Sure! I’ll explain each line of code for the provided C++ programs in detail.

1. Employee Class
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#include <iostream>
#include <string>
• Includes the input-output stream library for standard input and
output operations and the string library for using the std::string type.
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class Employee {
• Defines a class named Employee.
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private:
• Specifies that the following members are private and can only be
accessed within the class.
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int empNumber;
std::string empName;
float basic, da, it, netSalary;
• Declares private data members: empNumber (integer for employee
number), empName (string for employee name), basic (float for basic
salary), da (float for Dearness Allowance), it (float for Income Tax),
and netSalary (float for net salary).
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public and can be accessed
from outside the class.
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Employee(int number, std::string name, float basicSalary) {
• Defines a constructor that initializes an Employee object with
parameters for employee number, name, and basic salary.
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empNumber = number;
empName = name;
basic = basicSalary;
da = basic * 0.2; // Assuming DA is 20% of Basic
it = (basic + da) * 0.1; // Assuming IT is 10% of (Basic + DA)
netSalary = (basic + da) - it;
 • Initializes the object's member variables and calculates the
allowances and net salary based on the specified formulas.
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void print() {
• Declares a public member function named print to display employee
details.
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std::cout << "Employee Number: " << empNumber << "\n";
std::cout << "Employee Name: " << empName << "\n";
std::cout << "Basic: " << basic << "\n";
std::cout << "DA: " << da << "\n";
std::cout << "IT: " << it << "\n";
std::cout << "Net Salary: " << netSalary << "\n";
• Prints the employee's details to the console.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function, the entry point of the program.
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Employee emp(101, "John Doe", 50000);
• Creates an Employee object named emp with an employee number of
101, name "John Doe", and a basic salary of 50000.
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emp.print();
• Calls the print method of the emp object to display its details.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate that the program ended successfully.

2. Constructor Overloading
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#include <iostream>
• Includes the input-output stream library.
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class Box {
 • Defines a class named Box.
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private:
• Specifies that the following members are private.
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int length, breadth, height;
• Declares three private integer members: length, breadth, and height.
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public.
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Box(int l) : length(l), breadth(l), height(l) {} // Cube
• Defines a constructor that initializes a cube (length, breadth,
and height are the same).
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Box(int l, int b, int h) : length(l), breadth(b), height(h) {} // Rectangular
box
• Defines another constructor that initializes a rectangular box with
different dimensions.
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void displayVolume() {
• Declares a member function to display the volume of the box.
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std::cout << "Volume: " << length * breadth * height << std::endl;
• Calculates and prints the volume using the formula length * breadth *
height.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Box cube(5);
• Creates a Box object cube representing a cube with side length 5.
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Box rectBox(5, 10, 15);
• Creates a Box object rectBox representing a rectangular box with
dimensions 5, 10, and 15.
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cube.displayVolume(); // Volume of cube
• Calls the displayVolume method for cube to display its volume.
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rectBox.displayVolume(); // Volume of rectangular box
• Calls the displayVolume method for rectBox to display its volume.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

3. Multilevel Inheritance
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#include <iostream>
#include <string>
• Includes necessary libraries for input-output operations and string
handling.
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class Person {
• Defines a base class named Person.
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protected:
• Specifies that the following members are protected, allowing access
in derived classes.
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std::string name;
• Declares a protected string member name.
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public.
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Person(std::string personName) : name(personName) {}
• Defines a constructor that initializes the name member with the
provided parameter.
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class Employee : public Person {
• Defines a derived class Employee that inherits from Person.
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protected:
int empID;
• Declares a protected integer member empID.
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public:
Employee(std::string personName, int id) : Person(personName), empID(id) {}
• Defines a constructor that initializes both the base class Person and the
derived class Employee members.
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class Manager : public Employee {
• Defines a derived class Manager that inherits from Employee.
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private:
std::string department;
• Declares a private string member department.
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public:
Manager(std::string personName, int id, std::string dept) : Employee(personNam
e, id), department(dept) {}
• Defines a constructor that initializes the base class Employee and the
private member department.
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void display() {
std::cout << "Manager Name: " << name << ", ID: " << empID << ", Departmen
t: " << department << std::endl;
}
• Declares a public member function to display the manager's details.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Manager mgr("Alice", 101, "HR");
• Creates a Manager object mgr with the name "Alice", ID 101, and
department "HR".
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mgr.display();
• Calls the display method for mgr to print the manager's details.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

