Casting processes

Solidification Processes

Polymer matrix
composites (PMCs).
 Casting - Intro
❑ Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of mold cavity.
❑ It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.
❑ The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a
mold, and let it cool and solidify; yet there are many factors and
variables that must be considered in order to accomplish a successful
casting operation.
❑ With appropriate control of material and process parameters, parts can
be cast with uniform properties throughout.
❑ Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes.
➢ The term ingot is usually associated with the primary metals industries
➢ Shape casting involves the production of more complex geometries that
are much closer to the final desired shape of the part or product.
 Salient Features of Casting Process
❑ Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including
both external and internal shapes.
❑ Almost all metals and alloys can be casted.
❑ Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing
more than 100 tons have been made.
❑ Large number of Castings can be produced at one time (mass
production).
❑ Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net shape
and other casting processes are near net shape
➢ Net shape: No further manufacturing operations are required to
achieve the required geometry and dimensions of the parts.
➢ Near net shape: Some additional shape processing is required
(usually machining) in order to achieve accurate dimensions.
 Disadvantages associated with casting

• Limitations on mechanical properties

• Porosity
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting
processes
• Safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten metals
• Environmental problems
• Complicated sequence of operations are involved
• Process control is difficult that may lead to serious casting
defects
 Casting Operation Requirement

• Preparation of moulds and patterns

• Melting and pouring of liquid metal
• Suitability of casting for a given material
– Melting temp of job and mould materials
– Solubility and the chemical reaction between the job and mould
materials
– Solubility of the atmosphere in the material at different temperatures
– Thermal properties such as conductivity and coefficient of linear
expansion of both mould and job materials.
• Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
• Defects and inspections
 Types of Casting Process

Some factors include

➢ Desired dimensional precision and surface quality
➢ Number of castings to be produced
➢ Type of pattern and core box that will be needed
➢ Cost of making the required mold or die
➢ Restrictions imposed by the selected material
Solidification Processes

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 Different Casting Process
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, low prototypes of
finish production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes impellers, injection
good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels
Mould

Solidify, remove

Pour liquid metal Finish

(Trimmed & cleaned)
Sand Casting Process
 Sand Casting

cope: top half

drag: bottom half

core: for internal cavities

pattern: positive

funnel → sprue →
→ runners → gate →
→ cavity →
→ {risers, vents}
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Self reading…..
To produce a casting, we begin by constructing a pattern, an approximate
duplicate of the final casting. Molding material will then be packed around the
pattern and the pattern is removed to create all or part of the mold cavity. The
rigid metal or wood frame that holds the molding aggregate is called a flask. In
a horizontally parted two-part mold, the top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or
core is called the cope. The bottom half of any of these features is called the
drag. The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates the cope
and drag halves of a mold, flask, or pattern and also the halves of a core in some
core-making processes.

A core is a sand (or metal) shape that is inserted into a mold to produce the
internal features of a casting, such as holes or passages. Cores are produced in
wood, metal or plastic tooling, known as core boxes. A core print is a feature
that is added to a pattern, core, or mold and is used to locate and support a core
within the mold. Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets. The mold
material and the cores then combine to produce a completed mold cavity, a
shaped hole into which the molten metal is poured and solidified to produce the
desired casting.
 Core
❑ A core is a full-scale model of the interior surfaces of the part. Used
to produce holes, projections, cavities in casting.
❑ The core is usually made of sand, compacted into the desired shape.
Core sand should be higher strength than the moulding sand.
❑ It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring, so that the
molten metal will flow and solidify between the mold cavity and
the core to form the casting’s external and internal surfaces.
❑ Depending on the geometry of the part, the core may or may not
require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring.
❑ These supports, called chaplets, are made of a metal with a higher
melting temperature than the casting metal.
❑ For example, steel chaplets would be used for cast iron castings. On
pouring and solidification, the chaplets become bonded into the
casting.
 Self reading…..
The network of connected channels used to deliver the molten metal to the mold
cavity is known as the gating system. The pouring cup (or pouring basin) is
the portion of the gating system that receives the molten metal from the pouring
vessel and controls its delivery to the rest of the mold. From the pouring cup, the
metal travels down a sprue (the vertical portion of the gating system), then
along horizontal channels, called runners, and finally through controlled
entrances, or gates, into the mold cavity.

A riser is an additional void in the mold that also fills with molten metal. Its
purpose is to provide a reservoir of additional liquid that can flow into the mold
cavity to compensate for any shrinkage that occurs during solidification. By
designing so the riser contains the last material to solidify, shrinkage voids
should be located in the riser and not the final casting.

