning Problem solving and
- materials. long term memory
 Theories of Learning

Check Your Progress 4

Give at least three components pertaining to theory of instruction proposed

by Bruner.

Note : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
..........................................................................................

SYNTHESIS OF THE BEHAVIOURIST AND

THE COGNITIVE APPROACHES
The behaviourist concentrates on the external stimulus and conditions
provided by the environment for learning or bringing about changes in
behaviour. Cognitive theories, on the other hand, stress the internal
conditions of learning, viz. perceptual reorganisation, insight, information
processing and memory. But in reality, learning depends on both external
and internal conditions. To make this point clear we present below the
views of Robert M. Gagne whose approach is said to be a synthesis of
cognitivism and behaviourism.

1.5.1 Gagne's views on learning

Robert M. Gagnt is a prominent educational psychologist whose ideas on
the 'conditions of learning' are generally employed in every teaching-
learning process. He identifies the factors which account for the complex
nature of human learning and his point of view is often used to underpin the
mechanistic instructional technology that is associated with behaviour
modification and 'perfonnance or competency based education'.

GagnC (1984) has described learning as a ~ h a n g ein the behaviour of an

individual that is retained and that makes possible a corresponding change
in his or her behaviour in a particular situation. According to him, learning
is a process that takes place inside an individual's brain (comparable to
organic processes such as digestion ad respiration). The most important
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

aspects of a learner are 'his senses, his central nervous system, and his
muscles'.

GagnC combined a basic behaviourist position with elements of cognitive

thought and built an hierarchical model of the different types of learning.
He thus shows the way in which a unifying theory may be able to explain
how different kinds of learning relate to each other. He synthesized the
existing theories of learning and tried to provide a consistent explanation for
all types of leaining with the help of a set of psychological principles of
learning. For example, learners learn best when information is presented in
logical sequences consisting of short units with a clear framework.

Conditions of learning

Gagnt identifies eight conditions of learning, or learning types or varieties

of learning, beginning with the simple ones and ending with the complex
ones. Although Gagne refers to these conditions as learning types, he is
primarily interested in the observable behaviour and performance which are
the products of these conditions. In these conditions of learning he
combined the basic behaviourist view with cognitive theory to present a
hierarchical model of different types of learning. Here, we shall give a brief
description of the types of learning GagnC talks about.

Type Brief Description

1) Signal learning The individual acquires a
conditioned response to a given
signal, the learning is involuntary.
2) Stimulus-response learning The individual makes responses to
specific stimuli; the correct
response is rewarded.
3) Chaining Two or more previously learned
stimulus-response connections are
linked together.
4) Verbal association Chains that are verbal, e.g. a child
identifies an object and calls it by
its proper name (e.g. 'the red ball'),
or it finds a Hindi or French
equivalent for an English word.
5) Multiple discrimination The learner learns to distinguish
between motor and verbal chains
which s h e has already acquired.
6) Concept learning A common response to a class of
stimuli; in learning a concept the
learner responds to stimuli by
identifying its abstract
characteristics like shape, colour,
etc.
7) Rulelearning In learning a rule we relate two or
more concepts. For example: 'at

32
 Theories of Learning

100°C watzr will boil'. Here

temperature and boiling-polnt are
two concepts related by a rule.
8) Problem solving The learner uses the rules learned to
achieve some goals; problem
solving is the combined product of
two or more lower-order rules; it
thus requires an internal event i.e.,
thinking to take place for solving a
problem. For example, a leainer is
posed with a problem to prove that
air has pressure. For solving this
problem slhe has to lean1 a few
lower-order rules such as (1) air can
support a column of water
(experiment with the help of a
tumbler, a pjece of card board and
water), (ii) the weight of air is
approximately 1Spound per square
inch on every surface in every
direction, (iii) air pushes upwards
as well as downwards.

