WACHEMO UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Architecture & Urban Planning

Module Name – Theory and Design of Structures .Course code – Arch 1181
Course Name – Theory and Design of Structures I .Credit hour – 4 ECTS
Target Group – Architecture, year 2, semester I, 2013 E.C. .Instructor – Gezahegn M.

Competency & Course Objectives:

 It provides an understanding of basic structural engineering

 Transferring intuitive knowledge on structural system

 Introducing the impact of the structural engineering discipline on the Architectural design

 Providing an understanding of the internal and external force systems acting on structures

 Introducing technical terminologies

 Enable students to analyze simple structures

I. Course Contents:
Chapter-1 Introduction to structural design
Chapter-2 Practical exercise (e.g. model building) on structural design tasks
Chapter-3 Introduction to engineering mechanics
Chapter-4 Statics:-Scalars and vectors, Forces and Force systems, moments, Loads on buildings
- Static analysis of structures, like: truss, beams and frames
Chapter-5 Shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams and frames

II. Tentative evaluation:

Assignments and design tasks = 30%
Quizzes = 10%
Attendance (with 85% requirement) = 10%
Final examination = 50%

III. Literatures:
- Barry S.Onouye,Statics and strength of materials for architecture and building construction
- J.L.Meriam,L.G.krage, Engineering mechanics I,1993.
- Statics lecture notes by Abraham Assefa
 CHAPTER ONE- Introduction to structural design

Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of structures.

The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure capable of resisting

all applied loads without failure during its intended life. The primary purpose of a structure is to

transmit or support loads. If the structure is improperly designed or fabricated, or if the actual

applied loads exceed the design specifications, the device will probably fail to perform its intended

function, with possible serious consequences. A well-engineered structure greatly minimizes the

possibility of costly failures.

An anticipated construction project may pass through three phases, i.e. planning, design and

construction.

Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the

general layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps several

alternative types of structure, which offer the best general solution. The primary consideration is

the function of the structure. Secondary considerations such as aesthetics, sociology, law,

economics and the environment may also be taken into account. In addition there are structural

and constructional requirements and limitations, which may affect the type of structure to be

designed.

Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the

planning phase and results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and

details of the structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural

arrangement being considered.

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Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and

equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection. During this phase,

some redesign may be required if unforeseen difficulties occur, such as unavailability of specified

materials or foundation problems.

Philosophy of designing

The structural design of any structure first involves establishing the loading and other design

conditions, which must be supported by the structure and therefore must be considered in its

design. This is followed by the analysis and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e. thrust, shear,

bending moments and twisting moments), as well as stress intensities, strain, deflection and

reactions produced by loads, changes in temperature, shrinkage, creep and other design conditions.

Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials for the members and connections to

respond adequately to the effects produced by the design conditions.

The traditional basis of design called elastic design is based on allowable stress intensities which

are chosen in accordance with the concept that stress or strain corresponds to the yield point of the

material and should not be exceeded at the most highly stressed points of the structure, the selection

of failure due to fatigue, buckling or brittle fracture or by consideration of the permissible

deflection of the structure. The allowable – stress method has the important disadvantage in that it

does not provide a uniform overload capacity for all parts and all types of structures.

The newer approach of design is called the strength design in reinforced concrete literature and

plastic design in steel-design literature. The anticipated service loading is first multiplied by a

suitable load factor, the magnitude of which depends upon uncertainty of the loading, the

possibility of it changing during the life of the structure and for a combination of loadings, the

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likelihood, frequency, and duration of the particular combination. In this approach for reinforced-

concrete design, theoretical capacity of a structural element is reduced by a capacity reduction

factor to provide for small adverse variations in material strengths, workmanship and dimensions.

The structure is then proportioned so that depending on the governing conditions, the increased

load cause fatigue or buckling or a brittle-facture or just produce yielding at one internal section

or sections or cause elastic-plastic displacement of the structure or cause the entire structure to be

on the point of collapse.

design aids

The design of any structure requires many detailed computations. Some of these are of a routine

nature. An example is the computation of allowable bending moments for standard sized, species

and grades of dimension timber. The rapid development of the computer in the last decade has

resulted in rapid adoption of Computer Structural Design Software that has now replaced the

manual computation. This has greatly reduced the complexity of the analysis and design process

as well as reducing the amount of time required to finish a project.

design codes

Many countries have their own structural design codes, codes of practice or technical documents

which perform a similar function. It is necessary for a designer to become familiar with local

requirements or recommendations in regard to correct practice. In this chapter some examples are

given, occasionally in a simplified form, in order to demonstrate procedures. They should not be

assumed to apply to all areas or situations.