Additional channels, known as vents, may be included in a mold or core to

provide an escape for the gases that are originally present in the mold or are
generated during the pour.
 Patterns and allowances
Pattern: A replica of the object to be made by the casting process with some
modifications.
Types: • Solid pattern • Loose piece pattern
• Split Pattern • Gated pattern
• Cope and drag pattern • Sweep Pattern
• Match plate Pattern • Skeleton Pattern
Materials: Wood, Metals, Plaster of Paris, Plastics, Rubber, Wax

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 Criteria for Pattern Material Selection

The material selected for making a pattern should fulfill the

following requirements:
1. It should be easily shaped, worked, machined and joined.
2. It should be resistant to wear and corrosion.
3. It should be resistant to chemical action.
4. It should be dimensionally stable and must remain
unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity.
5. It should be easily available and economical.
 Characteristics of Pattern Material
Characteristics Wood Al Steel Plastic CI
Machinability E G F G G
Wear P G E F E
Resistance

Strength F G E G G
Weight E G P G P
Reparability E P G F G
Resistance to E E P E P
Corrosion
Resistance to P E E E E
Swelling
E=Excellent, G=Good, F=Fair, P=Poor
 Types of Pattern
Single Piece Pattern Split Pattern
• Pattern is made in a single • This pattern is divided into two
piece & hence least expensive. segments along a single parting
• NO partings & loose pieces. line.
• Generally used for casting of • Thus, the cope and the drag
simple shapes and small-scale. flasks are made separately and
• Pattern is expected to be brought together (with accurate
entirely in the drag relative location by dowel pins)
to produce the complete mould.
Split Patterns Cavity made in Drag

Casted pulley
 Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern Match plate Pattern
• Similar to split patterns, in • Here the cope and drag patterns
addition, the cope and drag halves along with the gating and the
of the pattern along with the riser are mounted on a single
gating and riser systems are matching metal or wooden
attached separately to the metal or plate on either side.
wooden plates along with the • For small castings, several
alignment pins. patterns can be mounted on the
• Used for castings which are heavy same match plate.
 Types of Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern Gated Pattern
• Used when the contour of the • Small sized casting can be
part is such that withdrawing the produced in one mold using gated
pattern from the mould is not patterns.
possible. • Herein a number of small patterns
• Moulding with loose pieces is a of the desired casting are attached
highly skilled job & is generally to a single runner and set on
expensive and therefore, should
follow board.
be avoided.
• Generally they are made of metal
considering the strength criterion.
Loose Piece Pattern
 Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern Skeleton Pattern
• Consist of simple wooden
• It is used to sweep the complete frame outlining the shape of
casting by means of plane sweep. casting.
• Used for generating large shapes • After packing the sand, the
which are axi–symmetrical or desired form is obtained with
prismatic in nature such as bell the help of a strickle.
shaped or cylindrical.
• Useful generally for very large
• Greatly reduces the cost of a three castings required in small
dimensional pattern. quantities
• Generally cast in pit moulds.
 Pattern Allowances

• The dimensions of the pattern are different from the final

dimensions of the casting required. This dimensional
modifications incorporated into a pattern is referred as the
pattern allowance.

• Types of pattern allowances :

1. Shrinkage Allowance
2. Machining Allowance (3 to 10 mm)
3. Draft Allowance (0.5 to 2 degree)
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance
5. Distortion Allowance

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 Pattern Allowances
Shrinkage Allowance:
• Provided to take care of the contractions of a casting.
• Total contraction of a casting takes place in three stages
➢ Contraction of the liquid from the pouring temperature to the
freezing temperature.
➢ Contraction associated with the change of phase from liquid to
solid.
➢ Contraction of the solid casting from the freezing temperature to the
room temperature.
• Only the last stage of the contraction is taken care of by the
shrinkage allowance.
• Normally expressed per unit length of a given material.
• The pattern size is increased by an amount equal to the
shrinkage of the specific metal.
-ve
Ex. 1: The casting shown in Figure is to be
made in plain carbon steel using a
wooden pattern. Assuming only
shrinkage allowance, calculate the
dimensions of the pattern.
Solution:
From Table, for steel the shrinkage allowance is 21.0 mm/m.
For dimension 200, allowance is 200 x 21.0/1000 = 4.20 mm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 21.0/1000 = 3.15 = 3.20 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 21.0/1000 = 2.10 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 21.0/1000 = 1.68 = 1.70 mm

The pattern drawing with

required dimensions taking
shrinkage into account is
 Pattern Allowances
Machining (or Finish) Allowance:

• Provided when smooth machined surfaces are required.

