PHYS 3152 Methods of Experimental Physics I

E2. Diodes and Transistors 1

Part I Diodes
Purpose
In this experiment, you will investigate the current-voltage characteristic of a semiconductor
diode and examine the applications of the diode for DC power supplies.
Equipment and components
Two DMMs, signal generator, oscilloscope, adjustable DC power supply.
Diode [1N4001 (Si, rectifier) x4 ], ten-turn 1 kΩ potentiometer, 1 kΩ resistors (x3), 470Ω
resistor, capacitors (22µF, 220 µF).
Background
A simplified model for the I-V characteristics of an ideal semiconductor diode relates the
current and voltage by
I = I0 (eqVA k BT
-1) (1)
where Io is the reverse saturation current, VA is the applied voltage across the diode and is
positive for the forward bias condition, T is the temperature (in Kelvin) , kB is Boltzmann’s
constant, and q = 1.602 × 10 −19 C is the charge for an electron (magnitude only).

ideal diode
I = I o (e qV A k BT
− 1)

Io VA

Figure 1 The current characteristics of an ideal diode

Figure 1 shows the characteristics of an ideal diode under both forward and reverse bias. In
forward bias the current increases exponentially, and in reverse bias the current is relatively
constant and is equal to I0. At room temperature (T ≈ 300 K), we have
V
qVA VA A

= ⇒ e 0.0259 >> 1 (2)

k BT 0.0259 V
for positive applied voltages (forward bias) much larger than 25.9mV.

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

Consequently, Equation (1) can be approximated by

I ≈ I0 eqVA k BT
(3)
In reverse bias (VA<0) the current is negative and, at room temperature (~300 K), modest
values of VA result in the exponential term being much smaller than unity. For VA = -0.1 V
the exponential term has the value 1/48 at room temperature and the current is within 2% of –
Io for the ideal diode. Consequently, Equation (2) becomes
I = -Io reverse bias VA < 0 (4)
At larger negative values of VA, the approximation of Equation (4) is even better. Hence,
under reverse bias conditions the current does not change much with the applied voltage; it is
said to “saturate” and hence Io is termed the reverse saturation current.
Less than ideal diodes
For real diodes, the current versus applied voltage curve deviates from the ideal case. This
deviation is dependent on the applied voltage. To quantify the behavior of real diodes, the
ideal diode equation (Eq. 1) is modified to include an “ideality” factor in the exponent. For a
real diode,
I = I0 (eqVA n k BT
-1) (6)
where n is the “ideality” factor and is equal to one for an ideal diode. Again, under sufficient
forward bias, this expression can be written
I ≈ I0 eqVA n k BT
in forward bias VA >> 0 (7)
Taking the natural log of this expression yields,
q
ln I = VA + ln I0 (8)
n k BT
Equation (8) shows that under sufficient forward bias a semi-log plot of current versus applied
voltage for real diodes is a straight line. The ideality factor n is not constant for all forward bias
voltages but changes depending on the forward bias voltage and the characteristics of real diodes.
For many diodes, at low forward currents n ≈ 1 , and at high currents n ≈ 2. Also apparent in
many diodes is a region at high currents where the resistance of the bulk diode material decreases
with the current in such a way that a specific value of n cannot be determined. Figures 2 and 3
show the semi-log plots of the I-V curve for real diodes with the listed values of n being obtained
from the least squares fitting.
In many cases, Equation (8) can be further simplified as
ln I ≈ VA /V0 + ln I0 (9)
where Vo is used to characterize the forward voltage drop, above which the diode can be
treated as a good approximation to an ideal one-way conductor.

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

ln I

n = 1.69

n = 1.06
ln IO

VA

Figure 2 Plot of ln I as a function of the forward bias VA for a real diode

ln I
n=1.06

VA
Figure 3 Plot of ln I as a function of the forward bias VA for another real diode

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

Procedure
Exercise 1 I-V curve of a diode
• Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 4 using the ten-turn 1 kΩ potentiometer, the 1 kΩ
resistors and the DC power supply. Attach one multimeter so that it measures the
voltage drop across the diode (1N4001) and attach another multimeter across R2 so
that the current through the diode can be monitored (you need to measure the exact
resistance of R2).
• Calculate the maximum applied voltage Vmax of the power supply. NOTE: The power
dissipated in the resistor R1 (P = V2 / R1), do not let the power dissipated in the
resistor exceed its power rating.
• Adjust the voltage across the diode by turning the ten-turn 1 kΩ potentiometer and
figure out what is the maximum forward and reverse voltages obtainable from the
circuit shown in Fig. 4 for the maximum applied voltage Vmax. Measure the voltage
across the diode and the current through the diode in both the forward and reverse
bias conditions.
• Plot the current (y-axis) versus the bias voltage on linear scales.
• Plot the natural logarithm of the current (ln I) versus the forward bias voltage.
• Determine I0, V0 and the ideality factor.
• What is the purpose of R2 in the circuit?