4. Array of Class Objects for Students

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#include <iostream>
#include <string>
• Includes the necessary libraries for input-output operations and
string handling.
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class Student {
• Defines a class named Student.
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private:
• Specifies that the following members are private.
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std::string name;
int rollNumber;
char grade;
• Declares private members: name (string), rollNumber (integer),
and grade (character).
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public:
 • Specifies that the following members are public.
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void readData() {
• Declares a public member function to read student data.
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std::cout << "Enter Name: ";
std::cin >> name;
std::cout << "Enter Roll Number: ";
std::cin >> rollNumber;
std::cout << "Enter Grade: ";
std::cin >> grade;
• Prompts the user to enter the student's name, roll number, and
grade, storing them in the respective member variables.
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void displayData() {
• Declares a public member function to display student data.
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std::cout << "Name: " << name << ", Roll Number: " << rollNumber << ", Gra
de: " << grade << std::endl;
}
• Prints the student's details to the console.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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const int numStudents = 3;
Student students[numStudents];
• Declares a constant for the number of students and creates an array
of Student objects.
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for (int i = 0; i < numStudents; i++) {
• Starts a loop to read data for each student.
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std::cout << "Enter details for student " << (i + 1) << ":\n";
students[i].readData();
 • Prompts the user to enter details for each student and calls
the readData function.
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std::cout << "\nStudents' Details:\n";
• Prints a header for the details section.
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for (int i = 0; i < numStudents; i++) {
students[i].displayData();
}
• Loops through the students and calls the displayData function for each
to print their details.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

5. Shape Class with Overloaded Function

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#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
• Includes the necessary libraries for input-output operations and
mathematical functions.
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class Shape {
• Defines a class named Shape.
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public.
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float perimeter(float side) { // Square
return 4 * side;
}
• Defines an overloaded method to calculate the perimeter of a square.
It takes one parameter (side) and returns the perimeter.
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 float perimeter(float length, float breadth) { // Rectangle
return 2 * (length + breadth);
}
• Defines another overloaded method to calculate the perimeter of a
rectangle. It takes two parameters (length and breadth) and returns the
perimeter.
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float perimeter(float radius, bool isCircle) { // Circle
return 2 * M_PI * radius;
}
• Defines another overloaded method to calculate the perimeter of a
circle. It takes a radius parameter and a boolean just to differentiate
from the rectangle method.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Shape shape;
• Creates an object of the Shape class.
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std::cout << "Perimeter of Square: " << shape.perimeter(5) << std::endl;
• Calls the perimeter method for a square and prints the result.
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std::cout << "Perimeter of Rectangle: " << shape.perimeter(5, 10) << std::endl
;
• Calls the perimeter method for a rectangle and prints the result.
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std::cout << "Perimeter of Circle: " << shape.perimeter(5, true) << std::endl;
• Calls the perimeter method for a circle and prints the result.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

6. Constructor with Default Argument

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#include <iostream>
• Includes the input-output stream library.
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class Rectangle {
• Defines a class named Rectangle.
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private:
• Specifies that the following members are private.
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int length, breadth;
• Declares private members: length and breadth.
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public.
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Rectangle(int l = 1, int b = 1) : length(l), breadth(b) {}
• Defines a constructor with default arguments. If no values are
provided, it initializes length and breadth to 1.
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void displayArea() {
• Declares a public member function to display the area of the
rectangle.
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std::cout << "Area: " << length * breadth << std::endl;
}
• Calculates and prints the area using the formula length * breadth.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Rectangle rect1; // Uses default arguments
• Creates a Rectangle object rect1 using default values (1, 1).
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Rectangle rect2(5, 10); // Custom dimensions
• Creates a Rectangle object rect2 with specified dimensions 5 and 10.
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rect1.displayArea();
• Calls the displayArea method for rect1 to display its area.
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rect2.displayArea();
• Calls the displayArea method for rect2 to display its area.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

