In English syntax, words serve various grammatical functions within

sentences. Here's a list of the most common functions that words can
have:

1. Subject
 The person, thing, or concept performing the action or being
described in the sentence.
 Example: The cat slept on the mat.
2. Verb (Predicate)
 Describes the action or state of the subject.
 Example: The cat slept on the mat.
3. Object
 Receives the action of the verb. There are two types of objects:
o Direct Object: The thing being acted upon.
 Example: She bought a book.
o Indirect Object: The recipient of the action.
 Example: She gave him the book.
4. Complement
 Adds information about the subject or object, often following linking
verbs (like "is" or "seems").
o Subject Complement: Describes or identifies the subject.
 Example: John is a teacher.
o Object Complement: Describes or identifies the object.
 Example: They elected her president.
5. Adverbial
 Provides additional information about the verb, such as how, when,
where, or why an action takes place. Adverbials can be single
adverbs or longer phrases (prepositional phrases, etc.).
 Example: He ran quickly (adverb).
 Example: They met after school (prepositional phrase).
6. Modifier
 Describes or gives more detail about a noun (adjective modifier) or
a verb (adverb modifier).
o Adjective Modifier: Modifies a noun.
 Example: She wore a beautiful dress.
o Adverb Modifier: Modifies a verb, adjective, or another
adverb.
 Example: He spoke very softly.
7. Prepositional Phrase
 A phrase that begins with a preposition and includes an object, often
functioning as an adjective or adverbial in the sentence.
 Example: The book is on the table.
 Function: Adverbial (answers "where?").
8. Determiner
 Specifies which noun is being referred to (articles, possessives,
demonstratives, etc.).
 Example: The book is interesting.
9. Conjunction
 Connects words, phrases, or clauses.
  Example: He likes pizza and pasta.
10. Pronoun (Replacing a noun)
 Acts as a substitute for a noun.
 Example: She is happy.
11. Relative Clause
 A clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase, often introduced by a
relative pronoun (who, which, that).
 Example: The student who finished early left.
12. Appositive
 A noun or noun phrase that renames or explains another noun.
 Example: My brother, a doctor, is visiting.
13. Expletive
 Fills a syntactic position but doesn’t add concrete meaning (e.g.,
“there” or “it” in some constructions).
 Example: There is a problem.

Part 1: Basic Functions

1. The dog barked loudly.
 o Function of "The dog":
2. She gave him a gift.
o Function of "him":
3. They were very happy.
o Function of "happy":
4. He runs quickly.
o Function of "quickly":
5. Her dress was beautiful.
o Function of "Her":

Part 2: Complex Functions

6. After the meeting, we discussed the plan.
o Function of "After the meeting":
7. The book on the table is mine.
o Function of "on the table":
8. The students who completed the assignment early left the
classroom.
o Function of "The students":
9. We met John, the new manager, at the party.
o Function of "John":
10. It is raining heavily today.
o Function of "It":

Part 3: Multi-Clause Sentences

11. The woman gave the man a letter before she left.
o Function of "The woman":
o Function of "the man":
o Function of "before she left":
12. They didn’t know that the event had been canceled.
o Function of "that the event had been canceled":
13. Because he was tired, he went to bed early.
o Function of "Because he was tired":

Challenge Section
14. We couldn’t find what she was looking for.
o Function of "what she was looking for":
15. There are many students in the library.
o Function of "There":
o Function of "students":

Theory on Word Classes (Parts of Speech)

In English, word classes (or parts of speech) are categories of words
based on their grammatical roles and functions in sentences. Each word
class serves a specific purpose in conveying meaning. Here’s a breakdown
of the main word classes with explanations and examples:

1. Nouns
 Definition: Nouns refer to people, places, things, or ideas.
 Types of Nouns:
o Proper Nouns: Specific names of people, places, or
organizations (e.g., John, London, Microsoft).
o Common Nouns: General names for people, places, or things
(e.g., dog, city, computer).
o Abstract Nouns: Intangible concepts or ideas (e.g.,
happiness, freedom, love).
o Concrete Nouns: Physical objects that can be seen or
touched (e.g., book, apple).
o Collective Nouns: Names for groups of things or people
(e.g., team, family, flock).
 Examples:
o The dog is barking.
o Paris is a beautiful city.