Figure 4 Circuit used for measuring the I-V characteristic of a diode

Exercise 2 The half-wave rectifier

Construct a half-wave rectifier using a 1N4001 diode as shown in Figure 5 with R = 470 Ω.
In this circuit the oscilloscope monitors the input (ch1) and output (ch2) of the diode.
• Record the input and output waveforms with
1) no capacitor, ( Measure the peak voltage. Why is it not equal to Vpk-pk/2? )
2) a 22 µF capacitor, and
3) a 220 µF capacitor in the circuit.
• Reverse the diode and see if there is any change.

Figure 5 The half-wave rectifier circuit

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

Exercise 3 The full-wave rectifier

Now convert the circuit into a full-wave rectifier using four 1N4001 diodes as shown in
Figure 6 with R = 470 Ω. A signal generator with a floating output must be used in the
experiment. What will happen if the one end of the signal generator is connected to ground
by mistake? NOTE: Do NOT attempt to connect the output of the signal generator with an
oscilloscope when the signal generator is connected to the circuit.
• Record the output waveform with
1) no capacitor, (Why is the peak voltage less than the previous circuit? Adjust the
setting of the oscilloscope to zoom in the region of the output waveform near zero
volt. Explain why there are flat regions.)
2) a 22 µF capacitor, and
3) a 220 µF capacitor in the circuit.
• Measure the peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage across the load resistor R. How
does the value of RC affect the output ripple? Why?

Figure 6 The full-wave rectifier circuit

Questions
• Explain the shapes of the output waveforms in the half-wave and full-wave rectifier
circuits.

Exercise 4 The diode limiter

Construct the diode limiter as shown in Fig. 7. At the input, apply sine, triangle and square
waves at different amplitudes. Measure the output with an oscilloscope. Describe what the
diode limiter does and how it works.

Figure 7 The diode limiter

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Part II Transistors 1
Purpose
In this experiment, the basic working principle of a bipolar transistor will be investigated and
a basic transistor circuit – emitter follower will be introduced.
Equipment and components
Adjustable dual channels DC power supply, ± 12 V power supply (in ACT-1 circuit box),
three DMMs, oscilloscope, signal generator.
Transistor (2222A), resistors (100 Ω, 3.3 kΩ, 47 kΩ and 100 kΩ) and a 4.7µF capacitor.
Background
Bipolar Transistor
A bipolar transistor has three pieces of semiconductor materials connected in series. It can be
thought as two pn junctions connected back to back. There are two major classifications of
the transistors: npn and pnp. The npn transistor consists of two layers of n-type silicon
sandwiching one p-type layer (see Figure 8a). The pnp is similar to npn, but with two p-type
layers sandwiching an n-type layer (see Figure 8b).

8a 8b

Figure 8 A diagrammatic representation of npn and pnp transistors

The layers and thus the wires connecting them to the 'outside world' are called, respectively,
the emitter (E), the base (B), and the collector (C). The symbols for npn and pnp transistors
are shown in Figure 9 below. The only difference between the two types of transistors is the
direction of the arrow for the emitter, which indicates the direction of the emitter current
when the transistors are under operation.

Figure 9 The standard graphical symbol for npn and pnp transistors

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Emitter follower
Figure 10 shows an example of an emitter follower. It is called that because the output
terminal is the emitter, which follows the input (the base), less by one diode voltage drop:
VE = VB - Voltage drop across diode (typically ~ 0.6V)
At first glance, this circuit may appear useless because the output is almost identical to the
input. The important point is that the input impedance is much larger than the output
impedance. This means that the circuit draws less current from the signal source to drive a
given load (RE) than would be the case if the signal source were to drive the load directly.

Figure 10 An npn emitter follower

Input and output impedances of emitter followers
To calculate the input and output impedances of the emitter follower: Consider RE to be the
load and make a voltage change ∆VB at the base; the corresponding change at the emitter is
∆VE = ∆VB . Then the change in emitter current is ∆I E =∆VB / R E
∆I E ∆VB
so ∆I B = = using I E = IC + I B and IC = β ⋅ I B
1 + β R E ⋅ (1 + β )
The input resistance is ∆VB / ∆I B , therefore R IN =(1 + β ) ⋅ R E . The current gain β is
typically larger than 100, so a low-impedance load looks like a much higher impedance at the
base. Although resistances are used in this derivation, it can be generalized to complex
impedances by allowing ∆VB , ∆I B , etc. , to become complex numbers. It can be found that the
same transformation rule applies for impedances:
ZIN =(1 + β ) ⋅ Zload
A similar calculation can be done to find that the output impedance Zout of an emitter follower
(the impedance looking into the emitter) driven from a source of internal impedance Zsource is
given by
Zsource
ZOUT = (10)
1+ β

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

Procedure
Exercise 1 Determining npn and pnp transistors
You are given a transistor, 2222A. Its physical picture and pin-outs are shown in Fig. 11
below.