Phases of learning

Gagnk has identified nine stages of cognitive processing that are essential to
learning and which need to be executed in a sequential order. These stages
are: 1) gaining attention; 2) informing the learner of the objectives; 3)
stimulating recall of prerequisite learning; 4) presenting the stimulus
material; 5) providing learning guidance; 6) eliciting rhe performance; 7)
providing feedback about performance correctness; 8) assessing the
performance; 9) enhancing retention and transfer. By sequincing
instruction in this way, one creates external conditions which complement
the internal condition. These phases of learning are the typical series of
external and internal events that constitute a single learning act. The
internal conditions of learning include two factors- the learner's
psychological state and rhe cognitive processes required for learning. The
internal processes may be influenced by external events in the form of
environmental stimulation.

The importance of these phases is that they are present in every act of
learning and are performed in different ways for different varieties of
learning. They are:

i) preparation for learning,

ii) acquisition and performance, and
iii) transfer of learning.
I

Preparation for learning initiates the individual into the learning task, while
acquisition and performance refer to the assimilation of the new knowledge
. Factors in the Design of Print Materials

or of the capability. Depending on the complexity of the skill to be learned,

these phases may require anything from one to several sessions. Finally,
transfer of learning may take place sometime after the acquisition of the new
skill. A brief account of the categories is given below:
- --

Category Phases and their Functions

Preparation for learning Drawing learners' attention to the stimulus.
Informing the lea-mers of learning
~alsiobjectives.providing recall of
prerequisite behaviourlleaming.

Acquisition of performance Presenting stimulus materials: Pem~itting

temporary storage of stimulus features in
working memory. Transferring stimulus
features and related information to long-term
memory. Retrieving stored information.
Activating response. Providing information
and feedback about the correctness of
performance.

Transfer of learning Providing additional cues for later recall of

capability and assessment of performance
(cueing retrieval or serve as a signal for
getting back the information).
Enhancing retention and transfer of learning
to new situations/contexts (Generalisation).

The GagnC's model of instructior~

The foundation of Gagne's model relates to his conception of the

organization of knowledge in terms of outcomes of learning. This structure
concentrates on general classification of learning tasks, thus relating to all
coiltent areas. This model includes five typedvarieties of learning. GagnC
identifies five types or varieties of learning. They are: verbal information
skill, intellectual skill, motor skill, cognitive strategies, and attitudes. Each
type of learning is acquired in different ways, i.e. each requlres a different
set of prerequisite skills and a different set of cognitive-processes (i.e.
internal conditions of learning). Gagnk accepts that environmental stimuli
(i.e. external conditions of learning) are required to support the learner's
cognitive processes during learning. Thus, human learning is the result of
interaction between the learner's internal variables (states and cognitive
processes) and the external (events of instruction/ stimulus) ones. In other
words, GagnC: attempts to synthesise the basic principles of cognitivism and
behaviourism. The varieties of learning identified by Gagne are
summarised below:
 Theories of Idearning

Verbal information skill provides the ability to state or to recall information

(facts, definitions, labels, etc). This has to be developed to meet the needs
of any particular subject matter.

Intellectual skill

Intellectual skills are the most important ones, involving mental operations.
They include conceptualisation of the environment, differentiating thirlgs
from each other, understanding concepts, seeing relationships between
things. Reading, writing, and handling of numbers are the other abilities
which come under this variety of skill. These abilities range from the
simple to the complex.

Motor skill

Motor skills are physical skills. These include the ability to perfonn a
sequence of physical movements.

Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies refer to the learner's thinking, remembering and

learning-the procedures we use for ordering and processing information
internally. They are learned over long periods of time.

Attitudes

Attitudes are deep-rooted in us and we find it difficult to change ehet~l.

They determine our predisposition towards positive or negative responses to
an object. Our attitudes strongly affect our motivat!on for learning.

1.5.2 Educational implications of Gagnb's theory of

learning
We present here three broad educational implications of Gagne's theory of
learning.

i)Prerequisite behaviour: GagnC advocated that processes of learning

move from the simple to the complex. The learner has to develop
$rerequisite capabilities before s h e acquires new terminal behaviour. Thus
the use of an hierarchy of learning and task analysis are integral parts of
instructional transac lions.

ii) Learners' characteristics: Learners' individual differences, readiness

and motivation to learn are the important issues to be considered before
designing instructional activities.

iii) Cognitive process and instruction: The transfer of learning, the self-
management skills of the learner, and teaching learners the skills of'problem
- solving are integral parts of the internal conditions of learning, applicable to
I
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

instruction. The skill of learning 'how to learn' should be developed in the

learner and the emphasis should be on the learner's individuality.