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 CHAPTER TWO- Practical exercise (e.g. model building) on structural design tasks

Models are generally used in science and engineering to reduce a complex reality for detailed

investigations. The prediction of a future state of a system is the main goal, which has to be

achieved. Due to the hypothetical nature of this approach, it is irrelevant whether the assumed state

will be achieved or not: Safety requirements often demand for assumptions that are equivalent to

a catastrophic situation, which during the lifetime of a structure probably never takes place. More

important is the question, what scenario is going to be investigated. Depending on the needs, the

physical situation can be modelled in different ways.

Modelling has become an important and fashionable issue. Every serious research project will

claim modelling activities to increase the chances of being awarded grants. Modern technology

and product development have detected the saving effects of modelling:

The development and manufacture of advanced products, such as cars, trucks and aircraft requires

very heavy investments. Experience has shown that a large portion of the total life cycle cost – as

much as 70-80 percent – is already committed in the early stages of the design. It is important to

realize that the best chance to influence life cycle costs occurs during the early, conceptual phase

of the design process.

Improvements in efficiency and quality during modeling phase should enable us to obtain the right

solutions and make the right decisions from the beginning. This requires good design, analysis and

synthesis methods and tools, as well as good simulation techniques including computational

prototyping and digital mock-ups.

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Modelling, however, is an ambiguous term and needs further explanation and a more precise

definition. The common understanding of a model is manifold. Collins Compact English

Dictionary (1998) explains it as follows:

1. A three-dimensional representation, usually on a smaller scale, of a device or structure:

an architect’s model of the proposed new housing estate.

2. An example or pattern that people might want to follow: her success makes her an excellent

role model for other young black women.

3. An outstanding example of its kind: the report is a model of clarity.

4. A person who poses for a sculptor, painter, or photographer.

5. A person who wears clothes to display them to prospective buyers; a mannequin.

6. A design or style of a particular product: the cheapest model of this car has a 1300cc engine

7. A theoretical description of the way a system or process works: a computer model of the

British economy.

8. Adj. excellent or perfect: a model husband. Etc.

For natural and engineering sciences we shall generally adopt items 1 and 7 as definitions. In a

broad sense, every scientific activity might be looked at as "modelling" since dealing with a

complex reality always requires reduction and idealization of problems. Thus, modelling may be

understood as novel only in the sense of "computational simulation of reality", which is the

underlying comprehension in the quotation "simulation techniques including computational

prototyping" given above. At least in engineering sciences, modelling has to combine and integrate

computational and experimental efforts in order to proceed to an understanding of the physical

phenomena which allows for realistic predictions of the performance, availability and safety of

technical products and systems.

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A model can also be either conceptual or physical model.

Conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the composition of concepts which are

used to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. In contrast,

physical models are physical objects which may be assembled, and may be made to work like the

object it represents. Physical models allow visualization, of information about the thing the model

represents such as, an architectural model of a building. A physical model of something large is

usually smaller, and of something very smaller is larger. A physical model of something that can

move, like a vehicle or machine, may be completely static, or have parts that can be moved

manually, or be powered.

Depending on the purpose, models can be made from a variety of materials, including blocks,

paper, and wood, and at a variety of scales.

Figure 1. An architectural model promoting a high rise condominium building

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Practical Exercise 1: Being an architectural students, Prepare a small scale three-dimensional

representation (architect’s model) of ground plus one floor (G +1) residential building. Assume as

if the proposed building internally includes: master bed room, living area, additional bed room,

toilet, dining room and kitchen similarly in the two floors (the ground and first floors). Use any

type of roofing system that you have been experienced in your locality; or of your dwelling house.

Use any type of appropriate material (like carton or paper); and fix your own dimensions and the

reduction scale also. Assume any required data and apply your artistic works in order to bring

about aesthetically pleasant façade of your proposed building. (The mark is allotted out of 15%

& to be prepared individually with in three weeks).

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 CHAPTER THREE- Introduction to Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics is a physical science which deals with the state of rest or motion of rigid bodies under

the action of forces. It is divided into three parts: mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of

deformable bodies, and mechanics of fluids. Thus it can be inferred that Mechanics is a physical

science which deals with the external effects of force on rigid bodies. Mechanics of rigid bodies is

divided into two parts: Statics and Dynamics.

Statics: deals with the equilibrium of rigid bodies under the action of forces. Dynamics: deals with

the motion of rigid bodies caused by unbalanced force acting on them. Dynamics is further

subdivided into two parts.

 Kinematics: deals with geometry of motion of bodies without reference to the forces

causing the motion, and

 Kinetics: deals with motion of bodies in relation to the forces causing the motion.

Rigid bodies are bodies those do not deform or change their shape if whatever load applied. But

translation or rotation may exist. The loads are assumed to cause only external movement, not

internal. In reality, the bodies may deform. But the changes in shapes are assumed to be minimal

and insignificant to affect the condition of equilibrium (stability) or motion of the structure under

load.