7. Account Class
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#include <iostream>
• Includes the input-output stream library.
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class Account {
• Defines a class named Account.
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private:
• Specifies that the following members are private.
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float balance;
• Declares a private float member balance to store the account balance.
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public:
• Specifies that the following members are public.
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Account() : balance(0) {}
 • Defines a constructor that initializes balance to 0 when
an Account object is created.
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void deposit(float amount) {
balance += amount;
std::cout << "Deposited: " << amount << "\n";
}
• Declares a member function to deposit an amount into the account.
It adds the amount to balance and prints the deposited amount.
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void withdraw(float amount) {
if (amount > balance) {
std::cout << "Insufficient balance!\n";
} else {
balance -= amount;
std::cout << "Withdrawn: " << amount << "\n";
}
}
• Declares a member function to withdraw an amount. It checks if
the amount is greater than balance. If so, it prints an error message;
otherwise, it deducts the amount from the balance.
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void showBalance() {
std::cout << "Balance: " << balance << "\n";
}
• Declares a member function to display the current balance.
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void computeInterest(float rate) {
float interest = balance * rate / 100;
std::cout << "Interest: " << interest << "\n";
}
• Declares a member function to compute and display interest based
on the current balance and given rate.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Account acc;
• Creates an Account object acc, which initializes balance to 0.
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acc.deposit(1000);
• Calls the deposit function to add 1000 to the account balance.
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acc.showBalance();
• Calls the showBalance function to display the current balance.
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acc.computeInterest(5);
• Calls the computeInterest function with a rate of 5% to compute and
display the interest.
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acc.withdraw(200);
• Calls the withdraw function to withdraw 200 from the account.
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acc.showBalance();
• Calls the showBalance function again to display the updated balance.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

8. Virtual Functions
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#include <iostream>
• Includes the input-output stream library.
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class Base {
• Defines a base class named Base.
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public:
virtual void show() {
std::cout << "Base class show function called." << std::endl;
}
};
 • Declares a virtual function show in the base class. This allows derived
classes to override it.
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class Derived : public Base {
• Defines a derived class named Derived that inherits from Base.
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public:
void show() override {
std::cout << "Derived class show function called." << std::endl;
}
};
• Overrides the show function from the base class to provide specific
functionality for the derived class.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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Base* b; // Base class pointer
• Declares a pointer to the base class Base.
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Derived d; // Derived class object
• Creates an object of the derived class Derived.
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b = &d; // Base pointer pointing to derived object
• Points the base class pointer b to the derived class object d.
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b->show(); // Calls derived class show function
• Calls the show function using the base pointer. Due to polymorphism,
this will invoke the show method in the Derived class.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate successful execution.

9. Friend Function
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#include <iostream>
• Includes the input-output stream library.
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class Box {
• Defines a class named Box.
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private:
int width;
• Declares a private integer member width.
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public:
Box(int w) : width(w) {}
• Defines a constructor that initializes width with the provided value.
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friend void printWidth(Box b);
};
• Declares a friend function printWidth that can access private members
of Box.
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void printWidth(Box b) {
• Defines the friend function printWidth, which takes a Box object as a
parameter.
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std::cout << "Width: " << b.width << std::endl;
}
• Prints the width of the Box object passed to it

9. Friend Function (continued)

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int main() {
• Begins the main function, which serves as the entry point of the
program.
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Box box(10);
• Creates a Box object named box and initializes its width to 10 using the
constructor.
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printWidth(box); // Accessing private member width
• Calls the printWidth function, passing the box object. This function can
access the private member width of the Box class due to its friendship
with the Box class.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate that the program completed successfully.

10. File Creation and Writing

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#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
• Includes necessary libraries: the input-output stream library
(<iostream>) for standard I/O operations and the file stream library
(<fstream>) for file operations.
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int main() {
• Begins the main function.
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std::ofstream outfile("example.txt");
• Creates an output file stream object named outfile and opens a file
named example.txt. If the file does not exist, it will be created.
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if (outfile.is_open()) {
• Checks if the file was successfully opened. The is_open() function
returns true if the file stream is open.
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outfile << "Hello, this is a test file.\n";
outfile << "Writing some content to the file.\n";
 • Writes text to the file using the output stream. Each line is added to
the file. The \n character creates a new line.
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outfile.close(); // Close the file
• Closes the file stream to ensure all data is flushed to the file and
resources are freed.
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std::cout << "File created and content written successfully." << std::endl
;
• Prints a success message to the console indicating that the file was
created and written to successfully.
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} else {
std::cout << "Unable to open the file." << std::endl;
}
• If the file could not be opened, this block executes, printing an error
message to the console.
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return 0;
}
• Returns 0 to indicate that the program completed successfully.

Summary
The provided C++ programs illustrate various OOP concepts, including
classes, constructors, inheritance, polymorphism, friend functions, and file
operations. Each program is designed to show specific features of C++, and
the line-by-line explanations help clarify how these features work and
interact with one another.
If you have any specific programs you'd like to dive deeper into or need
further clarification, feel free to ask!