Check Your Progress 5

Point out at least four cognitivist and two behaviourist elements in GagnC's
synthesis of the two approaches to learning.

Note: a) 'Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.

1.6 THE TAXONOMY OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
The desirable outcome of learning experiences -the way individuals are to
act, think or feel as a result of participating in some instructional activities
- can be classified into three domains, viz. Cognitive,Afiective and
Psychomotor. Bloom and his associates classified educational behaviour
from the simple to the complex, based on the level of learning atd
 Theories of Learning

developed a taxonomy of learning outcomes. We shall describe briefly all

the three domains which include different types of learning outcomes. Each
domain consists of a list of general objectives stated for a programme or a
course. Each general objective has a pool of specific learning
outcomeslobjective. These specific learning objectives are stated in a unit in
behavioural terms. These objectives clearly convey what a distance learner
will be able to do after going through a unit. They are also known as
instructional objectives or learning outcomes. Each objective begins with
an action verb that indicates definite observable and measurable response
(e.g., identifies, defines, recalls etc.). In the following discussion, you may
note that with each general objective (viz., knowledge), we have provided a
few instructional objectives (viz., names, defines, states etc.). For example,
in a course of Diet and Nutrition, the general objective is to know the basic
components of Diet, but the specific instructional objective should be name
at least five principle components of a balanced diet or de3ne the term
balanced diet.

1.6.1 Cognitive doniain

This domain includes learning objectives which deal with the 'recall' or
'recognition' of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and
skills. This is known as the knowledge component of educational objectives
(distance teaching is particularly effective in developing the cognitive
domain of learners).

Given below are the six stages of cognitive learning:

i) Knowledge: Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously

learned material. This may involve the necall of a wide range of learning
material, from specific facts to complete theories. Knowledge represents the
lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. It is indicated by
the repetition of responses that have been practiced through learning
experiences. The specific learning outcames are: names, defines, labels,
states and selects.

ii) Understanding: It is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of

material. It is the behaviour which represents new responses in relation to
an'd in addition to those previously practiced and learned. The specific
learning outcomes are: interpretations, translations, summaries, analyses,
detection of similarities and differences and comparisons etc.

iii) Application: It refers to the ability to use learned material in new and
concrete situations. It is an act of puttingatheories, rules, methods, concepts,
principles or laws to practical uses or new situations. The specific learning
outcomes are: discovers, produces, relates, sdlves, uses and predicts.

iv) Analysis: It refers to the ability to break down material into its
component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood.
This may include the identification of the parts, finding out relationships
 Factors in the Design of Print Materials

between parts, and explaining the organizational principles involved. The

specific learning outcomes are: identifies, illustrates, sub-divides and
differentiates.

v) Synthesis: Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a

new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication, a
plan of operations (research proposal) etc. The specific learning outcomes
are: categorises, combines, designs, rearranges, summarises, writes, and .
reconstructs.

vi) Evaluation: It is concerned with the value judgement of any statement,

achievement of the learner and material. The judgements are to be based on
definite criteria. Learning outcome in this area are the highest in the
cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all of the other
categories, plus value judgements based on clearly defined criteria. The
specific learning outcomes are: appraises, compares, justifies, summarises
and supports.

1.6.2 Affective domain

This is related to the attitudinal domain of educational objectives. Learning
in the affective domain pertains to changes in interest, attitudes, values, and
to the development of appreciation and adequate adjustment needed for
effective learning. This is a higher level of learning, and it has a close
relationship with cognitive and behavioural changes. This relationship is
operative at the instructional as well as the evaluative level. Each
formlinstance of affective behaviour has a corresponding one of cognitive
behaviour. In certain cases, promoting attitudinal changes may demand an
element of face-to-face teaching in distance education. Therefore, in certain
cases audio-visual media and face-to-face contact sessions are resorted to.