• Represents the extra material added to certain parts of the
casting to enable their machining or finishing to the required
size, accuracy and surface finish.
• This allowance is left on the surfaces which have to undergo
further machining like turning or shaping.
• It depends upon the material used for casting, its size,
machining process used, degree of accuracy and surface finish
desired.
• The cost of providing additional machining allowance should
be carefully examined.
Ex. 2: The casting shown in Figure is to be
made in plain carbon steel using a
wooden pattern. what will be the
pattern dimension if all the surfaces
of the casting need to be machined?.
Solution:
Machining allowance for bore = 3 mm
Machining allowance for all surfaces = 3 mm (up to 150) and 5.5 mm (151 to 500)
Machining allowance for cope side = 6 mm
The dimension 80, 80 - 2 x 3 = 74 mm (internal)
The dimension 100, 100 + 3 + 6 = 109 mm (cope side)
The dimension 150, 150 + 3 + 3 = 156 mm
The dimension 200, 200 + 5.5 + 5.5 = 211 mm
The final dimensions are shown as
 Pattern Allowances
Draft (or taper) Allowance:

• Refers to taper put on the surface parallel to the direction of

withdrawal of the pattern from the mould cavity.
• This allows easy removal of pattern without damaging the
mould cavity.
• Inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer
surface.
• Draft is always provided as an extra metal over and above the
original casting dimension.
• It is generally kept between 0.50 to 20 .
Ex. 3: Provide draft allowance to
the pattern shown in
Figure after providing the
machining allowance.

Solution:

Draft need to be provided only for the dimensions that are perpendicular
to the parting line. From Table, the draft angle is 0.75° for external details
and 1° for internal details.
Hence, for 109 mm size, the taper required is
External = 109 x tan (0.75) = 1.4268 = 1.40 mm
Internal = 109 x tan (1.00) = 1.9026 = 1.90 mm
Based on those dimensions, the sizes are:
The bore dimension = 74 – 2 x 1.90 = 70.20 mm
External dimension = 211 + 2 x 1.40 = 213.80 mm
After providing for this taper, the pattern drawing
is as shown
 Pattern Allowances
Rapping or Shake Allowance:

• To remove the pattern out from the mold cavity, slight shaking
of the pattern is done.
• This results in the increase in the mold cavity .
• To account for this, the pattern is made slightly smaller.
• The amount of rapping allowance depends upon factors such
as extent of rapping, degree of compaction of sand, and size of
mould, most of these are difficult to evaluate.
• Applied to those dimensions which are parallel to parting
plane.
 Pattern Allowances
Distortion Allowance:
• The unequal rate of cooling in different parts of the casting
may tend to distort the casting. Generally this is required in
case of flat, long, U and V shaped castings.
• The shape of pattern itself should be given a distortion of equal
amount in the opposite direction of the likely distortion
direction.
• This can be done by trial and error basis to get the distortion
amount.
Ex. 3: Determine the dimension of the pattern for casting shown in
figure. Shrinkage allowance is 20 mm/m, machining allowance
on all surface and bore is 1mm, draft allowance of 0.75 mm and 1
degree for external and internal dimensions respectively.

Solution:
 Adding Shrinkage allowances

Adding Draft allowances Adding Machining allowances

 Self study
Types of moulds based on mould material
Important sand properties: Permeability, strength, flowability,
refractoriness, etc.
Grain fineness number, effect of grain size on mould.

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Gating System

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 Gating System Requirements
▪ A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in
direction.
▪ A gating system should fill the mould cavity before freezing.
▪ The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any
turbulence. A turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the mould.
▪ Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould materials
should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.
▪ The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in
such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.
▪ Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or
mould erosion takes place.
▪ The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the
mould cavity.
▪ It should be economical and easy to implement and remove after
casting solidification.
 Pouring Basin
▪ A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or crucible operator to
direct the flow of metal from crucible to sprue.
▪ Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow.
▪ Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.
▪ Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it enters the sprue.

Typical shape of pouring basin

 Sprue
▪ The vertical passage through
cope, through which pouring
basin connects with the
runner.
▪ It may be square, rectangular
or circular in C/S.
▪ The sprues are generally
tapered downwards to avoid
aspiration of air and metal
damage.
Gate
▪ A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
▪ A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice
versa.
▪ A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring
and sand pieces thus may be carried with the molten metal in the
mould cavity.
 Q: A mold sprue is 20 cm long, and the cross-sectional area at its base is
2.5 cm2. The sprue feeds a horizontal runner leading into a mold cavity
whose volume is 1560 cm3 . Determine: (a) velocity of the molten metal at
the base of the sprue, (b) volume rate of flow, and (c) time to fill the mold.
Bernoulli’s theorem continuity law

Assuming that the runner from the sprue base to the mold cavity is
horizontal (and therefore the head h is the same as at the sprue
base), then the volume rate of flow through the gate and into the
mold cavity remains equal to vA at the base.