Figure 11 Pin-outs of a 2222A transistor

Use the ‘diode check’ position on the digital multi-meter provided to determine
whether the transistor is an npn or a pnp transistor. Note that the 'VΩ' terminal is a high
potential terminal, whereas the 'COM' terminal is a low potential terminal. If the junction
under test is forward-biased, the readout shall be the forward voltage of the junction. If the
readout is zero that means the junction is short. If the readout is “1’’ that means the junction
is open or reverse-biased.
Record your results in the notebook. Is the transistor an npn or a pnp transistor?

Exercise 2 Current gain of a transistor

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 12. Note that the two voltage sources are referenced to
ground, as shown in the two boxes with dashed lines. (For the rest of the course, this
simplified notation for voltage sources will be used. You need to remember that the voltages
are referenced to ground.) The circuit is designed to use the base (B) current IB or voltage
VBE to control the current flowing into the collector (C). Fix VCE to be 3V and take E as a
common ground. The voltage of C is then +3V.
To understand how this transistor circuit works, the first step is to figure out what happens to
B and E. We will ignore C for now and pretend that the connection to C does not exist. In the
first approximation, B-E works like a diode. We have seen in earlier parts of this lab that for a
diode, current increases exponentially with the voltage across it. To prevent the current from
becoming too large, we need to put a 100 kΩ resistor to limit the current. For current to flow,
the applied voltage (voltage source 1) must be positive.
Now we are ready to consider the third terminal, the collector C. One important property of a
transistor is that the current IC is almost proportional to the current IB. The proportionality
constant, called the current gain β (different for each device), is typically larger than 100. In
other words, IC is controlled by what happens in another part of the circuit, namely the base,
even when VCE is almost constant.

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

Figure 12 The circuit control the conductivity between C and E with the base current

Vary the output of the voltage source 1 so that IB changes from 0 to 0.1mA and record IC, IB,
and VBE.

• Plot log (IB) & log (IC) versus VBE on the same graph.

You can see that the current flowing into C is now controlled by voltage elsewhere, namely
VBE.
Because both IC and IB vary exponentially with VBE, one can also control IC by adjusting IB.
Using the data collected, plot IC versus IB. Note that the relationship is almost linear. This
linear relationship implies that for a fixed VCE, one can use IB to control IC and the response
function is a simple linear function. Determine the current gain β.
Use a multimeter with the measurement function of transistor hFE (which has the same
definition as β) to measure β and compare the value with your previous result. Note that the
multimeter measures the hFE value under the test conditions IBE = 10µA and VCE = 2.8V.

Exercise 3 Emitter follower

Connect the emitter follower circuit on the ACT-1 circuit box (so that you can obtain ± 12 V
easily) as shown in Fig. 13. At the input, connect a 1 kHz sine wave with amplitude 2V and
no dc offset. Use channel 1 of the oscilloscope to measure the input voltage at B and channel
2 to measure the output voltage at E (with oscilloscope probes). Record the output waveform
and explain what you see. Next, connect VEE (the low voltage end of the resistor RE) to -12V
instead of ground. Compare the amplitude of the input and output sine waves.

Figure 13 The emitter follower with VEE at ground

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 Diodes and Transistors 1

From what you just measured, you might be tempted to conclude that the transistor does
nothing to the input signal. Next we are going to see that emitter followers are actually very
useful.

Figure 14 Circuit for measuring input and output impedance of emitter follower

In Fig. 14, the 100 Ω resistor at the base in the previous circuit is replaced by a 47 kΩ resistor
(Rsource). The function generator together with the 47 kΩ resistor represents an ac voltage
source of moderately high output impedance, i.e. low current capability.
Measure ZOUT, the output impedance of the emitter follower. Measure the VOUT and then
connect a 1 kΩ load through a blocking capacitor to the output (as shown in the dashed box
of Fig. 14) and measure VOUT again. From the drop in the output signal amplitude, calculate
the output impedance ZOUT of the emitter follower. NOTE: The voltage drop is likely to be
small.
Measure ZIN, the input impedance of the emitter follower. Remove the 1kΩ load and the
blocking capacitor. Now treat the resistor RE as the load. Use the following steps to determine
the input impedance:
a. Measure the voltages at the two ends of the 47 kΩ resistor (that is, VIN and VB) with an
oscilloscope. Use the MATH function of the oscilloscope, display a function of the
voltage difference (VIN - VB) across the 47 kΩ resistor (Rsource) and measure the voltage
change ∆v (peak-to-peak value). Deduce the base current change ∆iB = ∆v / R source .
b. Measure the change of base voltage VB , ∆vB (peak-to-peak value).
c. Calculate the input impedance ZIN = ∆vB / ∆iB .

Questions
• Why do you need to put in the blocking capacitor when measuring ZOUT ?
• Work out Equation (10).
• With values of ZOUT and ZIN, calculate β respectively and compare them to the
measured value from the multimeter.

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