Stages of affective learning

i) Reception: It refers to the learner's willingness to attend to particular

phenomena or stimuli (textbook, activities, etc). At this stage, the learner
becomes sensitive to the existence of certain phenomena and stimuli. For
example, he or she becomes willing to receive instruction in English. Such
willingness is the first requisite for the successful learning of a foreign
language. The specific learning outcomes are: chooses, describes,
identifies, selects, replies and uses.

ii) Responding: It refers to the active participation on the part of the

distance learner. The learner is sufficiently motivated to actively respond to
the stimuli, for exaample, he or she becomes eager to participate in the
cultural activities organised by other countries. Learning outcomes in this
t
area may emphasise acquiescence in responding (a distance learner
completes assignments; participates in teleconference and shows interest in
the subject). The specific learning outcomes are discusses, performs,
answers, presents and writes.
 Theories of Learning

iii) Valuing: The behaviour of a learner shows that a situationIan object/

phenomenon, has value or worth for h i d e r . For example, a belief in the
importance of civic responsibility in society. However, you may not fulfil
such responsibilities in each and every srituation when it comes to actual
1
, social practices but you internalise the set of specified values, and express
simple acceptance or a commitment. The specific learning outcomes are:
reports, completes, explains, justifies and studies.

iv) Organisation: This is essentially an advancement/ extension of state

(iii), i.e. valuing stage. In this context we can infer that organisation is
concerned with bringing together different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and building an internally consistent value system. For
example, preparing a vocational plan that satisfies the human need for both
economic security and social service. The specific learning outcomes are:
arranges, combines, modifies and prepares etc.

v) Characterisation by a value or velue complex: At this level, the values

which have a place in the individuas value hierarchy, are organised into
some kind of internally consistent systt,.. This system controls the
behaviour of an individual. Thus, a set of v a ~ ~ or , - the pattern of behaviour
as a result of learning or repeated experience in society becomes a way of
life or the character of an individual. Having reached this stage, the
individual unlike the one we suggested in item (iii) above will fulfil the
social responsibilities at all costs. ?;he specific learning outcomes are:
displays, listens, revises, solves, uses and verifies.

I .6.3 Psychomotor dornak

This domain pertains to the manipulative or psychomotor skills of
educational competency. p ace-to-face teaching within the overall
framework of distance teaching can ensure learning of this kind. For
example, driving can be learnt more effectively under the direct supervision
o-f an instructor, after the learner has attended to a television lesson on 'how
to drive a car'.
1

Psychomotor learning has three characteristics:

i) Response chains: Learning of skills involves a chain of motor responses,

i.e. the muscular movements in swimming or driving or writing.

ii) Movement coordination: Coordination of perception and motor skills is

necessary here. For example, a child starts riding a bicycle by acquiring this
coordination. -

iii) Response patterns: Organisation of stimulus-response chains into large

response patterns. For example, a child can ride a bicycle or motorcycle
without making an error after he/she masters the skill in question.

-
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

There are seven stages of psychomotor-learning. They are: perception, set,

guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and
origination.

1. Perception is the process of becoming aware of objects, qualities or

relations by way of sense organs. This level is concerned with the use of the
sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor activity. The specific learning
outcomes are: chooses, identifies, selects and relates etc.

2. Set is a preparatory adjustment of readiness for a particular kind of

action. It refers to readiness to take a particular type of action. The specific
learning outcomes are: begins, moves, reacts and volunteers etc.

3. Guided response is an early step in the development of skills. It is the

overt behavioural act of a learner under the guidance of a counsellor or
tutor. Readiness is a prerequisite for this kind of response. It includes
imitation, and trial and error. The specific learning outcomes are:
assembles, builds, sketches, manipulates and constructs etc.

4. Mechanism means that the learned response has become habitual. At

this level, the learner has achieved a certain level of confidence and
proficiency. The specific learning outcomes are: displays, measures,
organises and builds etc.

5. Complex overt response is the skillfkl performance of motor activities

that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a
quick and accurate performance requiring a minimum energy. The specific
learning outcomes are: assembles, constructs, fixes, organises and
manipulates etc.