(a) The velocity of the flowing metal at the base of

the sprue

(b) The volumetric flow rate

(c) Time required to fill a mold cavity at this flow rate:

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Q: The desired volume flow rate of the molten metal into a mold is 0.01 m3/min. The
top of the sprue has a diameter of 20 mm and its length is 200 mm. What diameter
should be specified at the bottom of the sprue in order to prevent aspiration?
What is the resultant velocity and Reynolds number at the bottom of the sprue if the
metal being cast is aluminum and has a viscosity of 0.004 N-s/ m2? density of
aluminum is 2700 kg/m3

Let subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the top and bottom of the sprue, respectively
Q = 0.01 m3/min = 1.667 × 10-4 m3/s. d1 = 20 mm = 0.02 m

Assuming no frictional losses and atmospheric pressure at the top and bottom of
the sprue
v2 = 2.05 m/s.
To prevent aspiration, the sprue opening should be the same as that required by
flow continuity =A2*2.05
A2 = 8.128×10-5 m2, d = 10.3 mm.

14258 Mixture of laminar and turbulent flow-safe

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 Gating Design

Vertical gating: The liquid metal is poured vertically, directly to fill the mould
with atmospheric pressure at the base end.
Bottom gating: Molten metal is poured from top, but filled from bottom to top.
This minimizes oxidation and splashing while pouring.
Horizontal gating is a modification of bottom gating, in which some horizontal
portions are added for good distribution of molten metal and to avoid turbulence
Gating Design
Gating Design
Gating Design
Ex.1: Two gating designs for a mould of 50 cm x 25 cm x 15 cm are
shown in Figure. The cross sectional area of the gate is 5 cm2. Determine
the filling time for both designs.

Solutions: ht = 15 cm ht = 15 cm, hm = 15 cm
Am = 50 x 25 cm2,
Ag = 5 cm2
 Aspiration Effect

• Aspiration (a process whereby air is

sucked in or entrapped in the liquid)
Aspiration Effect
 Aspiration Effect

• Parabolic, however, tapered

considered for simplicity
 sprue
Choke area
• Minimum cross section area in all the
gating elements to control (meters)
the rate of metal flow into the mould
cavity
• Normally choke area happens to be
at the bottom of the sprue so sprue
should be designed first.
• To reduce the extreme turbulence of
the flow at the gate entrance
(separation between casting and
gating system)
• (If near the base of sprue) Flow
through the gate is slowed and made
smoother
• Choke area can be calculated by
Bernoulli’s equations

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Liquid metal stream contracts around a sharp corner due to the
momentum effect.

Vena Contracta
 Gating Design to Prevent Impurities
1) Pouring basin: Reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream
coming directly from the furnace. A constant pouring head can also be
maintained by using pouring basin.
2) Strainer : A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes dross.
3) Splash core : A ceramic splash core placed at the end of the sprue and it
reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream.
4) Skim bob : Trap placed in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter
impurities from entering the mould.
Delay screen/Strainer core:
A delay screen is a small piece of perforated screen placed on top of the
sprue. This screen actually melts because of the heat from the metal and
this delays the entrance of metal into the sprue, maintaining the pouring
basin head. This also removes dross in the molten metal.
Strainer core is a ceramic coated screen with many small holes and used
for same purpose.

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Gating ratio
• Gating ratio => a:b:c
• a=cross section area of sprue
• b=cross section area of runner
• c=cross section area of ingates

• It reveals
• whether the total cross section area decreases
towards the mould cavity
• Choke effect which pressurizes the liquid metal
(pressurized gating system)
• Whether the total cross section area increases
towards the mould cavity
• passages remains incompletely filled (unpressurised
gating system)

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Pressurized system

• Back pressure maintained by restriction in flow

• Flow of liquid almost equal
• Reduce aspiration as sprue always run full
• High velocity and chances of mould erosion
Unpressurized system

• Restriction only at sprue bottom, Less turbulence, aspiration effect,

flow of liquid different from all gates
Non-pressurized:
has choke at the bottom of the sprue base, has total runner area and
gate areas higher than the sprue area. No pressure is present in the
system and hence no turbulence. But chances of air aspiration is
possible.
Suitable for Al and Mg alloys.
In this, Gating ratio = 1 : 4 : 4

Pressurized:
Here gate area is smallest, thus maintaining the back pressure
throughout the gating system. This backpressure generates turbulence
and thereby minimizes the air aspiration even when straight sprue is
used.
Not good for light alloys, but good for ferrous castings.
In this, Gating ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
Gating ratios in practice
Thank you