2. Pronouns
 Definition: Pronouns are used in place of nouns to avoid repetition.
 Types of Pronouns:
o Personal Pronouns: Refer to specific people or things (e.g.,
I, you, he, she, it, we, they).
o Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership (e.g., mine, yours,
his, hers, ours, theirs).
o Relative Pronouns: Introduce relative clauses (e.g., who,
whom, which, that).
o Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things (e.g.,
this, that, these, those).
o Indefinite Pronouns: Refer to non-specific things (e.g.,
someone, anyone, everything, nothing).
 Examples:
o She is my friend.
o This is the book I was talking about.

3. Verbs
 Definition: Verbs express actions, states, or occurrences.
 Types of Verbs:
o Action Verbs: Show an action (e.g., run, write, sing).
o Stative Verbs: Express a state or condition (e.g., be, seem,
believe).
o Transitive Verbs: Require a direct object (e.g., hit, want,
build).
o Intransitive Verbs: Do not require a direct object (e.g., run,
arrive, sleep).
o Auxiliary Verbs: Help form verb tenses, moods, and voices
(e.g., is, have, do, can).
 o Modal Verbs: Express necessity, possibility, permission, or
ability (e.g., can, could, may, must).
 Examples:
o He runs every morning.
o I am happy.

4. Adjectives
 Definition: Adjectives describe or modify nouns by giving more
information about them.
 Types of Adjectives:
o Descriptive Adjectives: Describe qualities (e.g., beautiful,
tall, happy).
o Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate quantity (e.g., some,
many, few).
o Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out specific nouns (e.g.,
this, that, these, those).
o Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership (e.g., my, your,
his, her).
 Examples:
o It’s a beautiful day.
o She has three cats.

5. Adverbs
 Definition: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and
often provide information about how, when, where, or to what
degree something happened.
 Types of Adverbs:
o Manner Adverbs: Describe how an action is done (e.g.,
quickly, carefully, well).
o Time Adverbs: Describe when something happens (e.g.,
yesterday, soon, now).
o Place Adverbs: Describe where something happens (e.g.,
here, there, everywhere).
o Degree Adverbs: Describe the extent or degree (e.g., very,
extremely, too).
 Examples:
o She sings beautifully.
o I will call you later.

6. Prepositions
 Definition: Prepositions show relationships between nouns (or
pronouns) and other words in a sentence, often indicating location,
direction, time, or method.
 Examples:
o The book is on the table.
o We will meet after lunch.

7. Conjunctions
  Definition: Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.
 Types of Conjunctions:
o Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words or phrases of
equal rank (e.g., and, but, or, so, nor, yet).
o Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect a dependent clause
to an independent clause (e.g., because, although, if,
since).
o Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to link related
elements (e.g., either…or, neither…nor, both…and).
 Examples:
o I wanted to go, but it was too late.
o Although he was tired, he kept working.

8. Determiners
 Definition: Determiners are words placed in front of nouns to clarify
what the noun refers to.
 Types of Determiners:
o Articles: Definite (the) and indefinite (a, an) articles.
o Demonstratives: Show which specific thing is being referred
to (e.g., this, that, these, those).
o Possessive Determiners: Show ownership (e.g., my, your,
his, her).
o Quantifiers: Indicate quantity (e.g., some, many, few).
 Examples:
o The cat is sleeping.
o These apples are delicious.

9. Interjections
 Definition: Interjections are words or phrases that express strong
emotions or reactions, often standing alone or followed by an
exclamation mark.
 Examples:
o Wow, that’s amazing!
o Ouch, that hurt!
Summary
Word
Function Examples
Class
cat, Paris,
Noun Names a person, place, thing, or idea
happiness
Pronoun Replaces a noun he, she, it, they
Verb Expresses an action or state run, is, believe
beautiful, tall,
Adjective Describes or modifies a noun
three
quickly, very,
Adverb Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb
well
Prepositio Shows the relationship between a noun (or
in, on, at, after
n pronoun) and other words
Conjuncti and, but,
Connects words, phrases, or clauses
on because, if
Determin the, a, this,
Introduces and specifies a noun
er some
Interjecti
Expresses emotion or reaction oh, wow, ouch
on

Exercise: Identifying Word Classes in Sentences

Instructions: For each underlined word or phrase, identify its word class
(noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction,
determiner, interjection, etc.).