6. Adaptation is concerned with skills that are so well developed that the
learner can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet
a problem situation. The specific learning outcomes are: adapts, rearranges,
reorganises and revises etc.

7. Origination refers to the creating of new movement patterns to fit a

particular situation or specific problem. The specific leaming outcomes are: ,

arranges, combines, designs and originates.

 Theories of Learning

I Check Your Progress 6 1

Imagine at least three different learning situations where the needs of the
three domains of learning we have talked about should be met for successful
learning.

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

1.7 LET US SUM UP '

We have discussed in brief some of the most influential approaches to

learning, and touched upon their educational implications. We have
presented the views of the behaviourist school, and the cognitivist school as
well as the views of those who ha& attempted to synthesise or combine
them. And we have also indicatedghe usefulness of an eclectic stand in this
regard. Although there are many important theories in each school, we have
not discussed all of them. Under the behaviourist school we have selected
only B.F. Skinner for a specific illustration. Similarly, under the cognitive
school we have chosen just one theorist, Bruner, as an example. Our own
stand, as you must have noted, is eclectic. Behaviourism and cognitivism
present two different approaches to learning, but we need not prefer one to
the other. Gagnk's synthesis of these two approaches shows that we may
use those aspects of any approach to learning which can s e n e our purpose.

This eclectic position is particularl). useful in the system of distance

education system which tries to bemost pragmatic in its appruaclt~to
learning. The contributions of different approaches of learning belonging to
different schools of thoughts and of individual educationists with different
theoretical affiliations do meet the varied demands of the distance education
system. This has been the primary consideration for discussing
behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, the views of Gagne, Bmner and
Factors in the Design of Print Materials

Bloom's model for levels of learning, but we have not in this unit related
them to distance learning as such. However, you will find a better and more
specific understanding of the implications of these theories for distance
education in unit 3 of this block.

considers learning a mental activity--the functioning of the human

brain which receives, processes and retrieves information. In other
words, behaviourism treats human learning at par with biological or
impulsive reactions of animals to their environment, whereas
cognitivism emphasises the conscious elements of the human mind
which selects the information it needs and decides whether or not to
respond to a particular stimulus and in what way.

2) A teaching machine provides immediate feedback to the learner,

ensures right responses and reinforces them. The programmes of a
teaching machine are preplanned. An exercise is repeated till the
learner learns what the programme expects himher to do.
Behaviourist principles such as stimulus-response relationship,
reward for the right response and the repetition or reinforcement of
the right response operate in the teachingllearning method used in
teaching machines.

3) a) The following may be considered very important educational

implications of cognitivism:
i) Retention of information (or memory) which leads to new
cognitive structures.
ii) Discovery learning which motivates the learner and
encourages active learning.
iii) Emphasis on problem solving and reflective learning.

b) Behaviourism and cognitivism are similar in emphasising the

i) Feedback, and
ii) Practicelreinforcement.

4. Bruner is a cognitivist for the following reasons:

i) By putting forth the three modes (i.e. enactive, iconic and

symbolic) of the representation of knowledge, Bruner
recognises the role of the human mind in comprehending
 Theories of Learning

iii) His theory of instruction emphasises the principal cognitive

elements of autonomy and the problem solving capabilities of
the learner.

5. In GagnCs synthesis of the cognitivist and the behaviourist

approaches to learning, we may notice the following elements:

a) Cognitivist elements:
i) information processing,
ii) intellectual skills-from the simple to the complex,
iii) recognition of individual and attitudinal differences in
learners, and
iv) transfer of knowledge and skills.
b) Behaviourist elements:
i) GagnC7semphasis on the observable behaviour and the
performance of the learner, and
ii) His dependence on the Stimulus-Response factor derived
from the theories of Thorndike and Skinner.

6) A sample answer: Think of a situation where you want to become an

astronaut or a cosmonaut. Here, perfect coordination between the
three domains of learning is necessary. The teachingllearning
situation, in this case, should meet your needs at the cognitive, the
psychomotor and the affective domains because it requires you to
know and to understand (many things connected with space
research), perform (the psychornotor functions) and keep your
emotional stability while on the job.