We are generally familiar with the sort of “billiard ball” mechanics formulated in physics courses;

for example when these two balls collide, engineering mechanics asks that how the impact will

affect the balls: will they deform or even crack? How many such collisions can they sustain? How

does the material chosen for their construction affect both these answers? What design decisions

will optimize the strength, cost, or other properties of the balls?

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  Our objective here is to learn how to formulate problems in mechanics and how to reduce

vague questions and ideas into precise mathematical statements. For example, the floor of

a building may be strong enough to support us, our furniture, and even the occasional

fatiguing dance party without collapsing, but if not designed carefully, the floor may

deflect considerably and sag. By learning how to predict the effects of forces, stresses,

and strains, we will become better designers and better engineers.

Fundamental principles

The three laws of Newton are of importance while studying mechanics:

First Law: A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with uniform velocity

if there is no unbalanced force on it.

Second Law: The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and

is in the direction of this force.

When the mass of the body of interest is constant, this has the form

When a = 0, we have

 The class of problems governed by such equation is called statics.

Third Law: The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in magnitude,

opposite in direction, and collinear.

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Forces always occur, according to Newton’s third law, in pairs of equal and opposite forces. The

downward force exerted on the desk by the pencil is accompanied by an upward force of equal

magnitude exerted on the pencil by the desk.

The first and third laws have of great importance for Statics whereas the second one is basic for

dynamics of Mechanics.

Equilibrium

We have alluded to the concept of equilibrium (also known as static equilibrium) in our discussion

of Newton’s second law. To be in equilibrium, a three-dimensional object must satisfy six

equations. In Cartesian coordinates, these are as follows:

These equations can be written more concisely in the vector form as:

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and represent the statements “the sum of forces equals zero” and “the sum of moments equals

zero.” One advantage of writing these equations in the vector form is that we do not have to specify

a coordinate system.

For planar (two-dimensional) situations or models, equilibrium requires the satisfaction of only

three equations, typically in the xy-plane:

These equations essentially state that the object is neither translating (in the x- or y directions) nor

rotating (about the z-axis) in the xy-plane as a result of applied forces. It is useful to distinguish

between forces that act externally and those act internally. External loads are applied to a structure

by, for example, gravity or wind. Reaction forces are also external: They occur at supports and at

points where the structure is prevented from moving in response to the external loads. These

supports may be surfaces, rollers, or hinges that restrict both deflections and rotations. Internal

forces, on the other hand, result from the applied external loads and are what we are concerned

with when we study continuum mechanics. These are forces that act within a body as a result of

all external forces. The principle of equilibrium helps us calculate these internal forces.

Example 1. Determine the forces required to maintain equilibrium and support the load W in

the plank shown. Then, find expressions for the internal force and moment required at any position

along the left side of the plank.

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Given: The loaded plank shown.

Find: The system of force(s) and moment(s) needed to equilibrate the plank and support the load

W.

Assume: This is a planar statics problem.

Governing principles: Newton’s second and third laws.

Solution: Since this is a planar statics problem, we can dispense with some of the vector formalism

simply by recognizing that all of the loads are in the vertical direction (i.e., ˆ j) and all of the

coordinate measurements are in the horizontal direction (i.e., ˆ i), so that all moments or couples

are out-of-plane vectors (i.e., kˆ). Then summing forces in the vertical (y) direction.

By summing moments about the left support, taking counterclockwise as positive, we

see that,

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When we combine these two results, we find

We now look at a section or piece of the beam as shown in the figure below and ask, What is

needed there, in the beam at coordinate x, in order to maintain equilibrium? Clearly a vertical

internal reaction there would still leave a moment or couple that would serve to spin that section

as a rigid body. Thus, since vertical equilibrium requires a downward shear force VL = −RL there,

the plank must develop an internal moment to maintain equilibrium:

The negative signs here indicate that in our FBD, we have assumed the incorrect sense of the force

VL and moment ML. This is not a case of bad judgment, but our attempt to follow the sign

convention for positive internal forces and moments.

A similar examination of the right-hand section of the plank shows that

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Again, our use of the standard sign convention for internal moment has led us to negative answers,

representing a force and a moment that are in the opposite directions from those drawn in our FBD.

Importantly, we see that at the cut itself we have equilibrium in accord with Newton’s third law,

that is, while accounting for signs and the directions drawn:

This simple example presages some very important concepts to which we will return. First, we

have briefly introduced the method of sections by dividing the plank into contiguous pieces and

applying Newton’s third law. Second, we have seen that even a simple plank or beam must

somehow develop an internal moment to support an external vertical force.

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