Part 1: Mixed Word Classes in Simple Sentences

1. She gave the letter to the manager.
o Word class of "She":
2. The dog quickly ran across the field.
o Word class of "quickly":
3. Those books are interesting.
o Word class of "Those":
4. He is reading a new novel.
o Word class of "He":
o Word class of "new":
5. Wow, that’s a beautiful painting!
o Word class of "Wow":

Part 2: More Complex Sentences

 6. We went to the store because we needed milk.
o Word class of "because":
7. His car broke down on the highway.
o Word class of "His":
8. She bought some fruit and vegetables at the market.
o Word class of "some":
9. He arrived before the meeting started.
o Word class of "before":
10. I can’t believe he didn’t tell me anything about the trip.
o Word class of "he":
o Word class of "anything":

Part 3: Advanced Sentences with Subordinate Clauses

11. Although she was tired, she continued working.
o Word class of "Although":
12. They haven’t finished the project yet.
o Word class of "They":
o Word class of "yet":
13. This is the best movie I have ever seen.
o Word class of "This":
14. We will go to the park if the weather is good.
o Word class of "if":
15. Suddenly, the lights went out, and we couldn’t see anything.
o Word class of "Suddenly":

Challenge Section: Complex Constructions

16. Whoever finishes first can leave early.
o Word class of "Whoever":
17. He wondered why the meeting was postponed.
o Word class of "why":
18. She went shopping despite the rain.
o Word class of "despite":
19. Wherever we go, I always feel at home.
o Word class of "Wherever":
20. I’m not sure whether I should stay or leave.
o Word class of "whether":

1. Parts of Speech (Word Class)

Parts of speech refer to the categories of words based on their
inherent characteristics and grammatical roles. Every word belongs to a
specific part of speech, but this can change depending on how the word is
used in different sentences.
 Examples of Parts of Speech:
o Noun: Names a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., dog,
book).
 o Verb: Describes an action or state (e.g., run, is).
o Adjective: Modifies a noun (e.g., blue, tall).
o Adverb: Modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverbs (e.g.,
quickly, very).
These are static categories that label what a word is based on its form
and meaning.

2. Functions in a Sentence
Functions refer to the role a word or phrase plays in the structure of a
sentence. The same word (part of speech) can perform different functions
depending on the sentence it is used in. Function is dynamic and
context-dependent, meaning it relates to how a word works within a
specific sentence.
 Examples of Functions:
o Subject: The person or thing doing the action or being
described.
 Example: The cat is sleeping. (Here, the cat is the
subject.)
o Object: The person or thing receiving the action.
 Example: She kicked the ball. (Here, the ball is the
object.)
o Adverbial: A word or phrase that gives additional information
about the verb (such as time, place, manner).
 Example: He arrived yesterday. (Here, yesterday
functions as an adverbial, telling when.)
These are dynamic roles that show what a word does in a sentence.

Key Differences:
Aspect Part of Speech Function
The category or class The role or job the word plays in
What it
of the word (noun, verb, the sentence (subject, object,
represents
etc.) etc.)
Static vs. Static (inherent to the Dynamic (depends on sentence
Dynamic word itself) context)
Example Subject (if it’s the doer of the
Noun (because it names
(word: action) or Object (if it’s receiving
an animal)
"dog") the action)
Example Verb (because it Predicate or part of a Verb
(word: "run") describes an action) Phrase

Illustration with Examples:

Example 1: "The cat is sleeping."
 Part of Speech:
o "The" = Determiner
o "cat" = Noun
o "is" = Verb
o "sleeping" = Verb (present participle)
 Function:
o "The cat" = Subject (the noun that performs the action)
o "is sleeping" = Predicate (the action performed by the
subject)
Example 2: "She gave him the book."
 Part of Speech:
o "She" = Pronoun
o "gave" = Verb
o "him" = Pronoun
o "the" = Determiner
o "book" = Noun
 Function:
o "She" = Subject (the doer of the action)
o "gave" = Verb (the action)
o "him" = Indirect Object (the recipient of the action)
o "the book" = Direct Object (the thing given)

How to Tell Them Apart:

 To identify the part of speech, think about what kind of word it
is:
o Is it naming something? (Noun)
o Is it describing an action or state? (Verb)
o Is it modifying a noun? (Adjective)
o Is it connecting ideas? (Conjunction)
 To identify the function, think about what the word is doing in the
sentence:
o Is it the thing performing the action? (Subject)
o Is it receiving the action? (Object)
o Is it modifying or adding information to a verb, adjective, or
adverb? (Adverbial)

Example of Changing Function but Same Part of Speech:

Word: "book"
1. As a Subject:
o The book is on the table.
 Part of Speech: Noun
 Function: Subject (the thing being talked about)
2. As an Object:
o She read the book.
 Part of Speech: Noun
 Function: Direct Object (receiving the action of being
read)
Example of Changing Word Class:
Word: "fast"
1. As an Adjective:
o He drives a fast car.
 Part of Speech: Adjective (describing the car)
2. As an Adverb:
o He drives fast.
 Part of Speech: Adverb (describing how he drives)